A REPORT BY “THE ANONYMOUS”

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND ASTROPHYSICS | UNIVERSITY OF DELHI 110007

 “THE ANONYMOUS”

presents

FILTERS

Group Members:

 Aashri Bansal
 Jatinder Pal Singh
 Swati Goyal
 Kritika Sharma
 Manish Kumar
 Manjeet
 CONTENTS

 Introduction
 Passive Filters
 Low Pass Filter 1st and 2nd Order
 High Pass Filter 1st and 2nd Order
 Phase Variation in Passive Filters
 Active Filters
 Low Pass Filter 1st-4th Order
 Comparison between orders of Low Pass Filter
 High Pass Filter 1st-4th Order
 Comparison between orders of High Pass Filter
 Band Pass Filter and its Phase Variation
 Band Reject Filter and its Phase Variation
 All Pass Filter
 LC Filter
 LC Low Pass Filter
 LC High Pass Filter
 Application of LC Filter: Impedance Matching
 State Variable Filter
 High Pass Filter
 Band Pass Filter
 Low Pass Filter
 Types of classical Analog Filters
Butterworth Filter
Chebyshev Filter
Bessel Filter
Square wave comparison of Butterworth and Bessel Filter
 Notch Filter
 LC Band Reject Filter
 Circuit Simulation using LTspice
 Acknowledgement:

A Project is like a bridge between theory and practical work. In the

accomplishment of our project ‘FILTERS’, we, “THE ANONYMOUS”
group members would like to thank all the people who have been
concerned with this project. We would like to express our special
thanks of gratitude to our teachers (Prof. Amitabha Mukherjee, Prof. K
Sreenivas, Prof. Vinay Gupta, Prof. Nivedita Deo) who have helped us to
put into great ideas, well above the level of simplicity and into
something concrete. Every time when we reached them, with our
difficulties they welcomed them, which helped us in completing this
project successfully.

We would like to thank Prof. S.A Hashmi, our theory teacher, who was
always there with his support and those wonderful insights whenever
eagerly needed.

We would also like to thank our lab assistants for their generous
attitude and friendly behavior.

Last but not least, we would thank each other as fellow lab-mates, for
the stimulating discussions for the completion of the project within
limited time and for the fun we had.

THANKS AGAIN TO ALL WHO HELPED US!!

Introduction:

A filter is a circuit that passes certain frequencies and attenuates or rejects all other
frequencies. This property is called Selectivity. Thus, a filter can extract important
frequencies from signal that also contain undesirable or irrelevant frequencies.

In the field of electronics, there are many practical applications for filters, such as :

 Radio Communications

 DC power supplies

 Audio Electronics

 Analog-to-digital conversion

 Computer Graphics

 Image Processing

and many more........

Four Major Types Of Filters:

The four primary types of filters are: low pass filter, high pass filter, band-pass filter,
band- reject filter (notch filter).
Passive and Active Filters:
Passive filters include only passive components- resistors, capacitors and inductors. In
contrast, active filters use active components, such as op-amps, transistors in addition to
resistors and capacitors, but not inductors.
Passive filters are most responsive to a frequency range from roughly 100Hz to 300MHz.
The limitation on the lower end is Result of the fact that at low frequencies the
inductance or capacitance would have to be quite large. The upper frequency limit is due
to the effect of parasitic capacitances and inductances. Careful design practices can
extend the use of passive circuits well into the gigahertz range.
Active filters are capable of dealing with very low frequencies (approaching 0Hz), and
they can provide voltage gain (passive filters cannot).
Active filters can be used to design high-order filters without the use of inductors; this is
important because inductors are problematic in the context of integrated circuit
manufacturing techniques. However, active filters are less suitable for very high
frequency applications because of amplifier bandwidth limitations. Radio-frequency
circuits must often utilize passive filters.
Some Important terms:
Response curves are used to describe how a filter behaves which simply a graph showing
an attenuation ratio versus frequency. Attenuation is commonly expressed in units of
decibels(dB).
 -3dB Frequency: corresponds to the input frequency that cause the output signal to
drop by -3dB relative to the input signal. The -3dB frequency is also called as cutoff
frequency and it is frequency at which the output power is reduced by one half or
at which the output voltage is the input voltage multiplied by 2 -1/2. For low pass and
high pass filters, there is only one -3dB frequency. However, there are two -3dB
frequencies for band pass and notch filters .
 Centre frequency (f0) : is a central frequency that lies between the upper and lower
cutoff frequencies.
 Bandwidth : The bandwidth is the width of passband and the passband is the band
of frequencies that do not experience significant attenuation when moving from
input of the filter to the output of the filter.

Passive filters :
Low Pass Filters :
A low pass filter allows signals with lower frequencies to pass input to output while
rejecting high frequencies. it passes frequencies dc to fc (cutoff frequency) and
significantly attenuates all other frequencies.
The passband of the ideal low pass filter is :
The most basic low pass filter is simple RC circuit , consisting of just one resistor and one
capacitor ; the output is taken across the capacitor.

The basic RC filter has a single pole ( a term used with filters to describe the numbers of
RC circuits contained in the filter) and it roll-off at -20dB/decade beyond the cut-off
frequency . This roll-off rate is not a particularly good filter characteristic because too
much of the unwanted frequencies are allowed through the filter.
The critical frequency (cutoff) of a low pass RC filter occurs when X C = R, where

𝑓=
1st Order :

Circuit Diagram :
Observations :
FREQUENCY(in V(INPUT)(volts V(OUTPUT)(volts) GAIN GAIN(in
Hz) ) Decibels)
30.9 6.8 1.44 0.211765 -13.48292841
40.8 6.88 1.92 0.27907 -11.08574419
50 6.96 2.32 0.333333 -9.542425094
60.2 6.96 2.54 0.364943 -8.75551046
70.4 6.96 2.88 0.413793 -7.664335037
80.4 6.96 3.2 0.45977 -6.749185226
90 6.96 3.44 0.494253 -6.121015941
100.1 6.96 3.68 0.528736 -5.535228419
120.2 6.96 4.16 0.597701 -4.47031818
131.1 7.04 4.4 0.625 -4.082399653
140.2 7.04 4.56 0.647727 -3.77215633
150.8 7.04 4.72 0.670455 -3.47261321
156 7.04 4.72 0.670455 -3.47261321
161 7.04 4.8 0.681818 -3.326628435
170.7 7.04 4.88 0.693182 -3.183056743
180.6 7.04 5.04 0.715909 -2.902842454
190.7 7.04 5.2 0.738636 -2.63138631
200.7 7.04 5.28 0.75 -2.498774732
211.7 7.04 5.36 0.761364 -2.368157389
220.3 7.04 5.52 0.784091 -2.112671628
234 7.04 5.52 0.784091 -2.112671628
252.9 7.04 5.68 0.806818 -1.864486469
300 7.04 5.92 0.840909 -1.505019048
320.5 7.04 6 0.852273 -1.388428175
340.7 7.04 6.08 0.863636 -1.273381597
362 7.04 6.16 0.875 -1.15983894
381 7.04 6.4 0.909091 -0.827853703
400 7.04 6.4 0.909091 -0.827853703
450 7.04 6.56 0.931818 -0.613376395
500 7.04 6.56 0.931818 -0.613376395
 600 7.04 6.72 0.954545 -0.404067722
700 7.04 6.72 0.954545 -0.404067722
800 7.04 6.8 0.965909 -0.301274929
900 7.04 6.88 0.977273 -0.199684418
1000 7.04 6.88 0.977273 -0.199684418
1250 7.04 6.88 0.977273 -0.199684418
1500 7.04 6.88 0.977273 -0.199684418
2000 6.96 6.88 0.988506 -0.100416028
2500 6.96 6.88 0.988506 -0.100416028
3000 6.96 6.96 1 0
3500 6.96 6.96 1 0
4000 6.96 6.96 1 0
5000 6.96 6.96 1 0
6000 6.96 6.96 1 0
7000 6.96 6.96 1 0
8000 6.96 6.96 1 0
9000 6.96 6.96 1 0
10000 6.96 6.96 1 0

Graphs:
RESULT:
R = 1.4 kΩ,C = 0.01 µF,

Calculated Fc = = 11373.98 Hz

Experimentally Fc=8230.31 Hz
2nd order :
For 2nd order , we use two passive first order low pass filters connected in cascaded
manner. If a number (n) of such RC stages are cascaded together, the Resulting RC filter
circuit would be known as an “nth-order” filter with a roll-off slope of “n×-20dB/decade”.
This means that , as the order of the filter is increased , the roll-off slope becomes
stepper.
Hence, a second order filter would have a slope -40dB/decade.

Circuit Diagram :
 Observation table :-

FREQUENCY(in V(INPUT)(vo V(OUTP GAIN GAIN(in

Hz) lts) UT)(volt Decibels)
s)
30.9 6.8 1.08 0.158824 -15.98170314
40.8 6.88 1.04 0.151163 -16.41110198
50.4 6.96 1.28 0.183908 -14.7079854
60.2 7.04 1.44 0.204545 -13.78420334
70.4 7.04 1.6 0.227273 -12.86905353
80.8 7.04 1.76 0.25 -12.04119983
90.6 7.04 2.08 0.295455 -10.59018648
101 7.04 2.24 0.318182 -9.946492816
110 7.04 2.48 0.352273 -9.062419566
120 7.04 2.72 0.386364 -8.260075102
130 7.04 2.88 0.409091 -7.763603428
140 7.04 3.04 0.431818 -7.293981511
150 7.04 3.12 0.443182 -7.068361302
160 7.04 3.28 0.465909 -6.633976309
170 7.04 3.36 0.477273 -6.424667635
180 7.04 3.52 0.5 -6.020599913
190 7.04 3.68 0.522727 -5.634496809
200 7.04 3.84 0.545455 -5.264828695
210 7.04 4 0.568182 -4.910253356
220 7.04 4 0.568182 -4.910253356
 230 7.04 4.16 0.590909 -4.56958657
240 7.04 4.24 0.602273 -4.404136051
250 7.04 4.32 0.613636 -4.241778247
260 7.04 4.48 0.636364 -3.925892903
270 7.04 4.48 0.636364 -3.925892903
280 7.04 4.6 0.653409 -3.696296549
290 7.04 4.64 0.659091 -3.621093572
300 7.04 4.8 0.681818 -3.326628435
320 7.04 4.96 0.704545 -3.041819653
340 7.04 5.04 0.715909 -2.902842454
360 7.04 5.12 0.727273 -2.766053963
380 7.04 5.28 0.75 -2.498774732
400 7.04 5.36 0.761364 -2.368157389
450 7.04 5.6 0.795455 -1.987692643
500 7.04 5.76 0.818182 -1.743003514
600 7.04 6 0.852273 -1.388428175
700 7.04 6.16 0.875 -1.15983894
800 7.04 6.32 0.897727 -0.937111617
900 7.04 6.48 0.920455 -0.719953065
1000 7.04 6.56 0.931818 -0.613376395
1250 7.04 6.72 0.954545 -0.404067722
1500 7.04 6.72 0.954545 -0.404067722
2000 7.04 6.88 0.977273 -0.199684418
2500 7.04 6.88 0.977273 -0.199684418
3000 7.04 6.88 0.977273 -0.199684418
3500 7.04 6.88 0.977273 -0.199684418
4000 6.96 6.96 1 0
5000 6.96 6.96 1 0
6000 6.96 6.96 1 0
7000 6.96 6.96 1 0
8000 6.96 6.96 1 0
9000 6.96 6.96 1 0
10000 6.96 6.96 1 0
Graphs :
RESULT:
R1=R2=R= 20 kΩ,
C1=C2=C = 0.01 µF,

Calculated Fc = = 795.77 Hz
√

Experimentally Fc=501.69 Hz

Phase variation in low pass filter:

For low pass filter, the transfer function has a phase shift ,φ ,given by

φ(ω)=tan-1(ω/ω0)

where:

ω=frequency (radians per second)

ω0=center frequency (radians per second)

Frequency in radians per second is equal to 2π times frequency in

Hz(f).Center frequency can also be referred as the cutoff frequency .

And it is same for all kind of order.

OBSERVATIONS:

Frequency(Hz) Phase (in degrees)

203 -12.27
303 -17.66
422 -19.26
510 -21.92
631 -26.55
693 -34.76
806 -36.84
930 -39.14
1080 -40.84
1150 -42.27
1240 -43.06
1300 -47.15
1405 -48.46
1586 -49.02
1726 -51.09
1863 -55.26
2006 -60.84
2518 -64.02
3060 -65.47
 3645 -74.63
5461 -76.66

CALCULATIONS:

Having R=10kΩ C=0.01µF

We get , FC=1591.55 Hz (Theoretical)

FC=1286.15 Hz (Experimental)

GRAPHS:
High Pass Filters :
A High pass filter is the exact opposite to the low pass filter circuit as the two components
have been interchanged with the filters output signal now being taken from across the
resistor.
In these filters, only passes signals above the selected cut-off point ,fc eliminating any low
frequency signals from the waveform. This is because, at low frequency reactance of
capacitor will be high and do not allow signal to pass through it while at low frequency ,
reactance will be low and act like an short circuit which allow all signals to pass through it.
1st Order :
Circuit Diagram :

Observation Table :
FREQUENCY(in Hz) V(INPUT)(volts V(OUTPUT)(volts) GAIN GAIN(in
) Decibels)
30.9 6.8 1.44 0.211765 -13.48292841
40.8 6.88 1.92 0.27907 -11.08574419
50 6.96 2.32 0.333333 -9.542425094
60.2 6.96 2.54 0.364943 -8.75551046
70.4 6.96 2.88 0.413793 -7.664335037
80.4 6.96 3.2 0.45977 -6.749185226
90 6.96 3.44 0.494253 -6.121015941
100.1 6.96 3.68 0.528736 -5.535228419
120.2 6.96 4.16 0.597701 -4.47031818
131.1 7.04 4.4 0.625 -4.082399653
140.2 7.04 4.56 0.647727 -3.77215633
150.8 7.04 4.72 0.670455 -3.47261321
156 7.04 4.72 0.670455 -3.47261321
161 7.04 4.8 0.681818 -3.326628435
170.7 7.04 4.88 0.693182 -3.183056743
180.6 7.04 5.04 0.715909 -2.902842454
190.7 7.04 5.2 0.738636 -2.63138631
200.7 7.04 5.28 0.75 -2.498774732
211.7 7.04 5.36 0.761364 -2.368157389
220.3 7.04 5.52 0.784091 -2.112671628
234 7.04 5.52 0.784091 -2.112671628
252.9 7.04 5.68 0.806818 -1.864486469
300 7.04 5.92 0.840909 -1.505019048
320.5 7.04 6 0.852273 -1.388428175
340.7 7.04 6.08 0.863636 -1.273381597
362 7.04 6.16 0.875 -1.15983894
381 7.04 6.4 0.909091 -0.827853703
400 7.04 6.4 0.909091 -0.827853703
450 7.04 6.56 0.931818 -0.613376395
500 7.04 6.56 0.931818 -0.613376395
600 7.04 6.72 0.954545 -0.404067722
700 7.04 6.72 0.954545 -0.404067722
800 7.04 6.8 0.965909 -0.301274929
900 7.04 6.88 0.977273 -0.199684418
1000 7.04 6.88 0.977273 -0.199684418
1250 7.04 6.88 0.977273 -0.199684418
1500 7.04 6.88 0.977273 -0.199684418
2000 6.96 6.88 0.988506 -0.100416028
2500 6.96 6.88 0.988506 -0.100416028
3000 6.96 6.96 1 0
3500 6.96 6.96 1 0
4000 6.96 6.96 1 0
5000 6.96 6.96 1 0
6000 6.96 6.96 1 0
7000 6.96 6.96 1 0
 8000 6.96 6.96 1 0
9000 6.96 6.96 1 0
10000 6.96 6.96 1 0
Graphs :
 RESULT:
R = 10 kΩ,C = 0.1 µF,

Calculated Fc = = 159.15 Hz

Experimentally Fc=179.84 Hz

2nd Order :
Circuit Diagram :

Observation Table :

FREQUENCY(in V(INPUT)(vo V(OUTPUT) GAIN GAIN(in

Hz) lts) (volts) Decibels)
30.9 6.8 1.08 0.158824 -15.98170314
40.8 6.88 1.04 0.151163 -16.41110198
50.4 6.96 1.28 0.183908 -14.7079854
60.2 7.04 1.44 0.204545 -13.78420334
70.4 7.04 1.6 0.227273 -12.86905353
80.8 7.04 1.76 0.25 -12.04119983
90.6 7.04 2.08 0.295455 -10.59018648
101 7.04 2.24 0.318182 -9.946492816
110 7.04 2.48 0.352273 -9.062419566
 120 7.04 2.72 0.386364 -8.260075102
130 7.04 2.88 0.409091 -7.763603428
140 7.04 3.04 0.431818 -7.293981511
150 7.04 3.12 0.443182 -7.068361302
160 7.04 3.28 0.465909 -6.633976309
170 7.04 3.36 0.477273 -6.424667635
180 7.04 3.52 0.5 -6.020599913
190 7.04 3.68 0.522727 -5.634496809
200 7.04 3.84 0.545455 -5.264828695
210 7.04 4 0.568182 -4.910253356
220 7.04 4 0.568182 -4.910253356
230 7.04 4.16 0.590909 -4.56958657
240 7.04 4.24 0.602273 -4.404136051
250 7.04 4.32 0.613636 -4.241778247
260 7.04 4.48 0.636364 -3.925892903
270 7.04 4.48 0.636364 -3.925892903
280 7.04 4.6 0.653409 -3.696296549
290 7.04 4.64 0.659091 -3.621093572
300 7.04 4.8 0.681818 -3.326628435
320 7.04 4.96 0.704545 -3.041819653
340 7.04 5.04 0.715909 -2.902842454
360 7.04 5.12 0.727273 -2.766053963
380 7.04 5.28 0.75 -2.498774732
400 7.04 5.36 0.761364 -2.368157389
450 7.04 5.6 0.795455 -1.987692643
500 7.04 5.76 0.818182 -1.743003514
600 7.04 6 0.852273 -1.388428175
700 7.04 6.16 0.875 -1.15983894
800 7.04 6.32 0.897727 -0.937111617
900 7.04 6.48 0.920455 -0.719953065
1000 7.04 6.56 0.931818 -0.613376395
1250 7.04 6.72 0.954545 -0.404067722
1500 7.04 6.72 0.954545 -0.404067722
2000 7.04 6.88 0.977273 -0.199684418
2500 7.04 6.88 0.977273 -0.199684418
3000 7.04 6.88 0.977273 -0.199684418
 3500 7.04 6.88 0.977273 -0.199684418
4000 6.96 6.96 1 0
5000 6.96 6.96 1 0
6000 6.96 6.96 1 0
7000 6.96 6.96 1 0
8000 6.96 6.96 1 0
9000 6.96 6.96 1 0
10000 6.96 6.96 1 0

Graphs :
RESULT:
R1=R2=R=5 kΩ,
C1=C2=0.1 µF,

Calculated Fc = = 318.3 Hz

Experimentally Fc=348.89 Hz

Phase variation for high pass filter:

The phase response of a high pass filter is given by:

φ(ω)= π/2—tan-1(ω/ω0)

where:

ω=frequency (radians per second)

ω0=center frequency (radians per second)

Frequency in radians per second is equal to 2π times frequency in Hz(f).Center

frequency can also be referred as the cutoff frequency .

OBSERVATIONS:

FREQUENCY(IN PHASE(IN
HZ) DEGREES)
108 98.18
200 79.8
330 76.45
44 72.36
540 65.96
690 61.51
840 55.1
922 52.29
1010 49.21
1100 48.38
1200 45.25
1300 42.1
 1400 40.41
1520 38.14
1620 35.15
1800 33.47
2000 30.47
2500 26.51
3000 22.55

CALCULATIONS:

Using R=10kΩ C=0.01µF

We get, FC=1591.55 Hz (Theoretical)

FC=1214.72 Hz (Experimental)
GRAPHS:
Why we need active filters over passive filters?
The disadvantage of passive filters is that the amplitude of the output signal is less
than that of the input signal, i.e. the gain is never greater than unity and with
passive filter circuits containing multiple stages, the loss in signal amplitude called
“Attenuation” can become quiet severe. One way of controlling this loss of signal
is by using amplification through the use of Active Filters.

Active Filters:

As the name suggests it contain active components such as operational amplifiers,

transistors or FET’s within their circuit design. They draw their power from an
external power source and use it to amplify the output signal.

An active filter generally uses an operational amplifier because Op-amp has high
input impedance, low output impedance and a voltage gain determined by the
resistor network within its feedback loop. Its high input impedance prevents
excessive loading on the filters output while its low output impedance prevents the
filters cut-off frequency point from being affected by changes in the impedance of
the load.

ACTIVE LOW PASS FILTER

Active low pass filters are made up of Op-Amp. The input to the Op-Amp is high
impedance signals, which produces a low impedance signal as output. The pass
band begins from 0 Hz for a low pass filter and continues at -3dB to the designated
cut-off point. Signals are attenuated beyond the cut off frequency. Active low pass
filters are grouped according to the order of the filter.

For a filter that has an nth number order, it will have a subsequent roll-off rate of
20n dB/decade or 6n dB/octave. So a first-order filter has a roll-off rate of
20dB/decade (6dB/octave), a second-order filter has a roll-off rate of 40dB/decade
(12dB/octave), and a fourth-order filter has a roll-off rate of 80dB/decade
(24dB/octave), etc.
 Fig. Active low pass filter
Response curves for low pass filter
1st order Active Low Pass Filter
First order active filter is formed by a single op-amp with RC circuit. A simple RC
Passive Filter connected to the non-inverting terminal of an operational amplifier.
It’s principle of operation and frequency response is exactly the same as those for
passive filter.

Fig : First Order Active low pass filter circuit

The critical frequency is given as

f C=

OBSERVATIONS:
FREQUENCY V(INPUT) V(OUTPUT) GAIN GAIN(in dB)
5 2 3.98 1.992049 5.986
50 2 3.98 1.992049 5.986
100 2 3.98 1.992188 5.986604
 200 2 3.91 1.953125 5.814601
300 2 3.83 1.914062 5.639122
400 2 3.75 1.875 5.460025
500 2 3.67 1.835937 5.277158
600 2 3.52 1.757812 4.899451
700 2 3.44 1.71875 4.704254
800 2 3.39 1.693548 4.575952
900 2 3.33 1.666667 4.436975
1000 2 3.12 1.5625 3.876401
1100 2 3.05 1.523437 3.656493
1200 2 2.89 1.445312 3.199235
1300 2 2.89 1.445312 3.199235
1400 2 2.73 1.367188 2.716562
1500 2 2.66 1.328125 2.464779
1600 2 2.50 1.25 1.9382
1700 2 2.42 1.210937 1.662435
1800 2 2.42 1.210937 1.662435
1900 2 2.27 1.132813 1.083161
2000 2 2.27 1.132813 1.083161
2100 2 2.19 1.09375 0.778361
2200 2 2.11 1.054688 0.462476
2300 2 2.03 1.015625 0.134668
2400 2 1.95 0.976562 -0.206
2500 2 1.95 0.976562 -0.206
3000 2 1.56 0.78125 -2.1442
4000 2 0.968 0.484127 -6.30081
5000 2 0.758 0.379032 -8.42648
6000 2 0.629 0.314516 -10.0471
7000 2 0.571 0.285714 -10.8814
8000 2 0.500 0.25 -12.0412
9000 2 0.429 0.214286 -13.3801
10000 2 0.365 0.18254 -14.7729
25000 2 0.230 0.114815 -18.8
50000 2 0.157 0.078524 -22.1
Plots:
RESULT:

R3=10kΩ ,C1=0.01µF

Calculated cutoff frequency:

f C= =15911.5 Hz

Expiremental value=1288.2 Hz

Second-order Low Pass Active Filter:

A first-order low-pass active filter can be converted into a second-order low pass
filter simply by using an additional RC network in the input path. The frequency
response of the second-order low pass filter is identical to that of the first-order
type except that the stop band roll-off will be twice the first-order filters at
40dB/decade (12dB/octave).

Second-order Active Low Pass Filter Circuit

The gain of the above circuit is Av = 1 + (R2/R1)
The cut-off frequency of second order low pass filter is

f C=
√
OBERVATIONS

FREQUENCY(Hz) V(INPUT) V(OUTPUT) GAIN GAIN(in dB)

100 2 8 4 12.0412
200 2 8 4 12.0412
300 2 8 4 12.0412
400 2 8 4 12.0412
500 2 7.8 3.9 11.82129
600 2 7.8 3.9 11.82129
700 2 7.8 3.9 11.82129
800 2 7.8 3.9 11.82129
900 2 7.8 3.9 11.82129
1000 2 7.8 3.9 11.82129
1100 2 7.8 3.9 11.82129
1200 2 7.6 3.8 11.59567
1300 2 7.4 3.7 11.36403
1400 2 7 3.5 10.88136
1500 2 6.6 3.3 10.37028
1600 2 6.2 3.1 9.827234
1700 2 5.8 2.9 9.24796
1800 2 5 2.5 7.9588
1900 2 4.6 2.3 7.234557
2000 2 4 2 6.0206
2100 2 3.6 1.8 5.10545
2200 2 3.2 1.6 4.0824
2300 2 2.8 1.4 2.922561
2400 2 2.6 1.3 2.278867
2500 2 2.4 1.2 1.583625
2600 2 2.2 1.1 0.827854
2700 2 2 1 0
2800 2 1.8 0.9 -0.91515
2900 2 1.6 0.8 -1.9382
3000 2 1.6 0.8 -1.9382
3100 2 1.4 0.7 -3.09804
 3200 2 1.4 0.7 -3.09804
3300 2 1.2 0.6 -4.43697
3400 2 1.2 0.6 -4.43697
3500 2 1.2 0.6 -4.43697
3600 2 1 0.5 -6.0206
3700 2 1 0.5 -6.0206
3800 2 1 0.5 -6.0206
4000 2 1 0.5 -6.0206
4200 2 0.8 0.4 -7.9588
4500 2 0.8 0.4 -7.9588
5000 2 0.8 0.4 -7.9588
6000 2 0.8 0.4 -7.9588
7000 2 0.6 0.3 -10.4576
8000 2 0.6 0.3 -10.4576
9000 2 0.6 0.3 -10.4576
10000 2 0.6 0.3 -10.4576
20000 2 0.6 0.3 -10.4576

Plots:
RESULT:

R3=10kΩ ,R4=10kΩ ,C1=0.01µF ,C2=0.01µF

Calculated cutoff frequency=1591.55 Hz

Expiremental value=1479.1 Hz

Third and fourth order active low pass filter:

By cascading together first and second-order filters, filters with an order value,
either odd or even up to any value can be constructed.
The critical frequency is defined as:

f C=

OBSERVATIONS:

FREQUENCY(Hz) V(INPUT) V(OUTPUT) GAIN GAIN(in

dB)
50 2 16.00 8 18.0618
100 2 16.00 8 18.0618
200 2.02 16.16 8 18.0618
300 2.02 16.16 8 18.0618
400 2.02 15.56 7.701883 17.73194
500 2.02 15.56 7.701883 17.73194
600 2.02 15.56 7.701883 17.73194
700 2.02 15.56 7.701883 17.73194
800 2.02 15.56 7.701883 17.73194
900 2.04 15.71 7.701883 17.73194
1000 2.04 15.71 7.701883 17.73194
1100 2.04 15.11 7.407564 17.39351
1200 2.04 14.52 7.117092 17.04605
1300 2.04 13.36 6.5479 16.32204
1400 2.04 12.23 5.994748 15.55542
1500 2.04 11.13 5.458113 14.74085
 1600 2.04 10.07 4.938522 13.87194
1700 2.04 8.06 3.952847 11.9382
1800 2.04 7.12 3.488123 10.85184
1900 2.04 5.77 2.828427 9.0309
2000 2.04 4.93 2.414953 7.658175
2100 2.04 4.13 2.023858 6.123599
2200 2.04 3.38 1.656502 4.383841
2300 2.04 3.02 1.482228 3.418301
2400 2.04 2.68 1.314534 2.375437
2500 2.04 2.35 1.15369 1.241781
2600 2.04 2.04 1 0
2700 2.04 1.74 0.853815 -1.37272
2800 2.04 1.46 0.715542 -2.9073
2900 2.04 1.46 0.715542 -2.9073
3000 2.04 1.19 0.585662 -4.64706
3100 2.04 1.19 0.585662 -4.64706
3200 2.04 0.948 0.464758 -6.65546
3300 2.04 0.948 0.464758 -6.65546
3400 2.04 0.948 0.464758 -6.65546
3500 2.04 0.721 0.353553 -9.0309
3600 2.04 0.721 0.353553 -9.0309
3700 2.04 0.721 0.353553 -9.0309
3800 2.04 0.721 0.353553 -9.0309
4000 2.04 0.516 0.252982 -11.9382
4200 2.04 0.516 0.252982 -11.9382
4500 2.04 0.516 0.252982 -11.9382
5000 2.04 0.516 0.252982 -11.9382
6000 2.04 0.335 0.164317 -15.6864
7000 2.04 0.335 0.164317 -15.6864
8000 2.04 0.335 0.164317 -15.6864
9000 2.04 0.335 0.164317 -15.6864
10000 2.04 0.335 0.164317 -15.6864
Plots:

RESULT:
With R =10kΩ , C=0.01µF
Calculated value of critical frequency :1591.55 Hz

Expiremental value:1348.9 Hz
FOURTH ORDER LOW PASS FILTER:
Two second-order low pass filters can be cascaded together to produce a fourth-
order low pass filter, and so on. Although there is no limit to the order of the filter
that can be formed, as the order increases so does its size and cost, also its accuracy
declines.

Fourth order low pass filter

The critical frequency is defined as:

f C=
OBSERVATIONS:

FREQUENCY(Hz) V(INPUT) V(OUTPUT) GAIN GAIN(in

dB)
50 1.6 12.55 7.84305 17.8897
100 1.6 12.55 7.84305 17.8897
200 1.6 12.24 7.647051 17.66988
300 1.6 12.55 7.84305 17.8897
400 1.6 12.71 7.941179 17.9977
500 1.6 12.71 7.941179 17.9977
600 1.6 12.55 7.84305 17.8897
 700 1.6 12.71 7.941179 17.9977
800 1.6 12.71 7.941179 17.9977
900 1.6 12.71 7.941179 17.9977
1000 1.6 12.71 7.941179 17.9977
1100 1.6 12.71 7.941176 17.9977
1200 1.6 12.55 7.843137 17.8898
1300 1.6 11.45 7.156863 17.09445
1400 1.6 10.04 6.27451 15.9516
1500 1.6 8.16 5.098039 14.14806
1600 1.6 5.96 3.72549 11.42367
1700 1.6 5.33 3.333333 10.45757
1800 1.6 4.24 2.647059 8.455272
1900 1.6 3.26 2.039216 6.189263
2000 1.6 2.64 1.647059 4.334182
2100 1.6 2.20 1.372549 2.750557
2200 1.6 1.82 1.137255 1.117156
2300 1.6 1.51 0.941176 -0.52658
2400 1.6 1.32 0.823529 -1.68642
2500 1.6 1.13 0.705882 -3.02535
2600 1.6 1.00 0.627451 -4.0484
2700 1.6 0.816 0.509804 -5.85194
2800 1.6 0.753 0.470588 -6.54718
2900 1.6 0.690 0.431373 -7.30295
3000 1.6 0.565 0.352941 -9.04595
3100 1.6 0.502 0.313725 -10.069
3200 1.6 0.439 0.27451 -11.2288
3300 1.6 0.439 0.27451 -11.2288
3400 1.6 0.439 0.27451 -11.2288
3500 1.6 0.314 0.196078 -14.1514
6000 1.6 0.094 0.058824 -24.609
7000 1.6 0.094 0.058824 -24.609
10000 1.6 0.047 0.029309 -30.66
20000 1.6 0.021 0.012927 -37.77
30000 1.6 0.011 0.006816 -43.33
PLOTS:

RESULT:
With R =10kΩ , C=0.01µF

Calculated cutoff frequency=1591.55 Hz

Expiremental value=1318.3 Hz

Comparison curve for all order of low pass filter

With Slope of 1st order curve is -15.63db/decade

Slope of 2nd order curve is -44.14db/decade

Slope of 3rd order curve is -66.21db/decade

Slope of 4th order curve is -75.94db/decade

ACTIVE HIGH PASS FILTERS:
A high-pass filter is one that significantly attenuates or rejects all frequencies below
and passes all frequencies above The critical frequency is, again, the frequency at
which the output is 70.7% of the input. Ideally, the pass band of a high-pass filter is
all frequencies above the critical frequency. The high-frequency response of
practical circuits is limited by the op-amp or other components that make up the
filter.

The slope of high pass filter curve is +20 d B/ decade .i.e. after passing cutoff
frequency level the output response of the circuit increases from 0 to Vin at a rate
of +20 dB per decade.

Active high pass filters

FIRST ORDER ACTIVE HIGH PASS FILTER
First order high pass filter, consists simply of a passive filter followed by a non-
inverting amplifier. The frequency response of the circuit is the same as that of the
passive filter, except that the amplitude of the signal is increased by the gain of the
amplifier.

Fig : first order high pass filter

The critical frequency is defined as:

At this cut off frequency point we get -3dB gain and at this point reactance of the
capacitor and resistor values will be same .

And the corresponding response is

OBSERVATIONS

FREQUENCY V(INPUT) V(OUTPUT) GAIN GAIN(in dB)

30 2 0.14 0.073621 -22.66
50 2 0.23 0.116681 -18.66
100 2 0.31 0.157036 -16.08
200 2 0.52 0.26 -11.700533
300 2 0.76 0.378 -8.450164
400 1.96 0.96 0.489796 -6.1996968
500 1.96 1.16 0.591837 -4.5559616
600 1.96 1.38 0.704082 -3.0475397
700 1.96 1.52 0.77551 -2.2082497
800 1.96 1.68 0.857143 -1.3389358
900 1.96 1.84 0.938776 -0.548765
1000 1.96 1.98 1.010204 0.0881824
1100 1.96 2.1 1.071429 0.5992645
1200 1.96 2.2 1.122449 1.0033322
1300 1.96 2.32 1.183673 1.4646383
1400 1.96 2.4 1.22449 1.7591034
1500 1.96 2.52 1.285714 2.1828894
1600 1.96 2.6 1.326531 2.4543455
1700 1.96 2.68 1.367347 2.7175745
1800 1.96 2.76 1.408163 2.9730602
1900 1.96 2.8 1.428571 3.0980392
 2000 1.96 2.88 1.469388 3.3427283
2100 1.96 2.92 1.489796 3.4625356
2200 1.96 2.92 1.489796 3.4625356
2300 1.96 3 1.530612 3.6973037
2400 1.96 3.04 1.55102 3.8123502
2500 1.96 3.08 1.571429 3.9258929
2600 1.96 3.08 1.571429 3.9258929
2700 1.96 3.16 1.612245 4.1486202
2800 1.96 3.16 1.612245 4.1486202
2900 1.96 3.2 1.632653 4.2578781
3000 1.96 3.24 1.653061 4.3657788
3500 1.96 3.28 1.673469 4.4723554
4000 1.92 3.36 1.75 4.860761
4500 1.92 3.44 1.791667 5.0651443
5000 1.92 3.48 1.8125 5.1655603
5500 1.92 3.52 1.833333 5.2648287
6000 1.92 3.52 1.833333 5.2648287
6500 1.92 3.6 1.875 5.4600254
7000 1.92 3.6 1.875 5.4600254
8000 1.92 3.6 1.875 5.4600254
9000 1.92 3.64 1.895833 5.5560031
10000 1.92 3.68 1.916667 5.6509318
12000 1.96 3.68 1.877551 5.4718349
14000 2 3.76 1.88 5.483157
16000 2 3.76 1.88 5.483157
18000 2 3.84 1.92 5.6660246
20000 2 3.84 1.92 5.6660246
25000 2.08 3.92 1.884615 5.5044546
30000 2.08 4 1.923077 5.6799331
40000 2.08 3.99 1.919995 5.666
50000 2.08 4.00 1.92287 5.679
70000 2.08 3.99 1.919995 5.666
PLOTS:
Calculations:

With R3 =10kΩ , C1=0.01µF

Theoretical value of critical frequency:1591.55 Hz

Expiremental value of critical frequency:1698.2 Hz

Second Order Active High Pass Filter:

In second order high pass filter, an additional block of an RC network is added to
the first order high pass filter at the input path.

The frequency response of second order high pass filter is similar to the first order
high pass filter. But in second order high pass filter stop band will be twice that of
first order filter at 40dB/Decade.

Fig: second order high pass filter

The cutoff frequency of second order High Pass Active filter can be given as

f C=
√

OBSERVATIONS
FREQUENCY V(INPUT) V(OUTPUT) GAIN GAIN(in dB)
50 1.96 0.072 0.036855 -28.67
100 1.96 0.118 0.059979 -24.44
200 1.96 0.196 0.1 -20
300 1.96 0.324 0.165306 -15.6342
400 1.96 0.464 0.236735 -12.5148
500 1.96 0.656 0.334694 -9.50704
600 1.96 0.872 0.444898 -7.03479
700 1.96 1.2 0.612245 -4.2615
800 1.96 1.46 0.744898 -2.55806
900 1.96 1.82 0.928571 -0.64369
1000 1.96 2.16 1.102041 0.843954
1100 1.96 2.56 1.306122 2.319678
1200 1.96 2.92 1.489796 3.462536
1300 1.96 3.2 1.632653 4.257878
1400 1.96 3.4 1.734694 4.784457
1500 1.96 3.6 1.836735 5.280929
1600 1.96 3.72 1.897959 5.565737
1700 1.96 3.8 1.938776 5.750551
1800 1.96 3.88 1.979592 5.931513
1900 1.96 3.92 2 6.0206
2000 1.96 3.92 2 6.0206
2500 1.96 3.92 2 6.0206
3000 1.96 3.92 2 6.0206
3500 1.96 3.92 2 6.0206
4000 1.96 3.92 2 6.0206
5000 1.96 3.92 2 6.0206
6000 1.96 3.92 2 6.0206
8000 1.96 3.92 2 6.0206
 10000 1.96 3.92 2 6.0206
25000 1.96 3.92 2 6.0206
40000 1.96 3.92 2 6.0206
60000 1.96 3.92 2 6.0206

PLOTS:
CALCULATIONS:

R3=10kΩ ,R4=10kΩ ,C1=0.01µF ,C2=0.01µF

Calculated cutoff frequency=1591.55 Hz

Expiremental value=1302.2 Hz

Third Order Active High Pass Filter

Third order filter is formed by cascading 1st and 2nd order high pass filters.
The overall gain of the filter is the product of gain of first order and gain of second
order filter.
The critical frequency is given by
Fc=
OBSERVATIONS:

FREQUENCY V(INPUT) V(OUTPUT) GAIN GAIN(in dB)

50 1.78 0.041 0.023281 -32.66
100 1.78 0.065 0.036433 -28.77
200 1.78 0.093 0.052119 -25.66
300 1.78 0.154 0.086517 -21.258
400 1.78 0.210 0.117978 -18.564
500 1.78 0.272 0.152809 -16.317
600 1.78 0.376 0.211236 -13.5046
700 1.78 0.504 0.283146 -10.9598
800 1.78 0.720 0.404494 -7.86175
900 1.78 1.01 0.567416 -4.92197
1000 1.78 1.44 0.808989 -1.84115
1100 1.78 1.86 1.044944 0.381859
1200 1.78 2.34 1.314607 2.375917
1300 1.78 2.74 1.539326 3.746611
1400 1.78 3.16 1.775281 4.985342
1500 1.78 3.48 1.955056 5.823185
1600 1.78 3.72 2.089888 6.402459
1700 1.78 3.92 2.202247 6.857321
1800 1.78 4.08 2.292135 7.204803
1900 1.78 4.24 2.382022 7.538917
2000 1.78 4.32 2.426966 7.701275
2100 1.78 4.44 2.494382 7.939259
2200 1.78 4.48 2.516854 8.01716
2300 1.78 4.52 2.539326 8.094369
2400 1.78 4.8 2.696629 8.616425
2500 1.78 4.88 2.741573 8.759996
2600 1.78 4.88 2.741573 8.759996
2700 1.78 4.96 2.786517 8.901233
2800 1.78 5.04 2.831461 9.040211
2900 1.78 5.04 2.831461 9.040211
3000 1.78 5.12 2.876404 9.176999
3200 1.78 5.2 2.921348 9.311667
3500 1.78 5.36 3.011236 9.574896
 3700 1.78 5.44 3.05618 9.703578
4000 1.78 5.52 3.101124 9.830382
4500 1.8 5.68 3.155556 9.981517
5000 1.8 5.77 3.207525 10.1234
5500 1.8 5.68 3.155556 9.981517
6000 1.8 5.68 3.155556 9.981517
6500 1.8 5.68 3.155556 9.981517
7000 1.8 5.68 3.155556 9.981517
7500 1.8 5.77 3.207525 10.1234
8000 1.8 5.68 3.155556 9.981517
8500 1.8 5.77 3.207525 10.1234
9000 1.8 5.68 3.155556 9.981517
10000 1.8 5.68 3.155556 9.981517
15000 1.8 5.68 3.155556 9.981517
20000 1.84 5.81 3.155556 9.981517
25000 1.88 5.93 3.155556 9.981517
35000 1.88 5.93 3.155556 9.981517
50000 1.88 5.93 3.155556 9.981517
60000 1.88 5.93 3.155556 9.981517
70000 1.88 5.93 3.155556 9.981517

Plots:
CALCULATIONS:

With R=10kΩ ,C=0.01µF

Calculated cutoff frequency=1591.55 Hz

Expiremental value=1698.2 Hz

Fourth Order High Pass Filter

It is composed by cascading two 2nd order filters in series.Tthe overall gain of the
filter is the product of the both high pass filters.
The critical frequency is given by
Fc=1/2𝜋RC
OBSERVATIONS

FREQUENCY V(INPUT) V(OUTPUT) GAIN GAIN(in dB)

50 1.84 0.005 0.002649 -51.54
100 1.84 0.010 0.005164 -45.74
200 1.84 0.020 0.010814 -39.32
300 1.84 0.036 0.019357 -34.2631
400 1.84 0.067 0.036597 -28.731
500 1.84 0.129 0.07034 -23.0559
600 1.84 0.429 0.232911 -12.6562
700 1.84 0.501 0.272212 -11.3019
800 1.84 0.890 0.483932 -6.30431
900 1.84 1.68 0.914934 -0.77221
1000 1.84 3.13 1.701323 4.615737
1100 1.84 5.29 2.875236 9.173471
1200 1.84 7.20 3.913516 11.85134
1300 1.84 9.59 5.210302 14.33726
 1400 1.84 11.70 6.359168 16.06801
1500 1.84 13.37 7.266541 17.22655
1600 1.84 15.61 8.485822 18.57388
1700 1.84 16.56 9 19.08485
1800 1.8 17.92 9.957531 19.96303
1900 1.78 18.64 10.47141 20.4001
2000 1.78 19.16 10.7643 20.63971
2100 1.78 19.16 10.7643 20.63971
2200 1.78 19.69 11.06123 20.87607
2300 1.78 19.69 11.06123 20.87607
2400 1.78 19.69 11.06123 20.87607
2500 1.78 19.69 11.06123 20.87607
5000 1.78 19.69 11.06122 20.87606
10000 1.78 19.69 11.06122 20.87606
25000 1.78 19.69 11.06122 20.87606
50000 1.78 19.69 11.06122 20.87606

PLOTS:
CALCULATIONS:

With R=10kΩ ,C=0.01µF

Calculated cutoff frequency=1591.55 Hz

Expiremental value=1584.9 Hz
COMPARISON CURVE FOR ALL ORDER OF HIGH PASS FILTER

With slope of first order filter is 16.07db/decade

Slope of 2nd order filter is 35.90db/decade

Slope of 3rd order filter is 60.86db/decade

Slope of 4th order filter is 87.29db/decade

BAND PASS FILTERS:

A band pass filter has a passband which refers to the actual portion of affected
spectrum between two cutoff frequencies fH and fL such that fH>fL. Any input
frequency outside this passband is attenuated.

Basically, there are two types of band-pass filters:

1) WIDE BAND PASS

2) NARROW BAND PASS

How to Create Band-pass Filter?

There are applications where a particular band, or spread, or frequencies need
to be filtered from a wider range of mixed signals. Filter circuits can be designed
to accomplish this task by combining the properties of low-pass and high-pass
into a single filter. The Result is called a band-pass filter. Creating a bandpass
filter from a low-pass and high-pass filter can be illustrated using block
diagrams:

System level block diagram of a band-pass filter

  The cutoff frequencies are defined as those signal frequencies at which the
gain falls to 3dB below the maximum gain in passband.

 BANDWIDTH:
The bandwidth is the width of the passband and the passband is the band of
frequencies that do not experience significant attenuation when moving from
input of the filter to the output of the filter.

Bandwidth= fH –fL

 QUALITY FACTOR:
Q-factor is a measure of selectivity in passing the centre frequency and rejecting
the other frequencies.Q-factor is the relationship of the central frequency fC to
the bandwidth. A filter is wide band pass if its quality factor Q<10.On the other
hand,if Q>10,the filter is a narrow band pass filter.

Q=

Where center frequency fC is defined as fc=√(fHfL)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF BAND PASS FILTER

OBSERVATIONS:

FREQUENCY(IN V(INPUT)(V) V(OUTPUT)(V) GAIN GAIN(IN dB)

Hz)
500 3.08 0.54 0.175324675 -15.12313913
600 3.08 0.6 0.194805195 -14.20798932
 700 3.08 0.686 0.222727273 -13.04453202
800 3.08 0.752 0.244155844 -12.24665752
900 3.08 0.842 0.273376623 -11.2647725
1000 3.04 0.92 0.302631579 -10.38171513
1100 3.04 1.02 0.335526316 -9.485468237
1200 3.04 1.1 0.361842105 -8.829617969
1300 3.04 1.16 0.381578947 -8.368311888
1400 3.04 1.24 0.407894737 -7.789037969
1500 3.04 1.3 0.427631579 -7.378604626
1600 3.04 1.36 0.447368421 -6.986693505
1700 3 1.42 0.473333333 -6.496658207
1800 3 1.46 0.486666667 -6.255367979
1900 3 1.54 0.513333333 -5.792010678
2000 3 1.58 0.526666667 -5.569283355
2100 3 1.66 0.553333333 -5.140263334
2200 3 1.7 0.566666667 -4.933446667
2300 3 1.74 0.58 -4.731440129
2400 3 1.78 0.593333333 -4.534025048
2500 2.98 1.82 0.610738255 -4.282897522
2600 2.96 1.86 0.628378378 -4.035575337
2700 2.96 1.92 0.648648649 -3.759809647
2800 3 1.96 0.653333333 -3.697303667
2900 3 2 0.666666667 -3.521825181
3000 3 2.04 0.68 -3.349821746
3200 3 2.1 0.7 -3.0980392
3500 3 2.18 0.726666667 -2.773295222
3700 3 2.24 0.746666667 -2.537464728
4000 3.04 2.44 0.802631579 -1.909675145
4500 3.08 2.52 0.818181818 -1.743003514
5000 3.08 2.6 0.844155844 -1.471547371
5500 3.08 2.68 0.87012987 -1.208318449
6000 3.08 2.68 0.87012987 -1.208318449
6500 3.08 2.68 0.87012987 -1.208318449
7000 3.08 2.68 0.87012987 -1.208318449
8000 3.08 2.68 0.87012987 -1.208318449
9000 3.08 2.68 0.87012987 -1.208318449
10000 3.08 2.6 0.844155844 -1.471547371
11000 3.08 2.56 0.831168831 -1.606215024
12000 3.12 2.48 0.794871795 -1.994058264
13000 3.12 2.44 0.782051282 -2.135295354
14000 3.12 2.36 0.756410256 -2.424851821
15000 3.12 2.32 0.743589744 -2.573332183
16000 3.12 2.24 0.717948718 -2.878131514
17000 3.12 2.14 0.685897436 -3.274816413
18000 3.14 2.08 0.662420382 -3.577326262
19000 3.16 2 0.632911392 -3.973141739
20000 3.16 1.94 0.613924051 -4.237707054
22500 3.16 1.84 0.582278481 -4.697385192
25000 3.16 1.72 0.544303797 -5.283172714
27500 3.16 1.64 0.518987342 -5.696864691
30000 3.16 1.52 0.481012658 -6.356869893
35000 3.16 1.4 0.443037975 -7.071180939
40000 3.16 1.28 0.405063291 -7.849542259
45000 3.16 1.16 0.367088608 -8.704581868
50000 3.16 1.08 0.341772152 -9.325266543
55000 3.16 1 0.316455696 -9.993741652
60000 3.16 0.92 0.291139241 -10.71798511
70000 3.16 0.84 0.265822785 -11.50815593
80000 3.16 0.76 0.240506329 -12.37746981
PLOTS:
RESULT:

THEORTICAL VALUE:

R1=10kΩ,R2=1kΩ,C1=0.01µF,C2=0.01µF

FL = =15911.5Hz

FH= =15915.5Hz

Experimentally,

FL=2528.59 Hz

FH=19883.6 Hz

Phase variation for band pass filter:

Band pass filter is a combination of low pass and high pass in series.As for low
pass filter phase goes from -90ₒ to 0ₒ and for high pass filter phase goes from 0ₒ to
+90ₒ.So overall phase goes from -90ₒ to +90ₒ.
OBSERVATIONS:

Frequency(Hz) Phase angle(in

degrees)
100 79.36
200 69.86
300 60.07
400 53.23
500 51.43
600 46.15
700 43.97
800 35.36
900 32.24
1000 31.41
1100 28.37
1200 26.36
1300 24.11
1400 23.81
1500 21.66
1600 19.57
1700 17.54
1800 15.57
2000 13.22
2500 10.38
3000 7.85
3500 4.29
4000 1.87
4500 -1.978
5000 -2.18375
6000 -4.261
7000 -8.074
8000 -12.91
9000 -16.42
 10000 -17.95
12000 -23.16
14000 -25.43
16000 -28.77
18000 -31.78
20000 -36.74
22000 -38.8
25000 -39.71
30000 -49.96
35000 -53.37
40000 -56.54
50000 -63.49
60000 -68.31
70000 -72.79
80000 -79.82

CALCULATIONS:

Using R1=10kΩ R2=2kΩ

C1=0.01µF C2=0.01µF

We get , FC= 3183.1 Hz (Theoretical)

FC=4784 Hz (Experimental)
GRAPHS:
BAND REJECT FILTERS:
The band reject filter also called a band-stop or band-elimination filter. In this
filter, frequencies are attenuated in the stopband while they are passed outside
this band. Basically, there are two types of band-reject filters:

1) WIDE BAND REJECT

2) NARROW BAND REJECT

The narrow band reject filter is uncommonly called the notch filter because of its
higher Q>10,the bandwidth of the narrow band reject filter is much smaller than
of the wide reject filter.

WHY THE NAME BAND REJECT OR NOTCH FILTER?

 As its function is to pass all those frequencies from zero to its first cutoff
frequency point fL and pass all those frequencies above its second upper
cutoff frequency fH,but reject or eliminate all those frequencies in between.
 If this stopband is very narrow and highly attenuated over a few hertz,then
the band stop filter is more commonly referred to as a notch filter,as its
frequency response shows that of a deep notch with high selectivity( a
steep-side curve) rather than a flattened wider band.
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF BAND REJECT FILTER

OBSERVATIONS:

FREQUENCY(IN V(INPUT)(V) V(OUTPUT)(V) GAIN GAIN(IN dB)

HZ)
200 3.08 1.56 0.506493506 -5.908522363
300 3.08 1.52 0.493506494 -6.134142571
400 3.12 1.48 0.474358974 -6.477857572
500 3.12 1.38 0.442307692 -7.085510152
600 3.12 1.32 0.423076923 -7.471613256
700 3.12 1.3 0.416666667 -7.604224834
800 3.12 1.26 0.403846154 -7.875680978
900 3.12 1.2 0.384615385 -8.299466959
1000 3.12 1.16 0.371794872 -8.593932096
1100 3.12 1.02 0.326923077 -9.711088445
1200 3.12 0.94 0.301282051 -10.42053481
1300 3.12 0.86 0.275641026 -11.19312286
1400 3.12 0.72 0.230769231 -12.73644195
1500 3.12 0.66 0.211538462 -13.49221317
1600 3.08 0.56 0.181818182 -14.80725379
1700 3.08 0.44 0.142857143 -16.9019608
1900 3.08 0.26 0.084415584 -21.47154737
2000 3.08 0.2 0.064935065 -23.75041442
2100 3.08 0.18 0.058441558 -24.66556423
 2200 3.08 0.22 0.071428571 -22.92256071
2300 3.08 0.27 0.087662338 -21.14373905
2400 3.08 0.34 0.11038961 -19.14143599
2500 3.08 0.464 0.150649351 -16.44065472
2700 3.08 0.528 0.171428571 -15.31833588
3000 3.04 1.2 0.394736842 -8.073846751
3200 3.04 1.2 0.394736842 -8.073846751
3500 3.04 1.4 0.460526316 -6.734910959
4000 3.04 1.6 0.526315789 -5.575072019
4500 3.04 1.6 0.526315789 -5.575072019
5000 3.04 1.6 0.526315789 -5.575072019

PLOTS:
RESULT:

THEORTICAL VALUE:

R1=10kΩ,R2=5kΩ,C1=0.01µF,C2=0.01µF

FL = =15911.5Hz

FH= =3183.09 Hz

Experimentally,

FL=995.56 Hz

FH=2979.7 Hz
Phase variation for LC band reject filter:

LC BAND REJECT FILTER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

As it is combination of low pass and high pass filter in parallel configuration, so

the phase variation will go from -90◦ to +90◦ with a sharp peak in band reject
region.
OBSERVATIONS:

FREQUENCY(IN PHASE (IN

HZ) DEGREES)
200 -10.21
300 -15.51
500 -19.21
700 -24.37
900 -33.42
1100 -40.25
1300 -43.56
1500 -48.38
1700 -52.16
1900 -56.52
2500 115.5
3000 174.4
4000 97.27
4400 85.3
5000 60.92
5500 55.94
6000 50.83
6500 52.51

CALCULATIONS:

L=180mH C=0.01µF

FC=3782 Hz (Theoretical)

FC=2098.07 Hz (Experimental)
GRAPHS:
ALL PASS FILTERS:
An all pass filter passes all frequency components of the input signal without
attenuation ,while providing predictable phase shifts for different frequencies of
the input signal. When signals are transmitted over transmission lines, such as
telephone wires ,they undergo change in phase. To compensate for these phase
changes , all pass filters are required.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND INPUT-OUTPUT WAVEFORM

FOCUSSING ON PHASE :

The all pass filter has the unusual characteristics of providing equal magnitude
response for all frequencies. That is what we call an all pass filter,also call it a no
stop filter.This filter is a phase manipulator. We can selectively adjust the phase of
the signals passing through the filter without altering the amplitude.
OBSERVATIONS:

FREQUENCY(IN V(INPUT)(V) V(OUTPUT)(V) GAIN GAIN(IN dB)

HZ)
100 6 5.8 0.966666667 -0.294465136
200 6 5.8 0.966666667 -0.294465136
300 6 5.8 0.966666667 -0.294465136
400 6 5.8 0.966666667 -0.294465136
500 6 5.8 0.966666667 -0.294465136
700 6 5.8 0.966666667 -0.294465136
1000 6 5.8 0.966666667 -0.294465136
1500 6 5.8 0.966666667 -0.294465136
2000 6 5.8 0.966666667 -0.294465136
2500 6 5.8 0.966666667 -0.294465136
3000 6 5.8 0.966666667 -0.294465136
4000 6 5.8 0.966666667 -0.294465136
5000 6 5.8 0.966666667 -0.294465136
 6000 6 5.8 0.966666667 -0.294465136
7000 6 5.8 0.966666667 -0.294465136
8000 6 5.8 0.966666667 -0.294465136
9000 6 5.8 0.966666667 -0.294465136
10000 6 5.8 0.966666667 -0.294465136

PLOTS:
RESULT:
All frequencies are passed equally as shown in plot.
What is an LC Filter?
An LC filter combines inductors (L) and capacitors (C) to form low-pass, high-pass,
multiplexer, band-pass, or band-reject filtering in radio frequency (RF) and many
other applications. Passive electronic LC filters block, or reduce, noise (EMI) from
circuits and systems, and separate, or condition, desired signals.

L-C LOW PASS FILTER:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR LC LOW PASS FILTER

OBSERVATIONS:

FREQUENCY(I V(INPUT)(V V(OUTPUT)(V GAIN GAIN(IN dB)

N HZ) ) )
300 1.74 1.76 1.011494253 0.099268391
400 1.74 1.76 1.011494253 0.099268391
500 1.74 1.76 1.011494253 0.099268391
600 1.74 1.76 1.011494253 0.099268391
700 1.74 1.84 1.057471264 0.485371495
 800 1.74 1.84 1.057471264 0.485371495
900 1.74 1.84 1.057471264 0.485371495
1000 1.74 1.84 1.057471264 0.485371495
1100 1.74 1.92 1.103448276 0.855039608
1200 1.74 2 1.149425287 1.209614948
1300 1.74 2.04 1.172413793 1.381618383
1400 1.74 2.08 1.195402299 1.550281734
1500 1.74 2.16 1.24137931 1.878090057
1600 1.74 2.2 1.264367816 2.037468651
1700 1.74 2.4 1.379310345 2.793239869
1800 1.74 2.4 1.379310345 2.793239869
1900 1.74 2.48 1.425287356 3.078048651
2000 1.74 2.56 1.471264368 3.353814341
2100 1.74 2.72 1.563218391 3.880393115
2200 1.74 2.88 1.655172414 4.37686479
2300 1.74 3.04 1.747126437 4.846486707
2400 1.74 3.32 1.908045977 5.611776708
2500 1.74 3.56 2.045977011 6.218014994
2600 1.74 3.92 2.252873563 7.054736375
2700 1.74 4.32 2.482758621 7.898689971
2800 1.74 5.2 2.988505747 9.509081907
2900 1.7 7.4 4.352941176 12.77565597
3000 1.58 14.4 9.113924051 19.1941081
3200 1.54 15 9.74025974 19.77141076
3400 1.66 9.8 5.903614458 15.42235975
3600 1.7 6 3.529411765 10.95404658
3800 1.72 4.8 2.790697674 8.914255809
4000 1.72 2.6 1.511627907 3.588898021
4500 1.72 1.8 1.046511628 0.394881164
5000 1.74 1.4 0.804597701 -1.888424252
7000 1.74 1 0.574712644 -4.810984966
8000 1.74 0.8 0.459770115 -6.749185226
9000 1.74 0.6 0.344827586 -9.247959958
10000 1.74 0.6 0.344827586 -9.247959958
11000 1.74 0.6 0.344827586 -9.247959958
12000 1.74 0.6 0.344827586 -9.247959958
 13000 1.74 0.6 0.344827586 -9.247959958
14000 1.74 0.6 0.344827586 -9.247959958
15000 1.74 0.6 0.344827586 -9.247959958

PLOTS:
RESULT:
THEORTICAL VALUE:

L=180mH,C=0.01 µF

Fc= =3782 Hz
√

EXPERIMENTAL VALUE=3200 Hz

L-C HIGH PASS FILTER:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR LC HIGH PASS FILTER

OBSERVATIONS:

FREQUENCY(IN V(INPUT)(V) V(OUTPUT)(V) GAIN GAIN(IN dB)

HZ)
500 1.76 0.2 0.113636364 -18.88965344
 700 1.76 0.24 0.136363636 -17.30602852
900 1.76 0.29 0.164772727 -15.6622934
1000 1.76 0.232 0.131818182 -17.60049366
1250 1.76 0.388 0.220454545 -13.13361884
1500 1.76 0.488 0.277272727 -11.14185692
2000 1.76 0.92 0.522727273 -5.634496809
2500 1.76 1.76 1 0
3000 1.76 4.24 2.409090909 7.637063776
3500 1.76 15.8 8.977272727 19.06288838
4000 1.76 8.2 4.659090909 13.36602369
4500 1.76 4.8 2.727272727 8.714571391
5000 1.76 3.8 2.159090909 6.685418576
6000 1.76 3 1.704545455 4.632171738
6500 1.76 2.6 1.477272727 3.389213603
7000 1.76 2.6 1.477272727 3.389213603
7500 1.76 2.6 1.477272727 3.389213603
9000 1.76 2.4 1.363636364 2.693971478
10000 1.76 2.2 1.25 1.93820026
11000 1.76 2.2 1.25 1.93820026
12000 1.76 2.2 1.25 1.93820026
13000 1.76 2.2 1.25 1.93820026
14000 1.76 2.2 1.25 1.93820026
15000 1.76 2.2 1.25 1.93820026
16000 1.76 2.2 1.25 1.93820026
17000 1.76 2.2 1.25 1.93820026
18000 1.76 2.2 1.25 1.93820026
19000 1.76 2.2 1.25 1.93820026
20000 1.76 2.2 1.25 1.93820026
PLOTS:
RESULT:
THEORTICAL VALUE:

L=180mH,C=0.01 µF

Fc= =3782 Hz
√

EXPERIMENTAL VALUE=3500 Hz

IMPEDANCE MATCHING USING LC FILTER:

 The Figure below shows the “flat” response of the L-C low pass filter
when the source and load impedance match the filter input and output
impedances.
 The point to make in comparing the response of the unmatched filter to
the matched filter is that variable load on the filter produces a
considerable change in voltage. This property is directly applicable to L-C
filtered power supplies– the regulation is poor. The power supply voltage
changes with a change in load. This is undesirable.
 The problem is that an L-C filter has an input impedance and an output
impedance which must be matched. The voltage source impedance must
match the input impedance of the filter, and the filter output impedance
must be matched by “rload” for a flat response. The input and output
impedance is given by the square root of (L/C).

Z=
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR IMPEDANCE MATCHING

The response of impedance matched L-C low-pass filter is nearly flat up to the
cut-off frequency
OBSERVATIONS:

FREQUENCY(IN HZ) V(INPUT)(V) V(OUTPUT)(V)

20 2.76 0.96
50 2.76 0.96
100 2.76 0.96
150 2.76 0.96
200 2.76 0.96
250 2.76 0.96
300 2.76 0.96
350 2.76 0.92
400 2.76 0.84
450 2.76 0.8
500 2.76 0.72
550 2.76 0.64
600 2.76 0.6
650 2.76 0.5
700 2.76 0.48
750 2.76 0.44
800 2.76 0.36
850 2.76 0.36
900 2.76 0.32
1000 2.76 0.24
1100 2.76 0.24
1200 2.76 0.2
CALCULATIONS:

Z=

L1=L2=L=180mH
C=1uF
Rg=440Ω
×
Z= =424Ω
×
Hence Rload=424Ω
So, Rg is approximately equal to Rload.Hence we must get the same response
curve of output voltage vs frequency as given above.

GRAPHS:
STATE VARIABLE FILTER:
It is a type of multiple feedback filter circuit that can produce all three filter
response ,Low pass ,High pass and Band pass simultaneously from the same single
active filter design .It uses three(or more) operational amplifier circuits cascaded
together to produce the individual filter output.

It is second-order RC active filters consisting of two identical op-amp integrators

with each one acting as a first-order low pass filter, a summing amplifier around
which we can set the filters gain and its damping feedback network. The output
signals from all three op-amp stages are fed back to the input allowing us to
define the state of the circuit.
Response curve

Formula used

Fc(HP)= Fc(LP)= Fc(BP)=

OBSERVATIONS

(i) For High Pass :

FREQUENCY Vin(V) V(out(V) GAIN GAIN IN DB

300 2.4 0.8 0.333333333 -9.542425094
400 2.4 1.6 0.666666667 -3.521825181
500 2.4 2.4 1 0
600 2.4 3.6 1.5 3.521825181
700 2.4 6.4 2.666666667 8.519374645
800 2.4 24 10 20
900 2.4 24 10 20
1000 2.4 14.8 6.166666667 15.80100947
1100 2.4 12.2 5.083333333 14.12297178
1200 2.4 10 4.166666667 12.39577517
1300 2.4 8.4 3.5 10.88136089
1400 2.4 7.6 3.166666667 10.01204701
1500 2.4 7 2.916666667 9.297735966
 1600 2.4 6.8 2.833333333 9.04595342
1700 2.4 6.4 2.666666667 8.519374645
1800 2.4 6 2.5 7.958800173
1900 2.4 5.8 2.416666667 7.664335037
2000 2.4 5.6 2.333333333 7.359535706
2100 2.4 5.6 2.333333333 7.359535706
2200 2.4 5.4 2.25 7.043650362
2300 2.4 5.4 2.25 7.043650362
2400 2.4 5.2 2.166666667 6.715842038
2500 2.4 5.2 2.166666667 6.715842038
2600 2.4 5.2 2.166666667 6.715842038
2700 2.4 5.2 2.166666667 6.715842038
2800 2.4 5 2.083333333 6.375175252
2900 2.4 5 2.083333333 6.375175252
3000 2.4 5 2.083333333 6.375175252
3200 2.4 4.8 2 6.020599913
3500 2.4 4.8 2 6.020599913
4000 2.4 4.8 2 6.020599913
5000 2.4 4.8 2 6.020599913
6000 2.4 4.6 1.916666667 5.650931799
7000 2.4 4.6 1.916666667 5.650931799
8000 2.4 4.4 1.833333333 5.264828695
9000 2.4 4.4 1.833333333 5.264828695
10000 2.4 4.4 1.833333333 5.264828695
PLOTS:

RESULT:
R=15kΩ, R1=1kΩ, R2=20kΩ, R3=R4=10kΩ,C=0.01µF

Theoretical cut off frequency=796.17 Hz

Expiremental value=850.6 Hz
 (ii) For band pass:

OBSERVATIONS

FREQUENCY(Hz) Vin(V) V(out(V) GAIN GAIN IN DB

300 2.4 2 0.833333333 -1.583624921
400 2.4 3.2 1.333333333 2.498774732
500 2.4 4.4 1.833333333 5.264828695
600 2.4 5 2.083333333 6.375175252
700 2.4 8.4 3.5 10.88136089
800 2.4 24.8 10.33333333 20.28480878
900 2.4 20.8 8.666666667 18.75704187
1000 2.4 13.8 5.75 15.19335689
1100 2.4 9.6 4 12.04119983
1200 2.4 7.2 3 9.542425094
1300 2.4 5.6 2.333333333 7.359535706
1400 2.4 5.2 2.166666667 6.715842038
1500 2.4 4.4 1.833333333 5.264828695
1600 2.4 4 1.666666667 4.436974992
1700 2.4 3.6 1.5 3.521825181
1800 2.4 3.2 1.333333333 2.498774732
1900 2.4 3.2 1.333333333 2.498774732
2000 2.4 2.8 1.166666667 1.338935793
2200 2.4 2.6 1.083333333 0.695242125
2500 2.4 2.4 1 0
3000 2.4 2 0.833333333 -1.583624921
3500 2.4 1.6 0.666666667 -3.521825181
4000 2.4 1.6 0.666666667 -3.521825181
4500 2.4 1.2 0.5 -6.020599913
5000 2.4 1.2 0.5 -6.020599913
6000 2.4 1.2 0.5 -6.020599913
7000 2.4 1.2 0.5 -6.020599913
PLOTS:

RESULT:
R=15kΩ, R1=1kΩ, R2=20kΩ, R3=R4=10kΩ,C=0.01µF

Theoretical cut off frequency=796.17 Hz

Expiremental value=800.5 Hz
(iii) For low pass:

OBSERVATIONS

FREQUENCY(Hz) Vin(V) Vout(V) GAIN GAIN IN DB

300 1.74 3.68 2.114942529 6.505971408
400 1.74 4.16 2.390804598 7.570881647
500 1.74 4.72 2.712643678 8.667855007
600 1.74 5.52 3.172413793 10.02779659
700 1.74 7.76 4.459770115 12.98624946
800 1.7 15.6 9.176470588 19.25351354
900 1.7 17.6 10.35294118 20.30127493
950 1.7 13.2 7.764705882 17.8025002
1000 1.7 10 5.882352941 15.39102157
1100 1.72 6 3.488372093 10.85245607
1200 1.72 4.4 2.558139535 8.158484592
1300 1.72 3.6 2.093023256 6.415481077
1400 1.74 2.8 1.609195402 4.132175661
1500 1.74 2.4 1.379310345 2.793239869
1600 1.74 2 1.149425287 1.209614948
1700 1.74 2 1.149425287 1.209614948
1800 1.74 1.6 0.91954023 -0.728585313
1900 1.74 1.6 0.91954023 -0.728585313
2000 1.74 1.4 0.804597701 -1.888424252
2100 1.74 1.2 0.689655172 -3.227360045
2200 1.74 1.2 0.689655172 -3.227360045
2500 1.74 1 0.574712644 -4.810984966
3500 1.74 0.32 0.183908046 -14.7079854
4000 1.74 0.26 0.149425287 -16.51151801
PLOTS:

RESULT:
R=15kΩ, R1=1kΩ, R2=20kΩ, R3=R4=10kΩ,C=0.01µF

Theoretical cut off frequency=796.17 Hz

Expiremental value=899.5 Hz
There are 3 classic analog filter types:

Butterworth, Chebyshev and Bessel. There is no ideal filter; each filter is good in
some areas but poor in others.

• Butterworth: Flattest pass-band but a poor roll-off rate.

• Chebyshev: Some pass-band ripple but a better (steeper) roll-off rate.

• Bessel: Worst roll-off rate of all four filters but the best phase response. Filters
with a poor phase response will react poorly to a change in signal level.

Butterworth Filter:
 This filter is also called as maximally flat or flat flat filter. This class of
filters approximates the ideal filter well in the pass band. The
Butterworth filter has an essentially flat amplitude-frequency response
upto the cutoff frequency. The sharpness of the cut-off can be seen in
the figure. Although Butterworth filters achieve the sharpest
attenuation, their phase-shift as a function of frequency is non-linear.
 It has a monotonic drop in gain with frequency in the cut-off region and
a maximally flat response below cut-off frequency.The Butterworth
filter has characteristic somewhere between those of Chebyshev and
Bessel filters. It has a moderate roll-off of the skirt and a slightly
nonlinear phase responses.
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR BUTTERWORTH FILTER

FREQUENCY RESPONSE FOR BUTTERWORTH FILTER

OBSERVATIONS:

FREQUENCY(Hz) V(INPUT)(V) V(OUTPUT)(V) GAIN GAIN(in dB)

50 1.84 0.00487324 0.0026485 -51.54
100 1.84 0.009502061 0.005164164 -45.74
200 1.84 0.019898385 0.01081434 -39.32
300 1.84 0.035617391 0.019357278 -34.2631143
400 1.84 0.06733913 0.036597354 -28.73100638
500 1.84 0.129426087 0.070340265 -23.05592004
600 1.84 0.428556522 0.232911153 -12.65619429
700 1.84 0.500869565 0.27221172 -11.3018636
800 1.84 0.890434783 0.483931947 -6.304314134
900 1.84 1.683478261 0.914933837 -0.772206208
1000 1.84 3.130434783 1.701323251 4.615736748
1100 1.84 5.290434782 2.875236295 9.17347084
1200 1.84 7.200869566 3.913516068 11.85134243
1300 1.84 9.586956522 5.210302458 14.3372587
1400 1.84 11.70086957 6.359168242 16.0680063
1500 1.84 13.37043478 7.266540643 17.22655414
1600 1.84 15.61391304 8.485822307 18.57387867
1700 1.84 16.56 8.999999999 19.08485019
1800 1.8 17.92355555 9.957530864 19.96303322
1900 1.78 18.63910111 10.47140512 20.40009924
2000 1.78 19.16044946 10.76429745 20.6397138
2100 1.78 19.16044946 10.76429745 20.6397138
2200 1.78 19.68898877 11.06122965 20.87606818
2300 1.78 19.68898877 11.06122965 20.87606818
2400 1.78 19.68898877 11.06122965 20.87606818
2500 1.78 19.68898877 11.06122965 20.87606818
5000 1.78 19.68897023 11.06121923 20.87606
10000 1.78 19.68897023 11.06121923 20.87606
25000 1.78 19.68897023 11.06121923 20.87606
50000 1.78 19.68897023 11.06121923 20.87606
GRAPHS:
Chebyshev Filter:
 It is also called a equal ripple filter. It gives a sharper cut-off than
Butterworth filter in the passband. Both Butterworth and Chebyshev filters
exhibit large phase shifts near the cut-off frequency. A drawback of the
Chebyshev filter is the appearance of gain maxima and minima below the
cut-off frequency. This gain ripple, expressed in db, is an adjustable
parameter in filter design.
 The faster the roll-off, the greater the peak-to-peak ripples in the passband.
The phase response is highly non-linear in the skirt region. Such unequal
delays of data frequency in the passband causes severe pulse distortion and
thus increased errors at modern demodulators. A Chebyshev filter is used
where very sharp roll-off is required. However, this is achieved at the
expense of a gain ripple in the lower frequency passband.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR CHEBYSHEV FILTER

 FREQUENCY RESPONSE FOR CHEBYSHEV FILTER

OBSERVATIONS:

FREQUENCY(IN V(INPUT)(V) V(OUTPUT)(V) GAIN GAIN(IN DB)

HZ)
100 3.4 3.28 0.964706 -0.312101467
200 3.4 3.04 0.894118 -0.972106669
300 3.4 2.84 0.835294 -1.56321154
400 3.4 2.84 0.835294 -1.56321154
500 3.4 2.84 0.835294 -1.56321154
600 3.4 3 0.882353 -1.087153246
700 3.4 3.52 1.035294 0.301274929
800 3.4 4.2 1.235294 1.835407467
900 3.4 5.16 1.517647 3.623415692
1000 3.4 3.52 1.035294 0.301274929
1100 3.4 1.88 0.552941 -5.146421356
1200 3.4 1.16 0.341176 -9.340418556
 1300 3.4 0.76 0.223529 -13.0133065
1400 3.4 0.68 0.2 -13.97940009
1500 3.4 0.52 0.152941 -16.30951147
1600 3.4 0.44 0.129412 -17.76052481
1700 3.4 0.36 0.105882 -19.50352833
1900 3.4 0.28 0.082353 -21.68641771
2000 3.4 0.2 0.058824 -24.60897843
2400 3.4 0.16 0.047059 -26.54717869
3000 3.4 0.12 0.035294 -29.04595342

GRAPHS:
Bessel Filter:
 The Bessel filter provides ideal phase characteristics with an approximately
linear phase response upto nearly cut-off frequency. Though it has a very
linear phase response but a fairly gentle skirt slope.For applications where
the phase characteristic is important, the Bessel filter is used. It is a minimal
phase shift filter even though its cut-off characteristics are not very sharp. It
is well suited for pulse applications.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR BESSEL FILTER

OBSERVATIONS:

FREQUENCY(IN V(INPUT)(V) V(OUTPUT)(V) GAIN GAIN(IN DB)

HZ)
50 2.52 3 1.190476 1.514414279
100 2.52 3 1.190476 1.514414279
200 2.52 3 1.190476 1.514414279
500 2.52 3 1.190476 1.514414279
600 2.52 3 1.190476 1.514414279
700 2.52 3 1.190476 1.514414279
800 2.52 3 1.190476 1.514414279
900 2.52 3 1.190476 1.514414279
1200 2.52 2.8 1.111111 0.915149811
1500 2.52 2.6 1.031746 0.271456144
1550 2.52 2.4 0.952381 -0.423785981
1600 2.52 2.2 0.873016 -1.179557199
1800 2.52 2 0.793651 -2.007410902
 1900 2.52 1.8 0.714286 -2.922560714
2000 2.52 1.6 0.634921 -3.945611163
2200 2.52 1.4 0.555556 -5.105450102
2400 2.52 1.2 0.47619 -6.444385895
2500 2.52 1 0.396825 -8.028010816
3000 2.52 0.8 0.31746 -9.966211076
3600 2.52 0.6 0.238095 -12.46498581
4000 2.52 0.6 0.238095 -12.46498581
GRAPHS:
COMPARISON OF BUTTERWORTH,CHEBYSHEV AND BESSEL FILTERS:
Square wave comparsion for Bessel and butterworth filter:

Fig: Butterworth filter Fig: Bessel filter

As shown in the figure, when non-sinusoidal waveform(such as square wave)

is applied as input to the butterworth filter it Results into distortion. The
Resultant output waveform will have ringing and overshoot. This is due to the
fact that component frequencies of square wave will shift in time with respect to
each other. This is because if the phase increases linearly with frequency, it will
Result into delay in the output signal by certain constant time period.

While Bessel filter avoids this situation . This filter will introduce linear phase
shift with respect to frequency. In this waveform will not have any ringing and
overshoot. It will round off the input square wave at the places where high
frequency harmonic components are present in the input waveform.
Time-domain waveforms for both the Butterworth and the Bessel filters:
EXPERIMENTAL CURVES FOR SQUARE WAVE:

BESSEL FILTER BUTTERWORTH FILTER

BAND-STOP FILTER :
These filters reject/attenuates signals in a specific frequency band and pass
the signal above and below this band. It's just the inverse of band pass filter.

These filters mainly consist of a low pass filter, high pass filter and summing
amplifier (operational amplifier). If input frequency is lower than cutoff
frequency of high pass filter then output of high pass filter becomes zero.
Hence total output of the filter will be equal to output of low pass filter. On
the contrary, if the input frequency is higher than cutoff frequency of high pass
 filter then output of low pass filter will tend to zero and hence, the net output
will equal to output of high pass filter.

Band stop filter is second order filter having two cutoff frequencies. Band stop
filters are mainly of two kinds, based on width of stop band:

 Notch filter

 Band reject filter

Notch filters :

If stop band is very narrow and highly attenuated over a few hertz, then the
band stop filter is more commonly referred to as notch filter. Its frequency
response shows that of deep notch with high selectivity (a steep side curve). It
is designed to provide high attenuation at and near single frequency.
 Variable notch filters are used by musicians in sound equipment such as
graphic equalizers, synthesizers and electronic crossovers to deal with narrow
peaks in the acoustic response of the music. It is also used in Raman
Spectroscopy.

Experimental setup of notch filter is shown in figure:

OBSERVATIONS:

FREQUENCY(IN V(INPUT)(V) V(OUTPUT)(V) GAIN GAIN(IN Db)

HZ)
50 3.28 3.26 0.993902 0.053124873
100 3.28 3.2 0.97561 -0.214477308
200 3.28 3.08 0.939024 -0.546462544
300 3.28 2.92 0.890244 -1.009819845
400 3.28 2.76 0.841463 -1.499295233
500 3.28 2.64 0.804878 -1.885398337
600 3.28 2.48 0.756098 -2.428443258
700 3.28 2.36 0.719512 -2.859236815
800 3.28 2.2 0.670732 -3.469023258
900 3.28 2.12 0.646341 -3.790759656
1000 3.28 1.96 0.597561 -4.472355447
1100 3.28 1.8 0.54878 -5.212026772
1200 3.28 1.72 0.52439 -5.606907936
1300 3.28 1.6 0.487805 -6.235077221
1400 3.28 1.56 0.47561 -6.454984907
1500 3.28 1.4 0.426829 -7.394916161
1600 3.28 1.4 0.426829 -7.394916161
1700 3.28 1.32 0.402439 -7.90599825
1800 3.28 1.24 0.378049 -8.449043171
2000 3.28 1.08 0.329268 -9.649001764
2500 3.28 0.88 0.268293 -11.42782343
3000 3.28 0.88 0.268293 -11.42782343
3500 3.28 1 0.304878 -10.31747687
4000 3.28 1.16 0.353659 -9.02831709
4500 3.28 1.32 0.402439 -7.90599825
5000 3.28 1.48 0.45122 -6.912242566
6000 3.28 1.72 0.52439 -5.606907936
7000 3.28 1.96 0.597561 -4.472355447
8000 3.28 2.16 0.658537 -3.628401851
9000 3.28 2.28 0.695122 -3.158779934
10000 3.28 2.4 0.731707 -2.71325204
15000 3.28 3.1 0.945122 -0.490242998
Calculation:

fC = = =3185.1Hz
× . × × × . ×

fC = 2691 Hz (experimental)

GRAPHS:
LC Band reject filters:
A band stop filter design with a wide stop band is known as band reject filter.

The series combination of an L and C as shown in figure is such a filter

We will use the formula for LC resonance to calculate the center frequency of
band reject filter , the resonant frequency w 0 which is given by
OBSERVATIONS:

FREQUENCY(IN V(INPUT)(V) V(OUTPUT)(V) GAIN(IN Db)

HZ)
200 2.72 3.2 1.411621486
300 2.72 3.2 1.411621486
500 2.72 3 0.851047014
600 2.72 2.8 0.251782546
1000 2.72 2.6 -0.391911121
1100 2.72 2.4 -1.087153246
1300 2.72 2.2 -1.842924464
1400 2.72 2 -2.670778167
1700 2.72 1.8 -3.585927979
1800 2.72 1.6 -4.608978428
1900 2.72 1.6 -4.608978428
2100 2.72 1.4 -5.768817367
2200 2.72 1.5 -5.1695529
2300 2.72 1.2 -7.10775316
2400 2.72 1.2 -7.10775316
2500 2.72 1.2 -7.10775316
2700 2.72 1 -8.691378081
2900 2.72 0.8 -10.62957834
3000 2.72 0.8 -10.62957834
3400 2.72 0.8 -10.62957834
4200 2.72 1 -8.691378081
4400 2.72 1.2 -7.10775316
4900 2.72 1.4 -5.768817367
5300 2.72 1.6 -4.608978428
6300 2.72 1.8 -3.585927979
 6800 2.72 2 -2.670778167
7500 2.72 2.2 -1.842924464
8600 2.72 2.4 -1.087153246
10000 2.72 2.6 -0.391911121
12000 2.72 2.8 0.251782546
24000 2.72 3 0.851047014

Calculation:

L = 180mH ; C = 0.01µF

f0 = = = 3782 Hz
√ √ × × . ×

f0 = 2098.07 Hz (Experimental)

GRAPHS:
Circuit Simulation with LTspice

LTSpice is a versatile, accurate and free circuit simulator available for Windows
and Mac. It is a freeware SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit
Emphasis) electronic circuit simulator.

It is always a good idea to simulate electronic circuits before physically

building them, to test the integrity of the circuits or even predict ideal circuit
behavior. LTspice has a wide range of applications and simulating capabilities and
can be used to study frequency characteristics, transient analysis, transfer
characteristics and much more.

It contains almost all the basic components used in analog and digital circuits
and even if a new component is required, it can be designed and added to the
library of the simulator.

The circuit can be designed by selecting the required components from the
toolbar and connecting them as per the circuit. After completing the circuit, the
circuit is simulated as per the type of analysis needed.

Simulating the circuit:

After you have designed the circuit using the various components, you run the
simulation. Before doing that make sure there are no floating parts in your circuit
and there is a proper Ground.

Clicking on the simulate button will open a command window from which you
can choose different kinds of simulation like:
 1. Transient: It simulates how the signal in the circuit evolves with time. You
can use it to check how the signal varies with time at any point in the
circuit.
2. AC Analysis: It computes the AC behavior of the circuit. It can be used to
check how the signal changes with frequency, both in terms of gain and
phase as the frequency is changed.

Once you have given the appropriate simulating parameters, a graphing

window will pop-up. You can move the marker and click it on different points in
the circuit to see the change in signal at that point.

We will use this simulator to design and simulate all the circuits we have
physically designed. By doing this, we will be able to analyze how the designed
circuits should behave in theory.
PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERROR:

 The practical values of the components should be as close as possible to the

theoretically calculated values so as to achieve the desired critical
frequency.
 The frequency range of the filters should be kept below 1 MHz, as at such a
high frequency the operational amplifier also starts deviating.
 In circuits using more than one operational amplifier, biasing voltage for all
them should be provided separately as fluctuations in one supply will affect
all stages of operation and cause heavy distortion.
 Make sure all the components are connected to a common ground.
 Avoid using long wires for connection to avoid addition of any stray
resistance or capacitance.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Electronics Fundamentals: Circuits, Devices and Applications by Thomas L.

Floyd.
 Design of Analog Filters by R. Schaumann and Van Valkenburg.
 Practical Analog and Digital Filter Design by Les Thede.
 www.allaboutcircuits.com
 www.electronics-tutorials.ws
 www.sophphx.caltech.edu