DATA STRUCTURES-BCS304 MODULE 2

MODULE 2
QUEUES: Queues, Circular Queues, Using Dynamic Arrays, Multiple Stacks and queues.
LINKED LISTS: Singly Linked, Lists and Chains, Representing Chains in C, Linked Stacks
and Queues, Polynomials.

QUEUES ABSTRACT DATA TYPE

DEFINITION
• “A queue is an ordered list in which insertions (additions, pushes) and deletions (removals and
pops) take place at different ends.”
• The end at which new elements are added is called the rear, and that from which old elements
are deleted is called the front.
• Given a queue Q = (a0, a1,……… an-1) , a0, is the front element an-1 is the rear element, ai+1 is
behind ai 0< =i < n-1.
If the elements are inserted A, B, C, D and E in this order, then A is the first element deleted
from the queue. Since the first element inserted into a queue is the first element removed, queues
are also known as First-In-First-Out (FIFO) lists.

QUEUE REPRESENTATION USING ARRAY

• Queues may be represented by one-way lists or linear arrays.
• Queues will be maintained by a linear array QUEUE and two pointer variables: FRONT-
containing the location of the front element of the queue
• REAR-containing the location of the rear element of the queue.
• The condition FRONT = NULL will indicate that the queue is empty.

• Figure indicates the way elements will be deleted from the queue and the way new elements
will be added to the queue.
• Whenever an element is deleted from the queue, the value of FRONT is increased by 1; this
can be implemented by the assignment FRONT := FRONT + 1
• When an element is added to the queue, the value of REAR is increased by 1; this can be
implemented by the assignment REAR := REAR + 1

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Implementation of the queue operations as follows.

1. Queue Create
Queue CreateQ(maxQueueSize) ::=
#define MAX_QUEUE_SIZE 100 /* maximum queue size */
typedef struct
{
int key;
/* other fields */
} element;
element queue[MAX_QUEUE_SIZE];
int rear = -1;
int front = -1;

2. Boolean IsEmptyQ(queue) ::= front ==rear

3. Boolean IsFullQ(queue) ::= rear == MAX_QUEUE_SIZE-1

In the queue, two variables are used which are front and rear. The queue increments rear in
addq( ) and front in delete( ). The function calls would be addq (item); and item =delete( );

4. addq(item)
void addq(int *rear, element item)
{
// add an item to the queue
if (rear == MAX_QUEUE_SIZE-1)
{ queue_Full();
return;
}
queue [++rear] = item;
}

Program: Add to a queue

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5. deleteq( )
element deleteq(int *front, int *rear)
{ /* remove element at the front of the queue */
if (front == rear)
return queue_Empty( ); /* return an error key
return queue[++front];
}
Program: Delete from a queue

6. queueFull( )
The queueFull function which prints an error message and terminates execution
void queueFull()
{
fprintf(stderr, "Queue is full, cannot add element");
exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
}

Example: Job scheduling

Queues are frequently used in creation of a job queue by an operating system. If the
operating system does not use priorities, then the jobs are processed in the order they
enter the system.
Figure illustrates how an operating system process jobs using a sequential
representation for its queue.

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Drawback of Queue
When item enters and deleted from the queue, the queue gradually shifts to the right as
shown in figure.

In this above situation, when we try to insert another item, which shows that the queue is full
. This means that the rear index equals to MAX_QUEUE_SIZE -1. But even if the space is
available at the front end, rear insertion cannot be done.

Overcome of Drawback using different methods

Method 1:
• When an item is deleted from the queue, move the entire queue to the left so that the
first element is again at queue[0] and front is at -1. It should also recalculate rear so
that it is correctly positioned.
• Shifting an array is very time-consuming when there are many elements in queue &
queueFull has worst case complexity of O(MAX_QUEUE_SIZE)

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Method 2:
Circular Queue
• It is “The queue which wrap around the end of the array.” The array positions are
arranged in a circle.
• In this convention the variable front is changed. front variable points one position
counterclockwise from the location of the front element in the queue. The convention
for rear is unchanged.
CIRCULAR QUEUES
• It is “The queue which wrap around the end of the array.” The array positions are
arranged in a circle as shown in figure.
• In this convention the variable front is changed. front variable points one position
counterclockwise from the location of the front element in the queue. The convention
for rear is unchanged.

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Implementation of Circular Queue Operations

• When the array is viewed as a circle, each array position has a next and a previous
position. The position next to MAX-QUEUE-SIZE -1 is 0, and the position that
precedes 0 is MAX-QUEUE-SIZE -1.
• When the queue rear is at MAX_QUEUE_SIZE-1, the next element is inserted at
position 0.
• In circular queue, the variables front and rear are moved from their current position
to the next position in clockwise direction. This may be done using code
if (rear = = MAX_QUEUE_SIZE-1)
rear = 0;
else rear++;

Addition & Deletion

• To add an element, increment rear one position clockwise and insert at the new
position. Here the MAX_QUEUE_SIZE is 8 and if all 8 elements are added into
queue and that can be represented in below figure (a).
• To delete an element, increment front one position clockwise. The element A is
deleted from queue and if we perform 6 deletions from the queue of Figure (b) in this
fashion, then queue becomes empty and that front =rear.
• If the element I is added into the queue as in figure (c), then rear needs to
increment by 1 and the value of rear is 8. Since queue is circular, the next
position should be 0 instead of 8.
This can be done by using the modulus operator, which computes remainders.

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void addq(element item)

{ /* add an item to the queue */
rear = (rear +1) % MAX_QUEUE_SIZE;
if (front == rear)
queueFull(rear); /* print error and exit */
queue [rear] = item;
}

Program: Add to a circular queue

Element deleteq()
/* remove front element from the queue */
element item;
if (front == rear)
return queueEmpty( ); /* return an error key */
front = (front+1)% MAX_QUEUE_SIZE;
return queue[front];
}
Program: Delete from a circular queue

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CIRCULAR QUEUES USING DYNAMIC ARRAYS

• A dynamically allocated a
• rray is used to hold the queue elements. Let capacity be the number of positions in
the array queue.
• To add an element to a full queue, first increase the size of this array using a
function realloc.

Consider the full queue of figure (a). This figure shows a queue with seven elements in
an array whose capacity is 8. A circular queue is flatten out the array as in Figure (b).

Figure (c) shows the array after array doubling by relloc

To get a proper circular queue configuration, slide the elements in the right segment (i.e.,
elements A and B) to the right end of the array as in figure (d)

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To obtain the configuration as shown in figure (e), follow the steps

1) Create a new array newQueue of twice the capacity.
2) Copy the second segment (i.e., the elements queue [front +1] through queue
[capacity-1]) to positions in newQueue beginning at 0.
3) Copy the first segment (i.e., the elements queue [0] through queue [rear]) to
positions in newQueue beginning at capacity – front – 1.

Below program gives the code to add to a circular queue using a dynamically allocated array.

void addq( element item)

{ /* add an item to the queue
rear = (rear +1) % capacity;
if(front == rear)
queueFull( ); /* double capacity */
queue[rear] = item;
}

Below program obtains the configuration of figure (e) and gives the code for queueFull.
The function copy (a,b,c) copies elements from locations a through b-1 to locations
beginning at c.

void queueFull( )
{ /* allocate an array with twice the capacity */
element *newQueue;
MALLOC ( newQueue, 2 * capacity * sizeof(* queue));
/* copy from queue to newQueue */
int start = ( front + ) % capacity;
if ( start < 2) /* no wrap around */
copy( queue+start, queue+start+capacity-1,newQueue);
else
{ /* queue wrap around */

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copy(queue, queue+capacity, newQueue);

copy(queue, queue+rear+1, newQueue+capacity-start);
}
/* switch to newQueue*/
front = 2*capacity – 1;
rear = capacity – 2;
capacity * =2;
free(queue);
queue= newQueue;
}
Program: queueFull

MULTIPLE STACKS AND QUEUES

• In multiple stacks, we examine only sequential mappings of stacks into an array. The
array is one dimensional which is memory[MEMORY_SIZE]. Assume nstacks are
needed, and then divide the available memory into n segments. The array is divided
in proportion if the expected sizes of the various stacks are known. Otherwise, divide
the memory into equal segments.
• Assume that i refers to the stack number of one of the n stacks. To establish this stack,
create indices for both the bottom and top positions of this stack. boundary[i] points
to the position immediately to the left of the bottom element of stack i, top[i] points
to the top element. Stack i is empty iff boundary[i]=top[i].

The declarations are:

#define MEMORY_SIZE 100 /* size of memory */
#define MAX_STACKS 10 /* max number of stacks plus 1 */
element memory[MEMORY_SIZE]; /* global memory declaration */
int top [MAX_STACKS];
int boundary [MAX_STACKS] ;
int n; /*number of stacks entered by the user */

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To divide the array into roughly equal segments

top[0] = boundary[0] = -1;

for (j= 1;j<n; j++)
top[j] = boundary[j] = (MEMORY_SIZE / n) * j;
boundary[n] = MEMORY_SIZE - 1;

Figure: Initial configuration for n stacks in memory [m].

In the figure, n is the number of stacks entered by the user, n < MAX_STACKS, and
m =MEMORY_SIZE. Stack i grow from boundary[i] + 1 to boundary [i + 1] before it is
full. A boundary for the last stack is needed, so set boundary [n] to MEMORY_SIZE-1.

Implementation of the add operation

void push(int i, element item)

{ /* add an item to the ith stack */
if (top[i] == boundary[i+l])
stackFull(i);
memory[++top[i]] =
item;
}
Program: Add an item to the ith stack

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Implementation of the delete operation

element pop(int i)
{ /* remove top element from the ith stack */ if
(top[i] == boundary[i])
return stackEmpty(i);
return memory[top[i]--];
}

The top[i] == boundary[i+1] condition in push implies only that a particular stack ran out of
memory, not that the entire memory is full. But still there may be a lot of unused space between
other stacks in array memory as shown in Figure.
Therefore, create an error recovery function called stackFull , which determines if there is any
free space in memory. If there is space available, it should shift the stacks so that space is
allocated to the full stack.

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LINKED LIST

DEFINITION
A linked list, or one-way list, is a linear collection of data elements, called nodes, where the
linear order is given by means of pointers. That is, each node is divided into two parts:
• The first part contains the information of the element, and
• The second part, called the link field or nextpointer field, contains the address of the
next node in the list.
A linked list is a dynamic data structure where each element (called a node) is made up of two
items - the data and a reference (or pointer) which points to the next node. A linked list is a
collection of nodes where each node is connected to the next node through a pointer.

In the above figure each node is pictured with two parts.

➢ The left part represents the information part of the node, which may contain an entire
record of data items.
➢ The right part represents the link field of the node
➢ An arrow drawn from a node to the next node in the list.
➢ The pointer of the last node contains a special value, called the NULL.
A pointer variable called first which contains the address of the first node. A special case is the
list that has no nodes; such a list is called the null list or empty list and is denoted by the null
pointer in the variable first.

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REPRESENTATION OF LINKED LISTS IN MEMORY

Let LIST be a linked list. Then LIST will be maintained in memory as follows.
1. LIST requires two linear arrays such as DATA and LINK-such that DATA[K] and
LINK[K] contains the information part and the nextpointer field of a node of LIST.
2. LIST also requires a variable name such as START which contains the location of the
beginning of the list, and a nextpointer sentinel denoted by NULL-which indicates the
end of the list.
3. The subscripts of the arrays DATA and LINK will be positive, so choose NULL =
0, unless otherwise stated.
The following examples of linked lists indicate that the nodes of a list need not occupy
adjacent elements in the arrays DATA and LINK, and that more than one list may be
maintained in the same linear arrays DATA and LINK. However, each list must have its
own pointer variable giving the location of its first node.

DATA LINK

Insert GAT to data[5]

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Insert node GAT into list

REPRESENTING CHAIN IN C
The following capabilities are needed to make linked representation
1. A mechanism for defining a node’s structure, that is, the field it contains. So self-
referential structures can be used
2. A way to create new nodes, so MALLOC functions can do this operation
3. A way to remove nodes that no longer needed. The FREE function handles this
operation.

1. Defining a node structure

typedef struct listNode *listPointer

typedef struct
{
char data[4];
listPointer list;
} listNode;

Create a New Empty list

listPointer first = NULL

To create a New Node

MALLOC (first, sizeof(*first));

To place the data into NODE

strcpy(first→ data,”BAT”);
first→ link = NULL

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2. Two-node linked list:

listPointer create2()
{ /*create a linked list with two nodes*/
listPointer first,second;
MALLOC(first,sizeof(*first));
MALLOC(second,sizeof(*second));
Second->link=NULL;
Second->data=20;
First->data=10;
First->link=second;
Return first
}
Program: create two node list
3. List insertion:
void insert(listPointer *first, listPointer x)
{
listPointer temp;
malloc(temp,sizeof(*temp);
temp->data=50;
if(*first)
{
temp->link;
x->link;
}
else
{
temp->link;
*first->temp;
}
}

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Inserting into an empty or nonempty list

4. Deletion from the list:

• Deletion depends on the location of the nodes.
• We have three pointers:
o first points to start of the list,
o x points to the node that we have to delete
o trail points to the node the precedes to x.

void delete(listPointer *first, listPointer trail, listPointer x)

{
if(trail)
trail->link=x->link;
else
*first=(*first)->link;
free(x);
}

Deletion from list

5. Printing out a list

void printList(listPointer first)

{
printf(“The list contains”);
for(;first;first=first->link)
Printf(“%4d”,first->data);
printf(“\n”);
}

Printing list

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LINKED STACKS AND QUEUES

The below figure shows stacks and queues using linked list. Nodes can easily add or delete a node from the
top of the stack. Nodes can easily add a node to the rear of the queue and add or delete a node at the front

Linked Stack
The representation of n ≤ MAX_STACKS

#define MAX_STACKS 10 /* maximum number of stacks */

typedef struct {
int key;
/* other fields */
}element;

typedef struct stack *stackPointer;

typedef struct {
element data; stackPointer
link;
} stack;
stackPointer top[MAX_STACKS];

The initial condition for the stacks is:

top[i] = NULL, 0 ≤ i < MAX_STACKS

The boundary condition is:

top [i] = NULL iff the ith stack is empty

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Functions push and pop add and delete items to/from a stack.
void push(int i, element item)
{/* add item to the ith stack */
stackPointer temp;
MALLOC(temp, sizeof(*temp));
temp→data = item;
temp→link = top[i];
top[i] = temp;
}
Add to a linked stack
Function push creates a new node, temp, and places item in the data field and top in the link field. The
variable top is then changed to point to temp. A typical function call to add an element to the ith stack would
be push (i,item).

element pop(int i)
/* remove top element from the ith stack */
stackPointer temp = top[i];
element item;
if (! temp)
return stackEmpty();

item = temp→data;
top[i] = temp→link;
free (temp) ;
return item;

Delete from a linked stack

Function pop returns the top element and changes top to point to the address contained in
its link field. The removed node is then returned to system memory. A typical function
call to delete an element from the ith stack would be item = pop (i);

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Linked Queue
The representation of m ≤ MAX_QUEUES queues,
#define MAX-QUEUES 10 /* maximum number of queues */
Typedef struct queue *queuePointer;
typedef struct {
element data;
queuePointer link;
} queue;
queuePointer front[MAX_QUEUES], rear[MAX_QUEUES];

The initial condition for the queues is:

front[i] = NULL, 0 ≤ i < MAX_QUEUES
The boundary condition is:
front[i] = NULL iff the ith queue is empty

Functions addq and deleteq implement the add and delete operations for multiple
queues.
void addq(i, item)

/* add item to the rear of queue i */

queuePointer temp;
MALLOC(temp, sizeof(*temp));
temp→data = item;
temp→link = NULL;
if (front[i])
rear[i] →link = temp;
else
front[i] = temp;
rear[i] = temp;

Program: Add to the rear of a linked queue

Function addq is more complex than push because we must check for an empty queue. If the
queue is empty, then change front to point to the new node; otherwise change rear's link
field to point to the new node. In either case, we then change rear to point to the new node.
element deleteq(int i)
{/* delete an element from queue i */
queuePointer temp = front[i];
element item;
if (! temp)
return queueEmpty();
item = temp→data;
front[i]= temp→link;
free (temp) ;
return item;
}
Program: Delete from the front of a linked queue

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Function deleteq is similar to pop since nodes are removing that is currently at the start
of the list. Typical function calls would be addq (i, item); and item = deleteq (i);
APPLICATIONS OF LINKED LISTS – POLYNOMIALS
1. Representation of the polynomial:

where the ai are nonzero coefficients and the ei are nonnegative integer exponents such that
em-l > em-2 > ... > e1 > e0 ≥ 0.
Present each term as a node containing coefficient and exponent fields, as well as a pointer
tothe next term.
Assuming that the coefficients are integers, the type declarations are:
typedef struct polyNode
*polyPointer; typedef struct {
int coef; int expon;
polyPointer link;
} polyNode;
polyPointer a,b;

We draw polynomial nodes as:

coef expon link

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2. Adding Polynomials
To add two polynomials, examine their terms starting at the nodes pointed to by a and b.
• If the exponents of the two terms are equal, then add the two coefficients and create a new term
for the result, and also move the pointers to the next nodes in a and b.
• If the exponent of the current term in a is less than the exponent of the current term inb,
then create a duplicate term of b, attach this term to the result, called c, and advance the pointer
to the next term in b.
• If the exponent of the current term in b is less than the exponent of the current term ina,
then create a duplicate term of a, attach this term to the result, called c, and advance the pointer
to the next term in a
Below figure illustrates this process for the polynomials addition.

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The complete addition algorithm is specified by padd( )

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Analysis of padd:
To determine the computing time of padd, first determine which operations contribute to the
cost. For this algorithm, there are three cost measures:
(l) Coefficient additions
(2) Exponent comparisons
(3) Creation of new nodes for c

The maximum number of executions of any statement in padd is bounded above by m + n.

Therefore, the computing time is O(m+n). This means that if we implement and run the
algorithm on a computer, the time it takes will be C1m + C2n + C3, where C1, C2, C3 are
constants. Since any algorithm that adds two polynomials must look at each nonzero term at
least once, padd is optimal to within a constant factor.

3. Erasing a Polynomial
Void erase(polyPointer *ptr)
{
polyPointer temp;
while(*ptr)
{
Temp=*ptr;
*ptr=(*ptr)->link;
Free(temp)
}
}
Program:erasing polynomial

4. Circular representation of polynomials

Circular linked list are one they of liner linked list. In which the link fields of last node of the list
contains the address of the first node of the list instead of contains a null pointer. Advantages:-
Circular list are frequency used instead of ordinary linked list because in circular list all nodes
contain a valid address.
The important feature of circular list is as follows.
(1) In a circular list every node is accessible from a given node.
(2) Certain operations like concatenation and splitting becomes more efficient in circular list.

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Circular representation of 3x14+2x8+1

• We can free the nodes that are no longer used and can reuse the nodes later by maintain
a list called freed. When new node is needed, we examine this list. If the list is not
empty then we may use one of the nodes. Only when list is empty, we need to create
anode using malloc.
• Let avail be a variable of type polyPointer that points to first node in our list of freed
nodes. We call this list as available space list or avail list.
• Initially set avail to NULL. Instead of using malloc or free we use getNode and
retNode.
• Erase circular list in a fixed amount of time independent of number of nodes in list
using cerase

polyPointer getNode(void)
{
polyPointer node;
if(avail)
{
node=avail;
avail=avail->link;
}
else
malloc(node, sizeof(*node));
return node
}
Program:getNode function

void retNode(polyPointer node)

{
node->link=avail;
avail=node;
}

Program: retNode function

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void cerase(polyPointer *ptr)

{
if(*ptr)
{
temp=(*ptr)->link;
(*ptr)->link=avail;
avail=temp;
*ptr=NULL;
}
}

Program:Erasing a circular list

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