Module 2: Materials for Memory and Display Systems

Q1. What are Memory Devices? Explain the Classification of electronic memory devices with
examples.
Memory devices are electronic components that can store and retrieve digital data. These devices are
used to hold data and programs that a computer needs to access quickly.
Classification of electronic memory devices

A. Transistor type electronic memory devices: Such type memory device uses transistors as the
building blocks for data. The basic principle of transistor-type electronic memory is that it stores
data as charges on the gates of transistors, which act as switches. The data can be read from the
transistor by measuring the voltage level on the gate.

Examples: Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM), Static Random Access Memory (SRAM)

B. Capacitor type electronic memory devices: Such type memory device uses capacitors to store
digital data. The basic principle of capacitor type electronic memory is that it stores data as electrical
charge on a capacitor. When the data needs to be read, the charge on the capacitor is measured and
translated into a digital value.

Examples: NAND Flash Memory, Ferroelectric RAM (FeRAM)

C. Resistor type electronic memory devices: Such type memory device store the digital data using
the resistance of a material. The basic principle is that it stores data as the resistance level of a
resistor. The data can be read by measuring the resistance of each resistor.

Examples: Resistive Random Access Memory (RRAM), Phase-Change Memory (PCM)

D. Charge transfer type electronic memory devices: Such type memory devices use the transfer of
charge between capacitors or other circuit elements to store and retrieve digital data. The data can
be read by measuring the voltage level on the capacitor or other element.

Examples: Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) Memory, Ferroelectric Random Access Memory (FRAM)

Q2. What are the types of organic/inorganic memory devices used in computers with examples?
Memory devices can be broadly categorised into volatile and non-volatile types, and these can be
further classified into organic and inorganic based on the materials used.
Organic Memory Devices:
1. Organic Thin-Film Transistor (OTFT) Memory: OTFT memory devices use organic materials in the
thin-film transistors to store and retrieve data. They are commonly used in flexible electronic
applications. Example: Organic flash memory.
2. Organic Ferroelectric Memory: This type of memory utilizes organic ferroelectric materials, which
exhibit a spontaneous polarization that can be used to store information. Example: Organic ferroelectric
RAM (FeRAM).

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Module 2: Materials for Memory and Display Systems

3. Organic Resistive Switching Memory: Organic resistive switching memory relies on organic
materials that change their resistance state in response to an applied voltage. Example: Organic
Resistive RAM (ORAM).

Inorganic Memory Devices:

1. Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM): DRAM is a volatile memory technology that uses
inorganic materials (such as silicon) to store data in capacitors. It requires constant refreshing to
maintain data integrity. Example: DDR4 Synchronous DRAM.
2. Static Random Access Memory (SRAM): SRAM is another volatile memory type that uses inorganic
flip-flops to store data. It is faster than DRAM but more expensive. Example: L2 and L3 cache memory in
processors.
3. Flash Memory: Flash memory is a non-volatile memory technology commonly used for secondary
storage. It uses inorganic materials, and the two main types are NAND and NOR flash. Example: NAND
Flash (used in USB drives, SSDs) and NOR Flash (used in BIOS memory).

Q3. Explain the charge transfer in polyimide polymeric material for an Organic memory device.

Charge transfer in polyimide polymeric materials used for organic memory devices involves the movement
of charge carriers (electrons or holes) within the polymer matrix.
Example: TP6F-PI contains triphenylamine as an electron donor (D) and phthalimide as the acceptor
(A) to form a D–A structure.

Charge Transfer Process

Injection of Charge Carriers: When a voltage is applied across the polyimide material, charge carriers
are injected from the electrodes into the polymer.

Transport of Charge Carriers: Once injected, the charge carriers transfer from triphenylamine (D) to
phthalimide (A) through the polyimide matrix.

Trapping and Detrapping: Charge carriers can be trapped within the polymer matrix or at interfaces.
Trapped charges can be released by applying a reverse voltage.

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Reading and Writing Memory: Writing information involves applying a voltage to inject and trap
charges, representing a binary "1" or "0". Reading the memory involves measuring the current or voltage
response to determine the charge state of the polymer.

Q4. Explain the types of organic memory devices by taking p-type and n-type semiconductor
materials.
Types of Organic memory devices
a) Resistive Organic Memory Devices
b) Conductive-Bridge Organic Memory
c) Organic Field-Effect Transistor (OFET) Memory
d) Organic Floating-Gate Memory
e) Organic Phase-Change Memory
These organic memory devices use p-type (hole-transporting) and n-type (electron-transporting)
semiconductor materials to create a heterojunction to store the information.
p-type semiconductors materials that have an excess of positively charged holes, which can conduct
electricity. Examples: Pentacene.

Application: organic flash memory and organic resistive random access memory (RRAM).
Characteristics
• It has high hole mobility, which makes it a good material for organic memory devices.
• It has a low ionization potential,
• It is highly sensitive to light and has high photoconductivity.
• It has a long carrier diffusion length.
n-type semiconductor materials that have an excess of electrons in their conduction band.
Examples: Perfluoropentacene.

Application: organic field-effect transistors (OFET).

Characteristics
• It has high electron mobility, which allows electrons to move quickly through the material.

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Module 2: Materials for Memory and Display Systems

• It has a high electron affinity

• It has low ionization potential.
• It is highly sensitive to light and has high photoconductivity.

Q5. What are photoactive and electroactive materials and explain their working principle in
display systems.
A. Photoactive materials: Photoactive materials are those materials that can absorb light energy and
undergo a photochemical reaction. They are used in photovoltaic cells which convert sunlight into electrical
energy.
Examples: PCBM (phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester)
Working principle

• Absorption: Photoactive materials must be able to absorb light energy in

order to generate excited states.
• Excited states: After absorbing the light, it undergoes a photochemical
reaction that generates excited states. These excited states are unstable and
can decay back to the ground state by emitting light.
• Energy transfer: Excited states can transfer energy to other molecules,
either within the same material or to a different material. This energy transfer can lead to the
generation of electrical or chemical energy.
B. Electroactive materials: Electroactive materials are those materials that can conduct electricity and
exhibit changes in their electrical properties in response to an external electric field.
Examples: Conductive polymers

Working principle
The principles that govern electroactive materials are based on the interaction
between the material and the electrical field.

• Conductivity: Electroactive materials must be able to conduct electrical current in order to respond
to an external electrical stimulus through the electrons or ions.
• Response time: Electroactive materials must be able to respond quickly to changes in the electrical
field. The response time is determined by the mobility of the charge carriers.
• Electrical properties: The electrical properties of the material, such as its resistivity, permittivity,
and capacitance, determine how it will respond to an external electrical stimulus.

Q6. Explain any four properties and applications of light-emitting materials poly [9-Vinyl
Carbazole] (PVK) suitable for optoelectronic devices.

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Module 2: Materials for Memory and Display Systems

Poly (9-vinylcarbazole) (PVK) is a light-emitting material which is used in optoelectronic devices due to
its desirable properties.

Properties
• PVK has a high optical transparency in the visible range, which makes it suitable for use as a
transparent electrode in optoelectronic devices.
• PVK has good charge transport properties, allowing for efficient movement of electrons and
holes through the polymer.
• PVK has high thermal stability, which means that it can withstand high temperatures without
degradation.
• PVK is soluble in common organic solvents, such as chloroform and toluene, which makes it
easy to process and fabricate into thin films for use in optoelectronic devices.
Applications
• PVK can be used as a hole transport layer in organic light-emitting diodes.
• PVK can be used as a hole-transporting material in organic photovoltaic devices.
• PVK can serve as an active material in photodetectors, converting incoming light into electrical
signals.
• PVK-based devices can be used as sensors for detecting various environmental factors, including
temperature, humidity, and gas concentrations.

Q7. What are nanomaterials? Explain any four properties and applications of Polythiophenes
(P3HT) suitable for optoelectronic devices.

Nanomaterials: Nanomaterials are commonly defined as materials with an average particle size of less
than 100 nm. They exhibit unique physical and chemical properties that differ from their bulk counterparts.
Polythiophene: It is a semiconducting polymer, an excellent candidate for optoelectronic devices.

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Module 2: Materials for Memory and Display Systems

Properties of polythiophenes:
• They have high charge carrier mobility, which is
crucial for efficient charge transport in optoelectronic
devices.
• They are highly soluble in common organic solvents,
making them easy to process into thin films required
for optoelectronic devices.
• They have a high absorption coefficient in the visible range, which allows them to absorb light
in solar cells and photodetectors efficiently.
• They have tunable optical and electrical properties which allows them for specific
optoelectronic applications.

Applications
• These materials are used as active layers in organic solar cells.
• These materials are used in the fabrication of Organic Light-Emitting Diodes as emissive or
charge-transporting layers.
• These materials are used in photodetectors to sense light and convert it into an electrical signal.
• These materials are incorporated into field-effect transistors (FETs) to create Light-Emitting
Transistors.
• These materials are also used as sensing elements in various types of sensors.

Q8. Define optoelectronic devices. Explain the working principle of optoelectronic devices.

Optoelectronic devices
Optoelectronic devices are components that convert electrical signals into light or light into electrical
signals.
Working principle
The working principle of optoelectronic devices is based on the interaction between light and electrons,
which involves either the emission or absorption of photons.

(a) Light-emitting diodes (LED)

• When an electrical current passes through a semiconductor material, electrons recombine with
holes in the material, releasing energy in the form of photons (light).
• Emit light through spontaneous emission, where the recombination process releases photons in
random directions.

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Module 2: Materials for Memory and Display Systems

(b) Photodetectors (Photodiodes, Phototransistors)

• These devices absorb photons, causing electrons to be excited from the valence band to the
conduction band, generating electron-hole pairs. This creates a current proportional to the
intensity of the incident light.
• Operate in reverse bias, where the generated current from the electron-hole pairs is measured to
determine light intensity.

(c) Solar Cells

• It is designed to convert sunlight into electrical energy efficiently. Photons are absorbed,
generating electron-hole pairs, and the built-in electric field of the junction separates these
charges, creating a current.

Q9. Define liquid crystals. Describe the classification of liquid crystals with suitable
examples.
Liquid Crystal: An ordered fluid mesophase of an organic long-chain molecules possessing both solid-
like molecular order and liquid-like character is known as a liquid Crystal.

Classification

A. Thermotropic liquid crystals: When long-chain

organic solids are heated, they undergo sharp phase
transitions at a particular temperature yielding liquid
crystals.
Thermotropic liquid crystals are three types:

1. Nematic: The molecules move either sideways or up

and down. In this case, the molecules are readily aligned in the same direction in the presence of
electric and magnetic fields. The alignment of molecules is temperature sensitive.
Example: p-azoxyphenetole,
2. Smectic: The molecules in smectic crystals are oriented parallel to each other as in the nematic
phase but in layers. These layers can pass on each other because the force between the layers is
weak.
Example: smectic–A (SmA)
3. Cholesteric: The molecules in successive layers are slightly twisted or rotated with respect to the
layers above and below to form a continuous helical or spiral pattern.
Example: Cholesteryl benzoate

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B. Lyotropic liquid crystals: The orientational behaviour of lyotropic crystals is a function of

concentration and solvent. These molecules are amphiphilic in nature–they have both hydrophilic
and hydrophobic ends in their molecules. At low concentrations, these molecules are randomly
oriented but as the concentration increases, the molecules start arranging themselves.
Example: Cell membranes

Q10. Mention any four properties and applications of liquid crystals (LC).

Properties of Liquid Crystals

• Liquid crystals are anisotropic, i.e., they exhibit different properties in different directions.
• Liquid crystals are birefringent, i.e., they can split light into two polarized components.
• Some liquid crystals are optically active, i.e., they rotate the polarization of light.
• Liquid crystals exhibit phase transitions with changes in temperature and pressure.
• Liquid crystals can be sensitive to external fields, such as electric or magnetic fields, which can
affect their orientation and properties.

Applications of liquid crystals

• Liquid crystals are used in Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD) for the display of images.
• Liquid crystals are used in various sensor applications such as temperature sensing, humidity
sensing, and chemical sensing.
• Liquid crystals are used in various optical devices which are used in optical communication
systems, spectroscopy and imaging.
• Liquid crystals are also used in medical devices like drug delivery systems.

Q11. Explain the application of liquid crystal in LCD with the help of a suitable diagram.
Liquid crystal display: A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a flat panel display technology that uses liquid
crystals to control light passage through the display, allowing for image formation. They are commonly
used in electronic devices such as televisions, computer monitors and mobile phones.

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Module 2: Materials for Memory and Display Systems

Working Principle:
Structure:
• Nematic Liquid Crystal Layer: Sandwiched between two glass substrates.
• Polarizers: Placed on either side of the glass layers.
• Electrodes: Transparent electrodes (usually made of indium tin oxide) are placed on the inner
sides of the glass substrates to apply an electric field.
• Alignment Layers: Help to align the liquid crystals in a specific orientation when no electric
field is applied.
Operation:
• No Voltage Applied: The liquid crystals are aligned in a twisted structure. Light passes through
the first polarizer and gets rotated by the liquid crystals, allowing it to pass through the second
polarizer, making the pixel appear bright.
• Voltage Applied: The electric field causes the liquid crystals to align parallel to the electric field,
disrupting the twisted structure. This prevents the light from being rotated and it is blocked by the
second polarizer, making the pixel appear dark.
Color Filters: In color LCDs, color filters (red, green, blue) are used to produce colored images
by controlling the intensity of light passing through each subpixel.

Q12. What is OLED? Mention any four properties and applications of OLED.
Organic Light-Emitting Diode (OLED) is a type of display technology that utilizes organic materials to
emit light when an electric current is applied.
Properties of OLEDs

• OLEDs are very thin and flexible, which makes them suitable for use in curved or flexible
displays.
• OLEDs have a high contrast ratio i.e.; they can produce deep black and bright white images.
• OLEDs have a fast response time i.e.; they can switch on and off quickly, resulting in smooth
video content.

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Module 2: Materials for Memory and Display Systems

• OLEDs have a wide viewing angle i.e.; the image quality is maintained even when viewed from
different angles.
• OLEDs are energy efficient, as they do not require a backlight resulting in lower power
consumption.

Applications of OLEDs

• OLED displays are used in televisions, monitors, smartphones, and other electronic devices.
• OLED displays are used as a lighting source in various applications, including automotive lighting,
street lighting, and architectural lighting.
• OLEDs can be used in automotive applications, such as dashboard displays, interior lighting, and
taillights.
• OLEDs can be used in medical applications, such as in surgical lighting and medical imaging.

Q13. What is QLED? Mention any four properties and applications of QLED.

Quantum Dot Light Emitting Diode (QLED) is a display technology that utilizes quantum dots to
enhance the color performance and efficiency of the display.
Properties of QLEDs

• QLEDs can produce highly accurate and vibrant colors due to quantum dots, which emit light
of a specific color when they are excited by an electrical current.
• QLEDs are more energy-efficient than traditional LCD displays because they do not backlight.
• QLED displays have high contrast ratios, they can produce deep black and bright white images.
• QLEDs have a longer lifespan than traditional LCD displays.
• QLED displays have fast response times i.e.; they can display fast-moving images.

Applications of QLEDs

• QLED displays are commonly used in televisions, monitors, smartphones, and other electronic
devices.
• QLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various applications, including automotive
lighting, street lighting, and architectural lighting.
• QLEDs can be used in medical imaging applications, such as in MRI machines, to produce high-
resolution and accurate images.
• QLED displays can be used in advertising displays to produce high-quality and eye-catching
visuals.

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