Business English

Unit 2

Visual interpretation

Graphs are a visual representation of data and are important tools for understanding the
world around you. They make it easier to grasp complex information by showing trends
and individual events in stock prices, sales figures or even traffic patterns. Understanding
how to read graphs can help you gain the skills to take the next step in your career. In this
unit, we discuss what reading graphs entails, explain how to read them and list the
different types of graphs and their importance.

What does reading graphs involve?

Reading graphs involves studying the context in which someone created the graph until
you understand it. Graphs can display information to make it easier for individuals to
understand and compare different data. Professionals in a wide variety of fields, including
economics, science and business, use graphs to show how different factors affect each
other, such as changes in the stock market or the relationship between supply and
demand. Most graphs are quantitative and represent numerical data.

Uses of graphs
You can use graphs for many purposes, including: Showing a company's performance against its
competitors: You can use a graph to determine how much a company has made compared to
another in the industry. A graph can help a business decide whether it's worth investing more or
changing its strategy for success. Showing trends in sales: A graph can show the impact your
marketing strategies have had on sales figures by enabling you to compare current performance
with that seen in previous years. It may also highlight seasonal trends that may affect sales
figures during certain months due to holidays or special events, such as Christmas. Comparing
the values of different variables: If you have data points containing two different variables,
graphing them allows you to compare these data points directly. This action may be more
challenging if you could only compare them as two lists of values side by side. Seeing patterns in
data: Using graphs helps you to see patterns in data, which might not be apparent when
observing individual data points or when the data is in a table.

Types of graphs
1.​ Bar graph : A bar graph is a chart with equally spaced bars and numbers on the vertical
axis. Each bar's length is proportional to its value as shown on the vertical axis.
Professionals use bar graphs to show the size of sub-groups in a set of data. For example,
 it can show how many individuals live in each state or individuals' political party
affiliations.
2.​ Line graph :A line graph shows the values of a dependent variable on the vertical axis
against the corresponding values of an independent variable on the horizontal axis. Each
point on the graph represents one pair of related values in the dataset. A line connects all
the points on the graph. A line graph could have time on the horizontal axis and a
variable that varies with time on the vertical axis for a plot of suitable data points
connected by lines. Line graphs like this are beneficial for showing trends over time, such
as sales figures over years or temperature changes over days.
3.​ Pie chart : A pie chart is a type of graph in which you divide a circle into sectors that each
represent a proportion of the whole. Each sector represents a different category, so you
can read a pie chart to understand the size of one category relative to another by
determining which sectors represent the two categories. Professionals often use pie charts
with bar graphs because they allow you to visually compare each category as a proportion
of the whole instead of just seeing each category as a bar.
4.​ Pictogram: Pictograms show a series of pictures with a key to explain what they
represent. Each picture represents a certain number of units. You often see pictograms in
textbooks and encyclopedias because they allow readers to easily understand the
information. Professionals typically use pictograms when there are only a few categories
of data and they want to show the data visually. For example, an infographic might
include pictograms to show the different categories of individuals who use social media
and what they use it for.

How to read a graph

The goal of a graph is to convey information. Here are some steps to help you read a
graph:

1. Determine the type of graph

There are various types of graphs, and each provides different information. Some graphs focus
on one variable, while others focus on two or more variables and their relationship. For example,
the length of a bar on a bar graph shows how many of that category there are, while a line graph
shows how much a dependent variable varies depending on an independent variable by
connecting data points with a line.
2. Read the title or legend The title is always at the top of a graph. It tells you what the graph
represents. The legend may include a key to interpret any symbols on the graph.

3. Examine any other text Read any other text associated with each line or column of data before
looking at the graph. This action makes you aware of additional important details when
interpreting the data presented in the graph. For example, if a footnote says 'number of people
who responded', it might help to read all their responses before interpreting the data.
 4. Identify the variables on the axes and what they represent The axis labels are along the
vertical and horizontal borders that outline the graph. They tell you exactly what each axis
represents. These variables may be time, distance or other parameters. For example, a graph
could show the miles per gallon for two vehicles depending on their speed. The vertical axis
would show miles per gallon, and the horizontal axis would display speed. The miles per gallon
at different speeds would appear as points on the graph. There would be two sets of points
connected by two separate lines to represent the results for the two vehicles.

5. Observe the x-axis and y-axis. The x-axis is the horizontal axis and represents the
independent variable, for example, time. It's usually numerical and may consist of times or dates.
Dates may be in a written format, for example, 15th August. The x-axis may contain categories,
as in a bar chart. The y-axis on the left-hand side of the graph represents the dependent variable,
such as temperature or sales figures, that changes depending on the independent variable, for
example, time. You can use a regression line to connect the points on a graph. Regression lines
show how closely related the two variables are.

6. Determine what each number on the graph means Every point on a graph corresponds to a pair
of related values. Each item in a data set has an x-value and a y-value. For example, if you're
observing a graph of temperature over time, the x-value of each point could represent a day in
January and the y-value could represent the peak temperature on a corresponding day.
There could be several lines on the graph, each representing a different location in the
country where you set up weather recording equipment. A graph to show the number of
sales per week in different regions could have separate lines to represent the regions, and
each point could represent one week of sales for that region.

7. Identify patterns in the data

Understand each data point with respect to both axes, noting any correlation and outliers.
For example, if a vehicle's average mileage per gallon goes up when its speed increases to
a value above 30 mph, you'd also expect its fuel use per mile to go down. But if this doesn't
happen when the vehicle's speed is already above 30 mph, this may affect your overall
average result. This data tells you something important about how the vehicle uses fuel
when driving at different speeds.
8. Find where your data falls on the graph
Locate the aspects of the graph that provide the information you want. For example, if
you're reading a bar graph comparing sales of different products in your area, you might
want to determine the products that sell the most. Find the longest bars on the chart.
Then look at the x-axis at the bottom of the graph to see which products these bars
represent.
9. Note any gaps or breaks in the data
When reading a graph, it's beneficial to note any gaps or breaks. These gaps may indicate
that data is missing, possibly due to human error during recording, and this could make
the graph unreliable. You can determine if a gap or break in a graph is due to an error by
observing how long the gap is and how often gaps appear.

Writing a Pie chart Essay

The steps involved in describing the pie chart essay are as follows
Step 1: Analyse the question
Step 2: Identify the main features
Step 3: Introduction writing
Step 4: Writing an overview
Step 5: Writing the details paragraph

An essay shall have

Paragraph 1 - Introduction
Paragraph 2 - Overview Paragraph 3 - 1st feature Paragraph 4 - 2nd feature Answer The two pie
charts illustrate the proportion of fire types of energy production in France in 1995 and 2005.
Overall, in both years, the most significant sources of energy were gas and coal, which together
accounted for over half the production of energy, while nuclear and other kinds of energy sources
generated the least amount of energy in France. In all types of energy production there was only
minimal change over the 10 year period. Energy produced by coal comprised of 29.80% in the
first year and this showed only a very slight increase of about a mere 1 % to 30.9% in 2005.
Likewise, in 1995, gas generated 29.63% which rose marginally to 30.1% 10 years later. With
regards to the remaining methods of producing energy, there was an approximate 5% growth in
production from both nuclear power and other sources, to 10.10% and 9.10% respectively.
Petrol, on the other hand, was the only source of energy which decreased in production from
29.27% in 1995 to around a fifth (0.55%) in 2005.

Tense
Read the following sentences:

1.​ I write this letter to please you.

2.​ I wrote the letter in his very presence.
3.​ I shall write another letter tomorrow.

In sentence 1, the Verb write refers to present time.

In sentence 2, the Verb wrote refers to past time.
In sentence 3, the Verb shall write refers to future time.

Thus a Verb may refer,

(1) to present time
(2) to past time
(3) to future time

Thus there are three main Tenses - The Present, The Past, The Future. The Tense of a Verb shows
the time of an action or event. Within the three primary tenses, there are four basic tenses, each
of which has a simple form, a continuous (progressive) form, a perfect form and a perfect
continuous form. This results in a total of 12 tenses. Here they are:

Present Tense

1. I love. (Simple Present)

2. I am loving. (Present Continuous)
3. I have loved. (Present Perfect)
4. I have been loving. (Present Perfect Continuous)

The Verbs in all of these sentences refer to the present time, and are therefore said to be in the
present tense. In sentence 1, however, the Verb shows that the action is mentioned simply,
without anything being said about the completeness or incompleteness of the action. In sentence
2, the Verb shows that the action is mentioned as incomplete or continuous, that is, as still going
on. In sentence 3, the Verb shows that the action is mentioned as finished, complete, or perfect, at
the time of speaking. The tense of the Verb in sentence 4 is said to be Present Perfect
Continuous, because the verb shows that the action is going on continuously, and not completed
at this present moment.

Note: Thus we see that the Tense of a verb shows not only the time of an action or event, but also
the state of an action referred to.

Past Tense

1. I loved. (Simple Past)

2. I was loving. (Past Continuous)
3. 1 had loved. (Past Perfect)
4. I had been loving. (Past Perfect Continuous)

Future Tense

1. I shall/will love. (Simple Future)

2. I shall/will be loving. (Future Continuous)
3. I shall/will have loved. (Future Perfect)
4. I shall/will have been loving. (Future Perfect Continuous)

Tense Present Past Future

Simple S+V1+Object S+V2+Object S+will+V1+ Object

I run to class I ran to class I will run to class

S+ am/is/are+ S+was/were+ S+will

Continuous V1+ing+ Object V1+ing+ Object be+V1+ing+Object
I am running to class I was running to class I will be running to
class
 S+ have/has+ S+had+V3+Object Sub+will
Perfect V3+object I had run to class have+V3+Object
I have run to class I will have run to
class

S+had S+will have+been+

S+ have/has+been+ been+V1+ing+Objec V1+ing+object
Perfect Continuous V1+ing +object t I will have been
I have been running I had been running to running to class
to class class
Figure. 1

Note: A verb agrees with its subject in person and number. Study the verb forms of various
tenses given below.

Tense Present Past Future

I speak I spoke I shall/will speak

Simple You speak You spoke You will speak
He speaks He spoke He will speak
We speak We spoke We shall/will speak
They speak They spoke They will speak

I am speaking I was speaking I shall/will be

You are speaking You were speaking speaking
Continuous He is speaking . He was speaking You will be speaking
We are speaking. We were speaking He will be speaking
They are speaking. They were speaking We shall/will be
speaking
They will be
speaking

I have spoken I had spoken I shall/will have

You have spoken You had spoken spoken
Perfect He has spoken He had spoken You will have
We have spoken We had spoken spoken
They have spoken They had spoken He will have
spoken
We shall/will have
spoken
They will have
 spoken

I have been speaking I had been speaking I shall/will have

You have been You had been been speaking
Perfect Continuous speaking speaking You will have been
He has been speaking He had been speaking
We have been speaking He will have been
speaking We had been speaking
They have been speaking He shall/will have
speaking They had been been speaking
speaking They will have been
speaking
Figure 2

Exercise 1
Point out the Verbs in the following sentences and name their Tenses:-
1. The river flows under the bridge.
2. I shall answer the letter to-night.
3. 1 knew he was there, for I had seen him come.
4. It has been raining all night.
5. I hear he has passed all right.
6. I had finished when he came.
7. He takes little pride in his work.
8. I have been living here for months.
9. By this time to-morrow I shall have reached my home.
10.It is time we left.
11. He told me that he had finished
12. God forgive you !
13. He is waiting for you in the compound.
14. I am hoping to get a holiday soon.
15. Perhaps it were better to obey him.
16. I shall have plenty of time tomorrow.
17. Though this be madness, yet there is method in it.
18. The king had never before led his troops in battle.
19. If he was guilty, his punishment was too light.
20. We have heard a strange story.
21. The travellers, all of whom had seen the chameleon, could not agree about its colour.
22. Beware lest something worse should happen to you.
23. The farmer is cutting the com which has ripened.
24. I wish my brother were here.
Answers
1. The river flows(Present Simple) under the bridge.
2. I shall answer (Future Simple) the letter to-night.
3. I knew (Past Simple) he was there, for I had seen (Past Perfect) him come.
4. It has been raining (Present Perfect Continuous) all night.
5. I hear (Present Simple) he has passed (Present Perfect) all right.
6. I had finished (Past Perfect) when he came (Past Simple).
7. He takes (Present Simple) little pride in his work.
8. I have been living (Present Perfect Continuous) here for months.
9. By this time to-morrow I shall have reached (Future Perfect) my home.
10. It is time we left (Past Simple).
11. He told (Past Simple) me that he had finished (Past Perfect).
12. God forgive (Present Simple) you!
13. He is waiting (Present Continuous) for you in the compound.
14. I am hoping (Present Continuous) to get a holiday soon.
15. Perhaps it were (Past Simple) better to obey him. [Note: "were" is used in a subjunctive
sense]
16. I shall have (Future Perfect) plenty of time tomorrow.
17. Though this be (Present Simple) madness, yet there is (Present Simple) method in it.
18. The king had never before led (Past Perfect) his troops in battle.
19. If he was (Past Simple) guilty, his punishment was (Past Simple) too light.
20. We have heard (Present Perfect) a strange story.
21. The travellers, all of whom had seen (Past Perfect) the chameleon, could not agree about its
colour.
22. Beware lest something worse should happen (Past Simple) to you. [Note: "should happen"
is used in a subjunctive sense]
23. The farmer is cutting (Present Continuous) the corn which has ripened (Present Perfect).
24. I wish (Present Simple) my brother were (Past Simple subjunctive) here.

The Use of Each Tense

1.​ Present Tense
1.1 Simple Present Tense
●​ To express a habitual action;
Ex: He drinks tea every morning.
I get up every day at five o'clock.
My watch keeps good time.
●​ To express general truths;
 Ex: The sun rises in the east.
Honey is sweet.
Fortune favours the brave.
●​ In exclamatory sentences beginning with here and there to express what is actually
taking place in the present;
Ex: Here comes the bus !
There she goes !
●​ To express a future event that is part of a fixed timetable or fixed programme
Ex: The next flight is at 7:00 tomorrow morning.
The match starts at 9 o'clock.
The train leaves at 5.20.
When does the coffee house reopen?

1.2 Present Continuous Tense

●​ For an action going on at the time of speaking ;
Ex: She is singing (now).
The boys are playing hockey.
●​ For a temporary action which may not be actually happening at the time of speaking;
Ex: I am reading ‘Davit! Copperfield’ (but I am not reading at this moment).
●​ For an action that has already been arranged to take place in the near future;
Ex: I am going to the cinema tonight.
My uncle is arriving tomorrow.
●​ It has been pointed out before that the Simple Present is used for a habitual action.
However, when the reference is to a particularly obstinate habit-something which
persists, for example, in spite of advice or warning- we use the Present Continuous with
an adverb like always, continually, constantly.
Ex: My dog is very silly: he is always running out into the road.

1.3 Present Perfect Tense

●​ To indicate completed activities in the immediate past (with just):
Ex: He has just gone out.
It has just struck ten.
●​ To express past actions whose time is not given and not definite;
Ex: Have you read "Gulliver's Travels'?
I have never known him to be angry.
Mr. Hari has been to Japan.
●​ To describe past events when we think more of their effect/relevance in the present than
of the action itself;
Ex: Gopi has eaten all the biscuits (i.e., there aren't any left for you).
I have cut my finger (and it is bleeding now).
 I have finished my work (= now I am free).
●​ To denote an action beginning at some time in the past and continuing up to the present
moment (often with since- and/or-phrases);
Ex: I Have known him for a long time.
He has been ill since last week.
We have lived here for ten years.
We haven't seen Padina for several months.

1.4 Present Perfect Continuous

●​ The Present Perfect Continuous is used for an action which began at some time in the
past and is still continuing.
Ex: He has been sleeping for five hours (and is still sleeping).
They have been building the bridge for several months.
They have been playing since four o'clock.
●​ This tense is also sometimes used for an action already finished. In such cases the
continuity of the activity is emphasized as an explanation of something.
Ex: 'Why are your clothes so wet?' - 'I have been watering the garden'

2.​ Past Tense

2.1 Simple Past Tense
●​ The Simple Past is used to indicate an action completed in the past.
Ex: The steamer sailed yesterday.
I received his letter a week ago.
She left school last year.
●​ Sometimes this tense is used without an adverb of time. In such cases the time may be
either implied or indicated by the context.
Ex: I learnt Hindi in Nagpur.
I didn't sleep well (i.e, last night).
Babar defeated Rana Sanga at Kanwaha.
●​ The Simple Past is also used for past habits;
Ex: He studied many hours every day.
She always carried an umbrella.

2.2 Past Continuous Tense

●​ The Past Continuous is used to denote an action going on at some time in the past. The
time of the action may or may not be indicated.
Ex: We were watching TV all evening.
It was getting darker.
The light went out while I was reading.
When I saw him, he was playing chess.
 As in the last two examples above, the Past Continuous and Simple Past are used
together when a new action happened in the middle of a longer action. The Simple Past is
used for the new action.
●​ This tense is also used with always, continually, etc. for persistent habits in the past. Ex:
He was always grumbling.

2.3 Past Perfect Tense

●​ The Past Perfect describes an action completed before a certain moment in the past;
Ex: I met him in New Delhi in 1996.
I-had seen him last five years before.
●​ If two actions happened in the past, it may be necessary to show which action happened
earlier than the other. The Past Perfect is mainly used in such situations. The Simple Past
is used in one clause and the Past Perfect in the other;
Ex: When I reached the station the train had started (so I couldn't get into the train).
I had done my exercise when Han came to see me.
I had written the letter before he arrived.

2.4 Past Perfect Continuous Tense

●​ The Past Perfect Continuous is used for an action that began before a certain point in the
past and continued up to that time;
Ex: At that time he had been writing a novel for two months.
When Mr. Mukerji came to the school in 1995, Mr. Anand had already been teaching
there for five years.

3.​ Future Tense

3.1 Simple Future Tense
●​ The Simple Future Tense is used to talk about things which we cannot control. It
expresses the future as fact.
Ex:I shall be twenty next Saturday.
It will be Diwali in a week.
We will know our exam results in May.
●​ We use this tense to talk about what we think or believe will happen in the future.
Ex: I think Pakistan will win the match.
I'm sure Helen will get a first class.
As in the above sentences, we often use this tense with I think, and I'm sure. We also say
I expect ---, I believe ---, Probably ---, etc.
●​ We can use this tense when we decide to do something at the time of speaking
Ex: It is raining. I will take an umbrella.
“Mr. Sinha is very busy at the moment.” – “All right. I'll wait.”
 3.2 Future Continuous Tense
●​ We use the Future Continuous Tense to talk about actions which will be in progress at a
time in the future.
Ex: I suppose it will he raining when we start.
This time tomorrow I will be sitting on the beach in Singapore.
“Can I see you at 5 o'clock?” – “Please don t come then I will be watching the tennis
match on TV.
●​ We also use this tense to talk about actions in the future which are already planned or
which are expected to happen in the normal course of things.
Ex: I will be staying here till Sunday.
He will be meeting us next week.
The postman will be coming soon

3.3 Future Perfect Tense

●​ The Future Perfect Tense is used to talk about actions that will be completed by a certain
future time.
Ex: I shall have written my exercise by then.
He will have left before you go to see him.
By the end of this month I will have worked here for five years.

3.4 Future Perfect Continuous Tense

●​ The Future Perfect Continuous tense is used for actions which will be in progress over a
period of time that will end in the future.
Ex: By next March we shall have been living here for four years.
I’ll have been teaching for twenty years next July.
This tense is not very common

Exercise 1
Choose the correct verb form from those in brackets:
1. The earth --- round the sun. (move, moves, moved)
2. My friends --- the Prime Minister yesterday, (see, have seen, saw)
3. I --- him only one letter up to now. (sent, have sent, send)
4. She --- worried about something, (looks, looking, is looking)
5. It started to rain while we --- tennis, (are playing, were playing, had played).
6. He --- fast when the accident happened, (is driving, was driving, drove)
7. He --- asleep while he was driving, (falls, fell, has fallen)
8. I'm sure I --- him at the party last night, (saw, have seen, had seen).
9. He --- a mill in this town, (have, has, is having)
10. He --- here for the last five years, (worked, is working, has been working).
11. Every day last week my aunt --- a plate, (breaks, broke, was breaking)
12. I know all about that film because I --- it twice, (saw, have seen, had seen)
13. Our guests ---; they are sitting in the garden, (arrived, have arrived, had arrived).
14. I --- him since we met a year ago. (didn't see, haven't seen, hadn't seen)
15. We --- our breakfast half an hour ago. (finished, have finished, had finished)
16. She jumped off the bus while it ---. (moved, had moved, was moving).
17. When we went to the cinema, the film --- (already started, had already started, would already
start)
18. I --- for half an hour when it suddenly started to rain, (have walked, have been walking, had
been walking)
19. Did you think you --- me somewhere before? (have .seen, had seen, were seeing)
20. The town --- its appearance completely since 1980. (is changing, changed, has changed)

Answer

1. The earth moves round the sun.

2. My friends saw the Prime Minister yesterday.
3. I have sent him only one letter up to now.
4. She is looking worried about something.
5. It started to rain while we were playing tennis.
6. He was driving fast when the accident happened.
7. He fell asleep while he was driving.
8. I'm sure I saw him at the party last night.
9. He has a mill in this town.
10. He has been working here for the last five years.
11. Every day last week my aunt broke a plate.
12. I know all about that film because I have seen it twice.
13. Our guests have arrived; they are sitting in the garden.
14. I haven't seen him since we met a year ago.
15. We finished our breakfast half an hour ago.
16. She jumped off the bus while it was moving.
17. When we went to the cinema, the film had already started.
18. I had been walking for half an hour when it suddenly started to rain.
19. Did you think you had seen me somewhere before?
20. The town has changed its appearance completely since 1980.
Exercise 2
Choose the correct or more suitable forms of the verbs to fill in the blanks:-
1. The plane --- at 3.30. (arrives, will arrive)
2. I will phone you when he --- back, (comes, will come)
3. When I get home, my dog --- at the gate waiting for me. (sits, will be sitting)
4. I --- the Joshis this evening, (visit, am visiting)
5. Look at those black clouds. It ---, (will rain, is going to rain)
6. The train --- before we reach the station, (arrives, will have arrived)
7. Perhaps we --- Mahabaleshwar next month, (visit, will visit)
8. Unless we --- now we can't be on time, (start, will start)
9. I --- into town later on. Do you want a lift? (drive, will be driving)
10. The next term --- on 16th November, (begins, is beginning)
11. Oh dear! I --- (will sneeze, am going to sneeze)
12. By 2005, computers --- many of the jobs that people do today, (will be taking over, will have
taken over)
13. I'm sure she --- the exam, (passes, will pass)
14. I --- home next Sunday, (go, am going)
15. I --- you one of these days, I expect, (see, will be seeing)
16. Help! I --- fall, (will fall, am going to fall)
17. She has bought some cloth; she --- herself a blouse, (will make, is going to make)
18. I --- your house this afternoon. It is on my way home from work, (will be passing, am
passing)
19. Hurry up! The programme --- (will start, is about to start)
20. This book is not long. I --- it by lunch time, (will be reading, will have read)

Answer
1. The plane arrives at 3.30.
2. I will phone you when he comes back.
3. When I get home, my dog will be sitting at the gate waiting for me.
4. I am visiting the Joshis this evening.
5. Look at those black clouds. It is going to rain.
6. The train will have arrived before we reach the station.
7. Perhaps we will visit Mahabaleshwar next month.
8. Unless we start now, we can't be on time.
9. I will be driving into town later on. Do you want a lift?
10. The next term begins on 16th November.
11. Oh dear! I am going to sneeze.
12. By 2005, computers will have taken over many of the jobs that people do today.
13. I'm sure she will pass the exam.
14. I am going home next Sunday.
15. I will be seeing you one of these days, I expect.
16. Help! I am going to fall.
17. She has bought some cloth; she is going to make herself a blouse.
18. I will be passing your house this afternoon. It is on my way home from work.
19. Hurry up! The programme is about to start.
20. This book is not long. I will have read it by lunchtime.

Exercise 3
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of the verb provided in parentheses. Choose the
correct tense (present perfect, past perfect, future perfect, present continuous, past continuous,
future continuous, present perfect continuous, past perfect continuous, or future perfect
continuous).

1. By the time we arrived, they (already/finish) __________ dinner.

2. She (work) __________ at that company for five years before she decided to leave.
3. We (study) __________ for the exam all week, and we're feeling confident.
4. They (travel) __________ around Europe for six months before settling down.
5. At this time tomorrow, I (read) __________ this book for three hours.
6. He (write) __________ the report since morning; he needs a break.
7. By next year, she (live) __________ in New York City for a decade.
8. I (wait) __________ for the bus when it started raining.
9. They (practice) __________ their instruments for the upcoming concert all week.
10. By the end of the month, he (learn) __________ French for two years.

Answers
1. had already finished
2. had worked
3. have been studying
4. had been traveling
5. will have been reading
6. has been writing
7. will have lived
8. was waiting
9. have been practicing
10. will have learned

Exercise 4
Identify the verbs in Simple Present Tense in the following passage:
i. When we talk about facts we use simple present tense: A fact is a statement that is true and can
be verified objectively, or proven. In other words, a fact is true and correct no matter what. An
opinion, however, is a statement that holds an element of belief; it tells how someone feels. An
opinion is not always true and cannot be proven.

ii. The Computer programmer in the story ‘True Love’, Milton Davis tries to find his ideal
partner by instructing his computer (named Joe), which has access to databases covering the
entire populace of the world, to find him his ideal match, based on physical parameters supplied.
He meets the shortlisted candidates, but realises that looks alone are not enough. In order to
correlate personalities, he speaks at great length to Joe, gradually filling Joe's databanks with
information about his personality. In doing so, Joe develops the personality of Milton, and upon
finding an ideal match, arranges to have Milton arrested, so that Joe can 'have the girl' for
himself.

Exercise 5
Complete the sentences with given verbs: goes , go, lead, drink, takes, promise, live, speaks,
have, watch, do, come , suggest.

1. My friend…….. German well.

2. I don’t often………. coffee.
3. They usually………… the rooms in the hostel after students……… to college.
4. Bad habits………… to many problems later.
5. My parents………….. in a small house but they……….. big dreams for me.
6. The Convocation function place…………. every year.
7. The Earth……… round the sun.
8. I usually……….. films with my family.
9. I come from Kakinada. Where…….. you…….. from?
10. I…………….. I won’t be late in future. What do you……… I do to overcome my bad habit
of being late to class every day?

Exercise 6
Fill in the blanks with suitable verbs forms
1. The flower show, which…………. (opens/is open) until 5 p.m. every day, has been a complete
success.
2. Do you know this city at all?
No, this is the first time I………. (am coming/have been) here.
3. After the interview, she realized that she had no useful skills that……….. (was interesting/is
interesting)
4. We have……….. (come to/been in) the city for a week. Now it's time for us………. (to
leave/leaving).
5. I wonder if he……….. (come/will come).If he……… (will arrive/arrives), please let me know
as soon as possible
6. He asked the crowd if they……….. ( have thought / thought ),that the politician ………..( was
telling/told) a lie.
7. I ………..(had read /read) the book on the reading list before I attended the lecture.
8. He is ill. He……….. ( is lying/ has been lying) in bed for 3 weeks.
9. How many people does the doctor know……….. ( has died/ are dying) of the disease?
10. It………… (rains/has been raining) everyday so far this week.

Exercises 7
I. Write Simple Past tense / Past perfect tense
1. Arvind……… (play ) with these toys yesterday.
2. Mohan……… (Board) the train before it……… (Start)
3. The Servants………. (Clean) the table before the guests……… (arrive)
4. Last year this city was…….. (flood)
5. Sujan…….. (book) the tickets before I…….. (reach) the station
6. Kala……. (sleep) before her father……. (arrive)
7. A thief………(Break) into that house last night.
8. The bell…….. (ring) on time but before that the students……. (start)
9. Ravi……… (answer) all the questions before I…… (answer)
10. Ranjith…….. (go) to Paris last year.

Exercises 8
Write Simple Past tense / simple future Tense

1. Kishan………… (complete) the work tomorrow

2. Last night it………. (rain) heavily.
3. The Servants……… (Clean) the plates later.
4. Long ago there…….. (live) a king
5. Next year Arun……… (get) an award for his contribution.
6. Arjun……… (teach) me this lesson yesterday.
7. Next week the students………. (write) a test.
8. She………… (draw) beautiful paintings last week.
9. Tomorrow all the guests………… (arrive)
10. In 1981 this bridge was…………. (Construct)

Exercise 9
Use correct form of the verb :
1. Let’s go out. It isn’t raining( not/rain) now .
2. My cousin is very good at languages. She……… ( speak) five languages.
3……….. ( you/ listen) to the music?
4. Hurry up. Everybody…….. ( wait) for you.
5. River Godawari……… ( flow) into the ocean.
6. The river……… ( flow) very fast today due to heavy rain.
7. We usually………… ( grow) vegetables at home, but this year we ( not/grow) any.

Exercise 10
Use apt form of the verbs in present tenses:

1. I ( learn ) English for the last two years.

2. Hello, Jhansi,.............. ( I/look) for you. Where have you been?
3. Why………… ( you/look) at me strangely? Stop it.
4. She is a teacher…………... ( she/teach) for ten years.
5. …………….( I/ think) about what you said and I have decided to take youradvice.
6. Is it still raining? No…………. (it/stop).
7………….. ( I /read) the book you lent me, but………….. ( I/not/ finish) it yet.
8. How long……… ( you/ drive) ?
9. The car is ok now. ……….( I /repair) it.

Exercise 11
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of the verbs in the present tense.

1. A successful scientist ……….(be) full of curiosity. He……. (want) to find out how and why
the universe……. (work). He usually…….. (direct) his attention towards problems, which
he……….. (notice) have no satisfactory explanation and his curiosity…….. (make) him look for
underlying relationships even if the data available……… (seem) to be unconnected.

2. Today science………… (play) a major role in the creation of the global village. International
agencies………. (pool) their resources and………… (incorporate) themselves into greater
bodies. Universities ……………(develop) joint research projects. On the whole the
world………… (move) towards greater unity.

3. The most striking characteristic of modern science………… (be) the trend towards
international cooperation. The widening scope of present day research……… (result) in
extending many items of research beyond national boundaries. The increasing interdependence
of nations ………..(have) an impact on scientific investigation. The last twenty years………..
(witness) the intensification of international cooperation. The magnitude of the problems to be
solved……….. (keep) on increasing

Active and Passive Voice

Compare:-
1. Rama helps Hari.
2. Hari is helped by Rama.
It will be seen that these two sentences express the same meaning. But in sentence I, the form
of the Verb shows that the person denoted by the subject does something. Rama (the person
denoted by the subject) does something. The Verb ‘helps’ is said to be in the Active Voice.

In sentence 2, the form of the Verb shows that something is done to the person denoted by the
Subject. Something is done to Hari (the person denoted by the Subject.) The Verb helped is
said to be in the Passive Voice.

A verb is in the Active Voice when its form shows that the person or thing denoted by the
Subject does something ; or, in other words, is the doer of the action. The Active Voice is so
called because the person denoted by the Subject acts.
Ex: “Sita loves Savitri”

A Verb is in the Passive Voice when its form shows that something is done to the person or
thing denoted by the Subject. The Passive Voice is so called because the person or thing
denoted by the Subject is not active but passive, that is, suffers or receives some action.
Ex: “Savitri is loved by Sita.”

So, Voice is that form of a verb which shows whether what is denoted by the Subject does
something or has something done to it.

Note the change from the Active Voice to the Passive Voice in the following sentences:-

Active Voice
1. Sita loves Savitri.
2. The mason is building the wall.
3. The peon opened the gate.
4. Some boys were helping the wounded man.
5. He will finish the work in a fortnight.
6. Who did this?
7. Why did your brother write such a letter?
Passive Voice
1. Savitri is loved by Sita.
2. The wall is being built by the mason.
3. The gate was opened by the peon.
4. The wounded man was being helped by some boys.
5. The work will be finished by him in a fortnight.
6. By whom was this done?
7. Why was such a letter written by your brother?

#3 Golden Rules in Voice

The ‘X’ rule
When the Verb is changed from the Active Voice to the Passive Voice, the Object of the Verb in
the Active Voice becomes the Subject of the Verb in the Passive Voice.

Subject Object

X
Subject Object
Ex: Rama helps Sita
Sita is helped by Rama
Helping Verbs
Passive voice usually contains auxiliary/helping verbs.
Ex: was, is
The by-stander
Most of the passive voice sentences include the word ‘by’
Ex: He opened the door
The door was opened by him.

Impersonal Passive Voice

Impersonal passive voice is a grammatical construction in which the subject of a sentence is not
a specific person or entity, but rather an indefinite or general agent, or sometimes the agent is
not mentioned at all.We use the impersonal passive voice when we want to express an action or
a state without mentioning who or what performs or experiences it. Impersonal passive voice is
commonly found in scientific, academic, and formal writing. It can also be used to avoid
personal responsibility or to create a sense of objectivity or neutrality.

Some examples of situations where we use the impersonal passive voice are:
• To report what is said or believed by people in general, without specifying the source.
For example:
o It is said that he is a prankster. (instead of People say he is a prankster.)
o It is believed that the company stole over a million pounds. (instead of People
believe the company stole over a million pounds.)
• To describe an action or a state that affects the subject, without mentioning the agent.
For example:
o It was decided that the project would be cancelled. (instead of Someone
decided that the project would be cancelled.)
o It is known that smoking causes cancer. (instead of Scientists know that
smoking causes cancer.)

• To emphasize the action or the state rather than the subject or the agent.
For example:
o It was discovered that the painting was a fake. (instead of The experts
discovered that the painting was a fake.)
o It is expected that the train strike will begin tomorrow. (instead of We expect
that the train strike will begin tomorrow.)

We form the impersonal passive structure with:

It + passive verb + that + clause (sentence)

Examples:
Active Voice: Many people believe that the factory will close.
Passive Voice: It is believed that the factory will close.

A few other examples:

1. It is said that the meeting will be rescheduled. (Agent not mentioned)

2. It was believed by many that the cure had been found. (Agent mentioned)
3. It has been observed that the climate is changing rapidly. (Agent not mentioned)
4. It is rumoured that a new restaurant is opening downtown. (Agent not mentioned)

In these examples, the focus is on the action or event itself rather than who performed it,
making them impersonal passive constructions. This type of construction is especially useful
when the identity of the doer is unknown, unimportant, or when the writer wants to maintain a
sense of objectivity and formality in their writing.

1. Active Voice: My professor is teaching three courses.

Passive Voice: Three courses are taught by my professor.
Impersonal Passive Voice: Three courses are taught.

2. Active Voice: Many students read India Today

Passive Voice: India Today is read by many students.
Impersonal Passive Voice: India Today is read.

3. Active Voice: The students discussed the issue of electoral reform

Passive Voice: The issue of electoral reform was discussed by the students.
Impersonal Passive Voice: The issue of electoral reform was discussed.

4. Active Voice: He employs a servant.

Passive Voice: A servant is employed by him.
Impersonal Passive Voice: A servant is employed.

5. Active Voice: We celebrate the Golden Jubilee of our school.

Passive Voice: The Golden Jubilee of our school is celebrated by us.
Impersonal Passive Voice: The Golden Jubilee of our school is celebrated.

6. Active Voice: Kannan beats Ravi.

Passive Voice: Ravi is beaten by Kannan.
Impersonal Passive Voice: Ravi is beaten.

7. Active Voice: The mother is preparing the soup.

Passive Voice: The soup is being prepared by the mother
Impersonal Passive Voice: The soup is being prepared.

8. Active : Our English teacher may give an exam today.

Passive: An exam may be given by our English teacher today.

9. Active : You must obey the traffic rules.

Passive: The traffic rules must be obeyed.

10. Active : Juan can give them some information about the job.
Passive: They can be given some information about the JOB by Juan.

11. Active: I did not write that letter.

Passive: That letter was not written by me.

12. Active : Complete the work.

Passive : Let the work be completed.

13. Active : Turn off the television.

Passive : Let the television be turned off.

Exercise 1
Label the following sentences ACTIVE or PASSIVE.

1. Louise made the chocolate cake.

2. The chocolate cake was made by Louise.
3. The package was advertised by the travel agent.
4. The travel agent advertised the package.
5. The chain was broken by my brother.
6. My brother broke the chain on my bike.
7. I hemmed the prom dress.
8. The prom dress was hemmed by me.
9. The pencil on the floor was broken by him.
10. He broke the pencil on the floor.

Exercise 2
Change the following into impersonal passive voice where ever required:

1. They stop the machine.

2. She has fixed the tube on the stand
3. An experimenter is describing an apparatus which he uses.
4. Generally a researcher chooses a topic and consults relevant books.
5. Do not tell a lie.
6. They have performed the operation successfully.
7. The new Manager has called for quotations.
8. The mechanics use thin grease as a lubricant in ball bearings.
9. We weld two metal plates together.
10. Browse the net for details

Exercise 3
Name the Verbs in the following sentences, and tell whether they are in the Active or in the
Passive Voice:

1. The cat killed the mouse.

2. We compelled the enemy to surrender.
3. The boy was bitten by a dog.
4. The thief was caught.
5. The boy made a kite.
6. The ship was burned.
7. The young man made a disturbance at the meeting.
8. The captive was bound to a tree.
9. The bird was killed by a cruel boy.
10. The sudden noise frightened the horse.
11. He is loved by all.
12. The exhibition was opened by the Governor.
13. I see a dark cloud.
14. His command was promptly obeyed.
15. Some of the cargo had been damaged by the sea water.

Exercise 4
Rewrite the following sentences so that the Verbs will be in the Active Voice:-
1. He was praised by his father.
2. The first railway was built by George Stephenson.
3. The horse was frightened by the noise.
4. Not a word was spoken by Latif.
5. The teacher was pleased with the boy's work.
6. He was taken to the hospital by his friends.
7. The town was destroyed by an earthquake.
8. The road was lined with people.
9. The President was welcomed by the people.
10. Shakuntala was written by Kalidas.

Exercise 5
In the following sentences change the Voice :

1. We elected Balu captain.

2. I saw him opening the box.
3. We must listen to his words.
4. Shall I ever forget those happy days?
5. By whom was this jug broken ?
6. His subordinates accused him of various offences.
7. One cannot gather grapes from thistles.
8. The telegraph wires have been cut.
9. Alas! We shall hear his voice no more.
10. The 1998 Asian Games were held in Bangkok, Thailand.
11. Without effort nothing can be gained.
12. Do not insult the weak.
13. All desire wealth and some acquire it.
14. Why should I be suspected by you?
15. The information is kept on our computer.

Exercises 6
Convert the following sentences into impersonal passive voice

1. People say that 86% of workers at smaller companies are happy.

2. People think pilots are among the top ten highest paid UK jobs.
3. People know that Henry Ford had five failed businesses before he became a success.
4. Sources report that, on average, professionals born after 1982 get a different job every
thirteen months.
5. People believe that in 1989, 75% of Britain’s wealthiest people had inherited their
fortune.
Answer

Exercise 1
1. ACTIVE: Louise made the chocolate cake.
2. PASSIVE: The chocolate cake was made by Louise.
3. PASSIVE: The package was advertised by the travel agent.
4. ACTIVE: The travel agent advertised the package.
5. PASSIVE: The chain was broken by my brother.
6. ACTIVE: My brother broke the chain on my bike.
7. ACTIVE: I hemmed the prom dress.
8. PASSIVE: The prom dress was hemmed by me.
9. PASSIVE: The pencil on the floor was broken by him.
10. ACTIVE: He broke the pencil on the floor.

Exercise 2
1. The machine is stopped.
2. The tube has been fixed on the stand.
3. An apparatus is being described by an experimenter, which is used by him.
4. Generally, a topic is chosen by a researcher, and relevant books are consulted.
5. Let not a lie be told.
6. The operation has been performed successfully.
7. Quotations have been called for by the new Manager.
8. Thin grease is used as a lubricant in ball bearings by the mechanics.
9. Two metal plates are welded together.
10. Details should be browsed on the net.

Exercise 3
1. The cat killed the mouse. (Active)
2. We compelled the enemy to surrender. (Active)
3. The boy was bitten by a dog. (Passive)
4. The thief was caught. (Passive)
5. The boy made a kite. (Active)
6. The ship was burned. (Passive)
7. The young man made a disturbance at the meeting. (Active)
8. The captive was bound to a tree. (Passive)
9. The bird was killed by a cruel boy. (Passive)
10. The sudden noise frightened the horse. (Active)
11. He is loved by all. (Passive)
12. The exhibition was opened by the Governor. (Passive)
13. I see a dark cloud. (Active)
14. His command was promptly obeyed. (Passive)
15. Some of the cargo had been damaged by the sea water. (Passive)
Exercise 4
1. His father praised him.
2. George Stephenson built the first railway.
3. The noise frightened the horse.
4. Latif didn't speak a word.
5. The boy's work pleased the teacher.
6. His friends took him to the hospital.
7. An earthquake destroyed the town.
8. People lined the road.
9. The people welcomed the President.
10. Kalidas wrote Shakuntala.

Exercise 5
1. Balu was elected captain by us. (Passive)
2. I saw the box being opened by him. (Passive)
3. His words must be listened to by us. (Passive)
4. Will those happy days ever be forgotten by me? (Passive)
5. Who broke this jug? (Active)
6. He was accused of various offences by his subordinates. (Passive)
7. Grapes cannot be gathered from thistles by one. (Passive)
8. Someone has cut the telegraph wires. (Active)
9. Alas! His voice will be heard no more by us. (Passive)
10. Bangkok, Thailand, hosted the 1998 Asian Games. (Active)
11. Nothing can be gained without effort. (Active)
12. Do not insult the weak. (Active)
13. Wealth is desired by all, and some acquire it. (Passive)
14. Why should you suspect me? (Active)
15. We keep the information on our computer. (Active)

Exercise 6
1. It is said that 86% of workers at smaller companies are happy.
2. It is thought that pilots are among the top ten highest paid UK jobs.
3. It is known that Henry Ford had five failed businesses before he became a success.
4. It is reported that, on average, professionals born after 1982 get a different job every
13 months.
5. It is believed that in 1989, 75% of Britain’s wealthiest people had inherited their
fortune.

Collocation
A collocation is a group of words that are often used together to convey a specific meaning. For
example, "make a bed" and "do homework" are collocations.

Exercise 1: Fill in the Blanks Complete the sentences using the correct collocations from the list
provided.
1. I always _______________ in the morning to start my day.
2. She _______________ on the piano to express her emotions.
3. The _______________ between the two countries has improved significantly. 4. His
_______________ advice helped me make an informed choice.
5. The _______________ of the ocean made it difficult to see the bottom. 6. The coffee shop
serves a _______________ cup of coffee.
7. Despite the _______________ weather, we enjoyed our walk.
8. She _______________ her success to hard work and dedication.
9. The _______________ decision to cancel the event disappointed many. 10. The
_______________ on technology has increased over the years.
(relationship, dependence, take a shower, makes music, strong, cold, attributes her, depth,
close, sound ,)

Exercise 2:
Underline collocations in the following passage :
Attitude may be just the expression of what you think. Imagine a scenario like when you would
work your "butt" off to get into the train, because you are late,while other passengers of later
trains just take their time leisurely. However, it turns out that you have misread your departure
time by a couple of hours and got to the railway station too early. It is all in your head. Therefore,
first, you must truly realize your "actual" needs (actual: not theoretical), needs that you know
both in your head and your heart that you cannot live without. Without feeling this way, you will
remain unmotivated and will not work hard. For example, if you think that you can prepare for
examinations in the last minute, as you need to only get enough marks to secure a job, or will
always be able to find a way out to score well in the examinations without prior planning and it
will be difficult to convince your subconsciousness to work really hard by keeping the future in
mind. Only when you truly feel you have no choice, then you will act accordingly. One will need
to sort out his/her
true needs regarding doing house chores, exercise, studying, learning new skills for his/her
career after a long day at work. Also think about another scenario: a a mother works tirelessly,
fearlessly to save her child from, say, dying. That's the attitude of hardworking. You really want
something and fight for it.

Discourse Markers
A discourse marker is a word or phrase that changes the flow or structure of dialogue without
changing the meaning behind it. We use discourse markers a lot in our day-to-day lives for
many different reasons. For instance, if we wanted to change the topic of a conversation we’d
use ‘so’ or ‘anyway’.
What Are Discourse Markers in The English Language?
We use discourse markers every day, often without even realising it. They’re essentially phrases
and words that quite literally mark the direction of a conversation or discourse. They are used to
connect, organise and manage what we think, say or
write or to express a certain attitude. They can also be used to redirect or focus a conversation.
You might sometimes see them being referred to as 'linking words', 'linking phrases', or
'sentence connectors'.
What Are Some Examples Of Discourse Markers?
Now that we know a bit more about what these words and phrases are, let’s take a look at a few
examples. In this table, we’ve compiled a few common words and phrases that get used a lot in
everyday speech:

Anyway Like

Okay As I say

Right So

However Therefore

Particularly Well

Because For starters

Oh But

How Do You Use Discourse Markers in a Sentence?

Now you know some examples of these markers, it's time to learn how your students can use
them in their writing. Every discourse marker can be used for a different purpose to create
emphasis, introduce evidence or conclude a text, so you need to understand which marker will
suit your sentence. Here are some examples of how you can use discourse markers for different
purposes.

1.​ To start off a topic or sentence:

Some words and phrases, like ‘firstly’ and ‘first of all’, are used to introduce an item, opinion or
thought in a longer list or sequence. Here are a few examples of how they might look in a
sentence:
“For a start, 90% of people voted for the new law”
“First of all, let’s recap what we learned in the last lesson”
 2.​ To structure ideas:
Another common way to use these words and phrases is when we’re trying to structure our
ideas in a way that others can understand. We might go about this using numbered phrases like
‘firstly’ and ‘secondly’. Or if we’re telling a story or series of events, we might be more likely to
use words like ‘then’ or ‘next’:
“Firstly, I didn’t eat the scones. Secondly, you have no proof that it was me”
“I woke up at 7:30, and then I went to have a shower. After that, I got changed and had some
breakfast.”

3.​ To express an opposing idea:

We might also use discourse markers when we want to acknowledge or discuss two different
ideas or opposing opinions. This discourse marker is most commonly used in balanced
arguments and debates. For example:
'Tim wanted to go to Sarah's birthday party. However, he had a big test to study for'.
“I could buy these sweets now. On the other hand, I could save up for the new computer game”.

4.​ To say something in a different way:

Discourse markers can also come in handy when we want to rephrase or reiterate something
that we’ve already said. Some examples of these include ‘in other words’ and ‘what I mean to
say’.
There are also some specific words and phrases that are particularly useful when we want to
simplify our ideas, or sum up something complex using a few simple words:
“To cut a long story short, Alice forgot to bring her homework to school”
“To put it simply, we need more time to finish the project”

5.​ To provide additional information:

We might also use markers like ‘which’, ‘but’ or ‘so’ when we want to give information that would
be useful to the listener, support an argument that we’re trying to make or even to interject with
our own ideas. Take a look at a couple of examples:
“Assuming that I did eat the scones, which I didn’t, there would be crumbs on the kitchen
counter”
“The performance of King Lear, which took place at the local theatre, was well received by
critics”

6.​ Other ways to use discourse markers:

There are also loads of other ways that we use these markers in our speech and writing,
including:
● Changing the topic (‘so’, ‘well’ ‘anyway;’):
“Anyway, enough about my day. How was yours?”
● To respond to someone (‘actually’, ‘wow’, ‘exactly’):
“Wow, those holiday photos look fantastic!”
● To end or sum up a conversation (‘right’, ‘okay’, ‘so’):
“So that about wraps up this week’s creative writing session. Let’s meet up again next Friday”
Exercise

HOWEVER, ON THE OTHER HAND,FIRSTLY, AT LEAST, THOUGH, THEN, WHEREAS,

ACTUALLY, MOREOVER, BESIDES

1. I had a terrible day at work and lost my umbrella too. __________ I spoke that nice guy who

works in the coffee shop at last!

2. Television turns people into lazy couch potatoes._____________, there are some educational

programmes on.

3.___________, I would like to welcome you all to the conference today.

4. __________the film was a little boring, we still had a nice evening out.

5. I've always known Caroline as a mean person.-___________, she lent me $10 yesterday

without having to ask twice!

6. I got up at 9 o'clock yesterday and had a cold shower.________, I had breakfast and left for

work.

7. My brother works in a large office _________I work on my own at home.

8. Why don't you think I would want to go out tonight?_________, I would be delighted to get out

of the house.

9. You should go to university as it gives you a chance to meet so many new people.________,

it gives you the chance to get important qualifications and get a better job.

10. I don't want to go to the football game. Football bores me and I don't want to pay $40 for a

ticket.___________, look at the weather! All that rain!

Affixation
Affixation is a linguistic process in which prefixes, suffixes and infixes are added to a base word
(also known as the root or stem) to create a new word with a different meaning or grammatical
property. These affixes can change the meaning, tense, aspect, number, or other grammatical
aspects of the base word. The three types of affixes are,

Prefixes: These are added to the beginning of a base word and often change its meaning or
create a new word. For example, the prefix "un-" added to the word "happy" forms "unhappy."
Suffixes: These are added to the end of a base word and often change one parts of speech to
another. For example, the suffix "-able" added to the verb "accept" forms "acceptable" making it
an adjective.
Infixes: These are inserted within a base word, although they are relatively rare in English. You
can find infix in plural forms of some words. The plural suffix ‘s’ behaves like an infix in unusual
plurals like passersby, mothers-in-law, cupsful, spoonsful.
Infixes are more common in languages like Tagalog and Malay. An example of an infix is in
Tagalog, where "in-" can be inserted into the word "ganda" (beautiful) to create "gumanda"
(became beautiful).

Exercise 1
Complete the following sentences by giving the right derived word:
LEGAL (TO LEGALIZE - LEGALITY – LEGALIZATION –ILLEGAL)
1. It’s …………………………………………. to sell such goods without a proper permit.
2. They questioned the ………………………………… of the company’s action.
3. Swedish Left Party wants ……………………………………………… piracy.
4. …………………………………………… will not be a cure-all for the problems of drug abuse.

TO PRODUCE (PRODUCT – PRODUCTIVITY - PRODUCTION –UNPRODUCTIVE)

1. The new model should be in ………………………….………………… in three months.
2. The finished ……………………………………. must leave the factory in perfect condition.
3. I’m afraid our talks with the manufacturers have been
……………………………………………………..
4. Any ……………………………………………… bonus will be paid every four months.

TO EMPLOY (EMPLOYER – EMPLOYEE – EMPLOYMENT – UNEMPLOYMENT)

1. In an area of high …………………………………………………. people are desperate to find
jobs.
2. Every ………………………………………………………….. of the firm is entitled to a 10%
discount.
3. Her ………………………………………………………… gets very angry if she uses the phone
too much.
4. I’m looking for a temporary …………………………………………………… during the summer
holidays.
Exercise 2
PERSONAL NOUNS – Nouns referring to people can be formed by adding the suffixes -er, -or, -
ee, -ian, -ant or -ist. Complete each sentence with a noun that refers to the type of person
described:
1. He works at the reception, so he is a ………………………………………………………………
2. A contract is signed by both the employer and the ………………………………………….
3. He works in the legal department, so he is a ………………………………………………………..
4. As an …………………………………………….., she audits the company’s accounts.
5. She works in real estate, so she is a ……………………………………………………..
6. She studied electricity and became an ………………………………………………….
7. As a …………………………………………… for the Financial Times, he reports on events
around the world.
8. As a freelance ………………………………………………, he can sell his photos to
newspapers and magazines.
9. Over 200 people applied for the job we advertised; we didn’t expect so many
……………………………………..