1.

1 Basic Concepts in Functions

1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Definition 1.1
A function f ∶ X → Y is a relation between two sets X and Y such that
every element x ∈ X corresponds to a unique element y ∈ Y . This
element y, called the image of x, is denoted by f (x). Also, x is called a
preimage of y.

The set X is called the domain of f and Y is called the codomain of f .

The range of f is the set of all images.

set: a collection of some objects

x ∈ X: the element x belongs to the set X
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

R: the set of all real numbers

let a < b be real numbers
examples of intervals:

(a, b) ∶ the set of all real numbers x satisfying a < x < b

[a, b] ∶ the set of all real numbers x satisfying a ⩽ x ⩽ b
(a, ∞) ∶ the set of all real numbers x satisfying x > a
(−∞, b] ∶ the set of all real numbers x satisfying x ⩽ b
(−∞, ∞) ∶ the same as R
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Definition 1.1
A function f ∶ X → Y is a relation between two sets X and Y such that
every element x ∈ X corresponds to a unique element y ∈ Y . This
element y, called the image of x, is denoted by f (x). Also, x is called a
preimage of y.

The set X is called the domain of f and Y is called the codomain of f .

The range of f is the set of all images.

natural domain: the largest possible domain of a function

if the domain and the codomain are not given, we usually assume
they are the natural domain and the range
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Example 1.1
Define f ∶ [0, 2] → R by f (x) = x2 . Then the domain of f is [0, 2], its
codomain is R, and its range is [0, 4].

Proof.

the domain and the codomain can be read from f ∶ [0, 2] → R

since x ∈ [0, 2], x2 can take all real values in [0, 4]
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Example 1.2
1
Define g(x) = . Then the natural domain of g is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞), and
x2
its range is (0, ∞).

Proof.

the formula does not make sense when x = 0

the natural domain is R − {0}, i.e. (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
1
note that 2 > 0 always holds
x
1 1
every t > 0 belongs to the range because g ( √ ) = 2
=t
t ( √1 )
t
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Example 1.3
The absolute value function is defined by

x if x ⩾ 0,
∣x∣ = {
−x if x < 0.

it is a kind of piecewise-defined functions

1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Definition 1.2
Let f ∶ X → Y and g ∶ Y → Z be functions. The composition of f and g
is the function g ○ f from X to Z such that

(g ○ f )(x) = g(f (x))

for all x ∈ X.
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Example 1.4
Define f (x) = x + 1 and g(x) = 2x. Then

(f ○ g)(x) = f (2x) = 2x + 1,
(g ○ f )(x) = g(x + 1) = 2x + 2.
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Definition 1.3
A function f ∶ X → Y is injective or one-to-one if for all distinct elements
a, b ∈ X, we have f (a) ≠ f (b).

this means the images of different elements are different

equivalently, if f (a) = f (b), then a = b
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Definition 1.4
A function f ∶ X → Y is surjective or onto if for every y ∈ Y , there exists
x ∈ X such that f (x) = y.

this means the range of f is the same as the codomain

1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Definition 1.5
A function f ∶ X → Y is bijective or one-to-one correspondence if it is
both injective and surjective.
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Definition 1.6
Let f ∶ X → Y be a function. The inverse of f is the function
f −1 ∶ Y → X such that (f −1 ○ f )(x) = x for all x ∈ X, and
(f ○ f −1 )(y) = y for all y ∈ Y .
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Proposition 1.1
A function has an inverse if and only if it is bijective.
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Example 1.5
y−1
The inverse of the function f (x) = 2x + 1 is f −1 (y) = since
2
(f −1 ○ f )(x) = f −1 (2x + 1) = x,
y−1
(f ○ f −1 )(y) = f ( ) = y.
2
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Definition 1.7
Let X and Y be subsets of R. The graph of a function f ∶ X → Y is the
set containing all pairs of points (x, f (x)) where x ∈ X.

we can visualize the graph of a function by plotting all the points

(x, f (x)) in the Cartesian coordinate system
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Example 1.6
x+1
The following shows the graphs of the functions f (x) = and
2
g(x) = ∣x∣.
y x+1
y=
2

e.g. the point (1.5, 1.25) lies on the graph since f (1.5) = 1.25
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Example 1.6
x+1
The following shows the graphs of the functions f (x) = and
2
g(x) = ∣x∣.
y

y = ∣x∣

x
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

a set of points in the Cartesian plane is the graph of a function if

every vertical line meets the set at most once

non-example:
y

x
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

a set of points in the Cartesian plane is the graph of a function if

every vertical line meets the set at most once
the domain of f is the set of all real numbers a such that the
vertical line x = a meets the graph
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

the range of f is the set of all real numbers b such that the
horizontal line y = b meets the graph
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

f is injective if every horizontal line meets the graph at most once

non-example:
y

x
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

f is surjective (with codomain R) if every horizontal line meets the

graph at least once

non-example:
y

x
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

f has an inverse if every horizontal line meets the graph exactly once
the graph of f −1 can be obtained by reflecting the graph of f in the
line y = x
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

f has an inverse if every horizontal line meets the graph exactly once
the graph of f −1 can be obtained by reflecting the graph of f in the
line y = x

if f (x) = y, then f −1 (y) = x

1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Definition 1.8
Let X and Y be subsets of R. A function f ∶ X → Y is called monotonic
increasing if f (x) ⩽ f (y) for all x < y. It is called monotonic decreasing if
f (x) ⩾ f (y) for all x < y. In either case, it is called a monotonic function.

In particular, f is called strictly increasing if f (x) < f (y) for all x < y.
Similarly, it is called strictly decreasing if f (x) > f (y) for all x < y.
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Example 1.7
The function f (x) = e−x is strictly decreasing, while the function
1 if x ⩾ 0,
g(x) = {
−1 if x < 0
is monotonic increasing.

y = e−x
x
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Example 1.7
The function f (x) = e−x is strictly decreasing, while the function
1 if x ⩾ 0,
g(x) = {
−1 if x < 0
is monotonic increasing.

y = g(x)
x
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Definition 1.9
A function f ∶ R → R is called an even function if f (x) = f (−x) for all
x ∈ R, and is called an odd function if f (x) = −f (−x) for all x ∈ R.

f is an even function if its graph is symmetric about the y-axis

y

x
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Definition 1.9
A function f ∶ R → R is called an even function if f (x) = f (−x) for all
x ∈ R, and is called an odd function if f (x) = −f (−x) for all x ∈ R.

f is an even function if its graph is symmetric about the y-axis

y

x
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Definition 1.9
A function f ∶ R → R is called an even function if f (x) = f (−x) for all
x ∈ R, and is called an odd function if f (x) = −f (−x) for all x ∈ R.

f is an odd function if its graph is symmetric about the origin

y

x
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Definition 1.9
A function f ∶ R → R is called an even function if f (x) = f (−x) for all
x ∈ R, and is called an odd function if f (x) = −f (−x) for all x ∈ R.

f is an odd function if its graph is symmetric about the origin

y

x
1.1 Basic Concepts in Functions

Definition 1.10
A function f ∶ R → R is called a periodic function if there exists a
constant d > 0 such that f (x + d) = f (x) for all x ∈ R. In that case, d is
called a period of f .