Research methods as an area to study

• business research methods and the two different roles or hats students wear
 Academic Hat/Role:
•Focus on passing exams and writing assignments
•Must consider published literature (textbooks, journals,
articles, websites)
•Requires understanding research methods from an academic
perspective
•May lead to further academic work at higher levels
 Business/Professional Hat/Role:
•Functions as manager, research consultant, or practitioner
•Requires answering real-time questions for businesses
•Involvesconducting practical research for vital business
questions
•Applies research skills throughout the organization, not just
in R&D
• Research is conducted throughout organizations, not just in R&D departments
• Logical and scientific thinking is expected from all professionals
• Research-oriented skills are essential for accredited professionals
• Systematic thinking is everyone's responsibility, not just management's
• The text emphasizes that most readers may not become formal researchers but
will need research skills in their professional roles

2. Nature of Business Research

• Must avoid vague research shows that... statements
• Requires valid sources and appropriate data
collection/analysis
• Different from casual vox pop surveys done by journalists
• Must have a clear objective purpose
• Requires systematic and fair data collection
• Need careful analysis to avoid bias
 3. Research Methods vs. Methodology
Research Methods Methodology

• Research methods refer to • Research methodology relates to

specific data collection activities: overall attitude, understanding,
 questionnaires, and strategy for research
 interviews,
 focus groups,
 observation
 4. Nature of Business Research
• Must avoid vague research shows that...
statements
• Requires valid sources and appropriate data
collection/analysis
• Different from casual vox pop surveys done by journalists
• Must have a clear objective purpose
• Requires systematic and fair data collection
• Need careful analysis to avoid bias
 5. Special Characteristics of Business Research
• Multi-disciplinary, unlike pure disciplines like
chemistry
• Involves understanding multiple stakeholders
(managers, staff, customers, owners)
• Draws from various disciplines (mathematics,
psychology, sociology, economics, etc.)
• Can be conducted at different levels:
• Complex research (product life cycle predictions, trend analysis)
• Simple fact-finding (sales changes over time)
 Key Requirements
• Questions must be valid and fair
• Must justify sample selection if not studying the entire population
• Analysis must be systematic and rigorous
• Decisions on research depth depend on the purpose
• Some theory is helpful for context
• Critical thinking is fundamental (questioning
assumptions, considering unstated factors)
5. Business problems that might need research studies
 Types of Research Questions
 Starting Points for Research
 Steps to Refine Research Questions
Types of Research Ǫuestions
• Practical questions (product range profit comparison, training method
effectiveness)
• Theoretical questions (comparing organizations, exploring marketing
strategies)
• Questions combining both theory and numerical surveys
Starting Points for Research:
a) Broad management areas (marketing, operations)
b) Specific practical questions needing managerial decisions
 Starting Points for Research:

c) Broad management areas (marketing,

operations)
d) Specific practical questions needing managerial decisions
 Steps to Refine Research Ǫuestions:

1.Narrow down the study topic: 4. Writing Process:

 Choose something interesting  Write and revise the
 Ensure enough time question/title carefully
for a thorough  Check assumptions and implications
investigation  Collaborate with others for clarity
2.Choose an appropriate topic 5. Literature Review:
context:
 Use published literature
 Find access to practitioners
 Discuss with others
 Ensure connection with
the organization/professional  Find gaps worth exploring
body 6. Outcome Identification:
 Look for well-documented  Consider both theoretical and
areas practical outcomes
3.Identify relevant  Ensure outcomes are clear and
theory/knowledge domains useful
 Refine the topic if outcomes aren't
clear enough
 7. Research paradigms in business

a. Definition of Paradigm:
• According to Kuhn (1970): A cluster of beliefs guiding researchers on what to
study and how to interpret results
• Used primarily in academic contexts, though its meaning extends beyond
academia
Four Main Research Paradigms (Burrell and Morgan, 1G7G):

• Functionalist Paradigm
• Interpretive Paradigm
• Radical Humanist Paradigm
• Radical Structuralist Paradigm
 Functionalist Paradigm

• Problem-solving and rational approach

• Uses classic survey methods
• Combines quantitative and qualitative questions
• Assumes objective reality exists
 Interpretive Paradigm

• Focuses on understanding organizations through people's perceptions

• Uses qualitative methods like discourse analysis
• Employs unstructured interviews
• Studies perspectives of employees, managers, and stakeholders
 Radical Humanist Paradigm

• Views organizations as social arrangements that can be changed

• Uses qualitative methods
• Employs grounded theory approach
• Examines deeper values and social definitions
• Aims to develop or change organizations
 Radical Structuralist Paradigm

• Views organizations through power relations

• Uses historical analysis
• Develops case studies
• Studies transactions between organizational actors
 Important Characteristics:

• These paradigms are mutually exclusive

• Each paradigm influences research methodology choice
• Researchers must recognize their own
philosophical stance
• Understanding these differences helps in choosing appropriate research
methods
7. Differences between qualitative and quantitative research
Ǫualitative Research Ǫuantitative Research

 Deals with non-numerical data  Works with numerical data and

and descriptive information statistics
 Focuses on exploring meanings,  Focuses on measuring and
experiences, and perspectives quantifying information
 Uses methods like interviews,  Uses methods like surveys,
observations, and focus groups experiments, and statistical
 Results in rich, detailed analysis
descriptions of phenomena  Results in numerical findings that
 More subjective in nature can be analyzed mathematically
 More objective in nature
 a. Ǫualitative Research Examples
1. Education Study
• Research Question: How do students feel about online learning during the
pandemic?
• Method: In-depth interviews with 15 university students
• Data Collection: Recording student experiences, emotions, and challenges
• Findings Example: Students reported feeling isolated but appreciated the
flexibility of online classes
2. Customer Experience Study
• Research Question: Why do customers prefer certain coffee shops?
• Method: Observation and focus group discussions
• Data Collection: Taking notes on customer behavior and recording
conversations
• FindingsExample: Customers value the friendly staff and comfortable
atmosphere more than quick service
 Ǫuantitative Research Examples

1. Health Study
• Research Question: What percentage of people exercise regularly?
• Method: Online survey with 1000 participants
• Data Collection: Multiple choice questions and rating scales
• Findings Example: 65% of participants exercise at least 3 times per week
2. Market Research
• Research Question: How much do people spend on groceries monthly?
• Method: Analysis of shopping receipts from 500 households
• Data Collection: Gathering numerical data about spending habits
• Findings Example: The average monthly grocery spending is $450 per
household
 Differences Shown in These Examples
1. Data Type:
3. Research Goals:
• Qualitative: Words, descriptions, • Qualitative: Understanding why and
experiences how
• Quantitative: Numbers, • Quantitative: Measuring how many
percentages, statistics and how much
2. Sample Size: 4.Results Format:
• Qualitative: Usually smaller (10-30 •Qualitative: Detailed descriptions and quotes
participants) •Quantitative: Charts, graphs, and
statistical analysis
• Quantitative: Usually larger (100+
participants)
 c. Mixing Research Methods:
• Cancombine qualitative data (like case studies and grounded theory) with
quantitative data (like surveys)
• Grounded theory is interpretive, involving collection and analysis of
written/verbal data into themes
• Mixed methods can involve both mixed approaches and integrated
paradigms
 d. Research Methods

• Experiment
• Interview
• Survey
• Case study
• Action research
• Grounded theory
• Ethnography
• Archival research
 e. Business Research Mixing Benefits:

• Increasingly common to mix data collection and analysis methods

• Can use multi-method approach (all qualitative or all quantitative)
• Can use mixed method approach (combining both qualitative and
quantitative)
• Enables triangulation to enrich and confirm
findings
• Surveys often provide broad view while interviews offer depth
 f. Research Time Approaches:

• Cross-sectional research: Studies phenomenon at a single point in time from

multiple perspectives
• Longitudinal research: Studies phenomenon over an extended time period
• Academic qualifications typically use cross-
sectional approach due to time constraints
• Longitudinal studies usually require external
funding
 g. Examples of Research Applications:

• Training courses
• Induction processes
• Technology implementation
• Product launches
• Industry trends
• Employee cohort tracking
 5. Research strategy and design (p46)
 Research design is a comprehensive plan that requires extensive work,
reading, and understanding of one's perspective as a researcher.
 There is no single right way to conduct business research - the approach
depends on multiple factors including:
1) Research topic
2) Target audience (university, company, etc.)
3) Available time and resources
4) Appropriateness for the topic
5) Practical access to information and people
• Eg: Research design involves careful consideration of several practical and
ethical issues, as illustrated through the shopping survey example:
• Ethical considerations (getting proper permissions)
 Practical challenges (avoiding public obstruction)
 Sampling decisions
 Language and communication choices
 Participant motivation and incentives
 Analysis methods (quantitative vs. qualitative)
 The philosophical foundation is crucial and must be made explicit, including
views on:
 Truth and knowledge
 Social entities
 Limitations and capabilities of business research
 How these factors influence research execution
 Research strategy should be determined before selecting specific
methods, considering:
 Choice of research methods (surveys, interviews, grounded theory)
 Whether to use mixed methods (qualitative and quantitative)
 Justification for methodological choices
 6. Classification of research

Exploratory Research
1. Aims to identify or clarify problems
2. Ǫualitative, divergent, and inductive
in nature
3. Separates real problems
from symptoms
4. Results in better problem definition
and understanding
 7. Classification of research

Descriptive Research
 Answers factual questions (how,
what, where, when, how much, how
often)
 Can be answered by finding people
with knowledge or basic information
gathering
 Generally limited in scope for
academic business research
 7. Classification of research

Correlational Research
 Studies relationships between variables
 Shows how variables change together,
but not necessarily in the same direction
 Does not prove causation
 Example: correlation between
boss's presence and office mistakes
 7. Classification of research

Causal/Experimental Research
 Tests hypotheses to explain why something happened
 Designed to show cause and
effect relationships
 Difficult to conduct true experiments
in business settings
 Can use quasi-experimental research for reasonably accurate
conclusions
8. Business Research Process
• Phase 1 (Analysis) is crucial because:
 It involves qualitative exploratory research
 Requires careful separation of symptoms from actual problems
 If done incorrectly, can lead to identifying wrong problems and solutions
 Often rushed or skipped, though this is inefficient and ineffective
G. Academic Business Research Process
•
 Learning Outcomes

Students should be able to:

1) Handle challenges in questionnaire design
2) Identify when survey research is appropriate
3) Select appropriate survey question formats
4) Execute the full questionnaire process (design, pilot testing, and
administration)
 1. WHY RESEARCH MUST HAVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS (4)
a. Provides Direction and Purpose
• Acts as a compass for your research
• eg: + How does social media usage affect sleep patterns among
teenagers?
=> a researcher might get lost in the broad topic of social media and
teenagers“
b. Determines Methodology
• Helps choose appropriate research methods
• eg: + What percentage of students prefer online learning
=> the need for quantitative research
+ How do students experience online learning?
=> suggests qualitative methods
c. Ensures Focus and Boundaries
• Prevents scope creep and keeps research manageable
• Eg: + What factors influence employee turnover in tech startups founded after
2020?
=> is more focused than just studying employee turnover
d. Facilitates Evaluation
• Makes it easier to determine if research goals were met
• Eg: How effective is mindfulness meditation in reducing workplace stress?
A clear question
 provides measurable outcomes
 2. HOW TO CREATE RESEARCH ǪUESTIONS
a. Start Broad, Then Narrow Down Process:
Broad topic: Climate change
Narrower focus: Urban heat islands
Specific question: How do urban heat islands affect elderly populations in
Phoenix, Arizona?
b. Use the SMART Criteria
Specific: Clear about what you're studying
Measurable: Can be investigated systematically
Achievable: Feasible within your resources
Relevant: Meaningful to your field
Time-bound: Can be completed in available time
Eg: What is the impact of a 12-week mindfulness program on high school students' test
anxiety levels?
c. Choose the Right Type of Question Descriptive:
• What are the current recycling patterns in urban apartments?
Comparative:
• How do remote workers' productivity levels compare to office-based
workers? Relationship-based:
• What is the relationship between exercise frequency and depression
symptoms in college students?
d. Consider Your Resources and Access:
• Poor question: How do all Fortune 500 CEOs make decisions? (too broad,
limited access)
• Better question: How do mid-level managers in three local tech companies
approach decision-making?
e. Ensure Ethical Considerations:
• Problematic: How do children react to prolonged isolation?
• Better: What are the observed effects of social distancing measures on
children's social development during the school year?
f. Make it Answerable:
• Too vague: Why are people unhappy?
• Better: What factors contribute to job satisfaction among remote workers in
the technology sector?
g. Link to Existing Research:
• Building on Smith's (2020) findings about online learning, how do interactive
elements in virtual classrooms affect student engagement in high school
science courses?
 3. Questionnaire design
Questionnaire effectiveness depends heavily on its design and purpose - you
must clearly define your research objectives before beginning.
Survey fatigue is a major concern - respondents may either abandon long
questionnaires or rush through them carelessly.
Important design considerations include:
1) Format and layout - should be easy to read and not off-putting
2) Length - needs to be manageable
3) Balance of open vs. closed questions
4) Appropriate question types (e.g., Likert scales,
multiple choice, written answers)
5) Space allocation for responses
6) Verification methods like check questions
 Practical considerations include:
 Collection method (post, fax, email, or online)
 Response rates (30% minimum is typically needed)
 Cost factors (printing, design, postage)
 Follow-up communication strategy
 Storage of completed surveys
 Use of pilot surveys for testing
 Data collection decisions:
 How much biographical data to collect
 When to use incentives
 Methods to ensure anonymity
 Ways to prevent question misinterpretation
 Format choices (horizontal vs. vertical layouts)
 4. Types of question formats

• Types of Closed Questions

• Types of Open Questions
 Types of Closed Ǫuestions

1) List/select answer questions

2) Category/multiple choice questions
3) Ranking questions
4) Rating scales (several types including Likert
scales and semantic differential scales)
5) Quantity questions
6) Grid/matrix questions
7) Dichotomous choices (Yes/No, True/False)
8) Match pairs
 Types of Open Ǫuestions

1) Open list with free answers

2) Open essay
3) Personal opinion questions
4) Personal behavior questions
5) Vignette or scenario questions
 Notes
 Consider the type and level of data you need to collect
 For age/income questions, decide between open-ended or closed ranges
 When using ranges, typically use 5-7 categories
 Leave the last range open (e.g., "xx or older") unless you know the
absolute highest value
 Don't collect unnecessary information that won't be used
 Be careful with filter questions as they can cause errors and non-
response
 Clarity is crucial in question wording
 Consider how the data will be analyzed when designing questions
 Personal questions may get more honest answers if ranges are used instead
of specific numbers
 4. Ǫuestionnaire design and administration
a. Questionnaires aren't just for self-completion - they're also used for
structured and semi-structured interviews, both face-to-face and over telephone.
b. Key pitfalls to avoid include:
1) Using questions that aren't relevant to research focus
2) Including vague terms (like "often" or "usually") that can be
interpreted differently
3) Using leading or double-barreled questions
4) Poor spelling and grammar that affects credibility
5) Using technical jargon respondents may not
understand
c. Scale design considerations:
 Four intervals often work better than five to avoid central tendency bias
 Response scales should match the question type (e.g., adverbial
responses for certain questions)
 Include "Not Applicable" options when appropriate
d. Web-based vs. traditional questionnaires:
 Online tools like SurveyMonkey and Qualtrics offer convenience and
efficiency
 Professional institutions should use professional tools rather than free
versions
 Online tools have limitations and can make poor survey design too
accessible
 Choice between web and print surveys should consider target
population's access and preferences
e. Process recommendations:
 Pilot test the questionnaire, including
pre-pilotif possible
 Keep records of questionnaire changes and reasoning
 Ensure proper authority before distributing
 Make layout and response instructions clear
 Consider whether all respondents can actually answer the questions
f. Mixed-method approach:
1. Some groups respond better to physical print copies when
administered together
2. Consider offering both online and physical
questionnaires when appropriate
3. Context and population characteristics should drive
format choice
 RESEARCH METHODS IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS

1. Key Issues in Qualitative Data Analysis

• Nature of Qualitative Research:

 Different from quantitative studies but equally rigorous
 Governed by clear rules and methodologies
 Particularly useful for exploring issues that can't be easily quantified
 Increasingly accepted in social
science and business research
 Key Differences from
Quantitative
Research (per
Bryman & Bell,
2011)
• Uses words rather than
numbers
• Focuses on participants'
viewpoints vs researcher's
perspective
• Researcher maintains closer
involvement with subjects
• Emphasizes process over
static measurement
• Aims for contextual
understanding rather than
broad generalization
• Collects rich, deep data in
natural settings
 2. Qualitative Research Methods applicable to different research
questions

• Common Qualitative Methods

 Interviews (structured to unstructured)
 Focus groups
 Life history research
 Participant diaries
 Structured observation
 Case studies
 Appreciative Inquiry
 Action Research

• Involves researcher as active participant

• Developed by Kurt Lewin
• Uses 3-step cycle: planning, action, reflection
• Particularly useful during organizational change
• Focuses on continuous improvement
 An Action research on Students struggle to engage in literature
discussions
• Planning: A high school teacher notices that students struggle to engage in
literature discussions. She plans to implement small group discussions with
specific roles (discussion leader, note-taker, etc.) to increase participation.
• Action: The teacher implements the planned change over six weeks. She
assigns students rotating roles in groups of 4-5, provides structured discussion
guides, and observes their interactions.
• Reflection: After implementation, she analyzes the results by reviewing
student participation data, written feedback, and her observation notes. She
finds that while most groups showed improved engagement, some students
still struggled with certain roles. This reflection leads to a new planning phase
where she considers modifications like additional role scaffolding.
 Case Study Research

• Investigates a single subject (N=1)

• Uses multiple data collection methods
• Studies at micro level (person, organization, or institution)
• Combines various techniques (documents,
interviews, surveys)
• Referenced in Walsham (2006) and Yin's work
 Eg: Case Study: Starbucks' Digital Transformation
(2009-2015)
Challenge: Starbucks was facing declining sales during the 2008 recession and
needed to adapt to changing consumer behavior. Customers wanted faster
service and more personalized experiences.
Action Taken:
• Launched the Starbucks Mobile App and Mobile Order & Pay system
• Introduced the Starbucks Rewards loyalty program
• Integrated digital payments with their point-of-sale systems
• Created personalized offers based on customer purchase history
Results:
• Mobile payments grew to account for over 20% of all US transactions
• Loyalty program membership increased to over 10 million members
• Average customer spend increased by 20% among rewards members
• Store traffic improved significantly during peak hours due to mobile
ordering
Key Lessons:
• Digital transformation needs to directly address customer pain points (in
this case, long lines and impersonal service)
• Integration between digital and physical experiences is crucial
for success
• Customer data can be leveraged to create more personalized experiences
and drive sales
• Investment in mobile technology can lead to operational efficiency and
improved customer satisfaction
 Appreciative Inquiry (AI):

• Focuses on what works rather than problems

• Four-step methodology:
 Discover what works well
 Dream of potential processes
 Design focused solutions
 Deploy improvements
 Ethnographic Research:

• Derived from anthropological studies

• Involves sustained observation of groups
• Raises ethical considerations
• Researcher presence may affect behavior
• Less intensive version called participant
observation
 3. Approaches to
Ǫualitative
analysis
• Key Analysis Methods:
 Analytic induction: Systematic
analysis to build categories
from data
 Cognitive mapping: Visual
representation of mental
models and relationships
 Grounded theory: Builds theory
from data through iterative
analysis
 Template analysis: Creates
hierarchical categories as
analysis framework
 Discourse analysis: Studies
language use and meaning
construction
Specialized Approaches:
• Feminist research:
Examines reality through
gender perspective
• Historiography: Studies
historical methods and
epistemological positions
• Phenomenology: Focuses on
socially constructed meanings
• Phenomenography: Studies
different views of same
phenomenon
• Narrative analysis:
Preserves complete stories
without fragmentation
Methodological Overlap:
• Different methods may share
similar
techniques
• Example: Grounded theory
and
phenomenography both use
detailed transcript
analysis
• Both aim to identify categories
and themes
• Both use inductive approach
(theory
building)
Research Rigor:
• All methods require rigorous
examination of data
• Must be transparent in
methodology
• Different researchers may find
different interpretations
• Results may not be exactly
reproducible
• Findings open to debate and
challenge
Researcher's Role:
• Must clearly explain research
paradigm and philosophy
• Should acknowledge how
personal views may filter
findings
• Need to document
methodology transparently
• Important to show how
conclusions were
reached
 4. Qualitative data analysis operations and preparation
Key Operations in Analysis:
 Transcription of interviews and discussions
 Development of themes and
categories (both deductive and inductive)
 Unitizing and coding meaningful data
 Constant comparative analysis for
category saturation
 Understanding language variations and roles
 Creating researcher summaries and contextual notes
 Transcription Process:

• Time-consuming (4-8 hours typing per 1 hour of interview)

• Should be double-spaced for coding notes
• Must include context sheets for non-verbal
elements
• Requires rules for handling repetitions and
confidentiality
• Can be outsourced but personal transcription has benefits
• Should be validated against original recordings
 Recording Equipment Considerations:

• Digital recorders preferred (longer sessions, MP3 compatibility)

• Equipment should be non-intimidating to
interviewees
• Need reliable power supply and clear microphone
• Consider using backup recording devices
• Avoid voice-activated equipment
• Set recording levels appropriately
 Modern Technological Solutions:

• Automatic transcription software available (e.g., Dragon 13)

• Computer programs can assist with accuracy
• Digital formats allow easier playback and analysis
• Still requires attention to legal and ethical
considerations
 Ethical and Quality Considerations:

• Must obtain consent for recording and

transcription
• Consider respondent validation of transcripts
• Maintain confidentiality in handling names
• Researcher must verify transcript accuracy
• Important to document contextual details
• Need to follow legal and ethical guidelines
 5. Computer Aided Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS)
General CAQDAS Characteristics:
• Increasingly available for qualitative research
• Similar to voice recognition software in complexity
• May not significantly reduce analysis time
• Not necessarily straightforward to use Key
Functions:
• Organizes qualitative data systematically
• Provides instant access to entered data
• Enables searching for specific words/phrases
• Can classify, sort, and arrange prose
• Capable of producing quantitative data from qualitative sources
• Helps identify trends and themes
NVivo as an Example:
• Popular CAQDAS program
• Analyzes large amounts of prose-based information
• Helps researchers organize and analyze text
• Supports interpretation and conclusion construction
• Can be integrated with other software (Word, Excel, SPSS)
Data Analysis Capabilities:
• Can generate frequency data for events and words
• Primarily focused on qualitative analysis
• Handles various data types like transcripts and narratives
• Helps extract meaningful patterns from data
Practical Considerations:
• Demo versions available for testing
• Can be accessed through supplier website (www.qsrinternational.com)
• Important to evaluate software before full implementation
• Integration capabilities with other platforms should be considered
5. How to write qualitative research questions
 Examples
1. Education Study
• Research Question: "How do students feel about online learning during the
pandemic?"
• Method: In-depth interviews with 15 university students
• Data Collection: Recording student experiences, emotions, and challenges
• Findings Example: "Students reported feeling isolated but appreciated the
flexibility of online classes"
2. Customer Experience Study
• Research Question: “What affects customers’ choice in certain coffee shops?"
• Method: Observation and focus group discussions
• Data Collection: Taking notes on customer behavior and recording
conversations
• FindingsExample: "Customers value the friendly staff and comfortable
atmosphere more than quick service"