DATABASE

MANGEMENT
SYSTEM

Digital Notes By

Dr. Vipul M. Vekariya

Associate Professor
Noble Group of Intuitions

1 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

Text Books:

1. Database System Concepts by Sudarshan, Korth (McGraw-Hill

Education)
2. Fundamentals of Database System By Elmasari &Navathe- Pearson
Education
References Books:
(1) An introduction to Database System – Bipin Desai, Galgotia
Publications
(2) Database System: concept, Design & Application by S.K.Singh
(Pearson Education)
(3) Database management system by leon &leon (Vikas publishing
House).
(4) Database Modeling and Design: Logical Design by Toby J.
Teorey, Sam S. Lightstone, and Tom
Nadeau, ―‖, 4thEdition, 2005, Elsevier India Publications, New Delhi
(5) Fundamentals of Database Management System – Gillenson,
Wiley India

2 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 1) What is DBMS? Explain Disadvantage of file oriented system.

 A DBMS is a collection of interrelated data and a set of program to access those data.

 Disadvantage of file oriented system:

1) Data Redundancy

Data Redundancy means same information is duplicated in several files. This makes data
redundancy.

2) Data Inconsistency

Data Inconsistency means different copies of the same data are not matching. That means
different versions of same basic data are existing. This occurs as the result of update
operations that are not updating the same data stored at different places. Example: Address
Information of a customer is recorded differently in different files.

3) Difficulty in Accessing Data

It is not easy to retrieve information using a conventional file processing system. Convenient
and efficient information retrieval is almost impossible using conventional file processing
system.

4) Data Isolation

Data are scattered in various files, and the files may be in different format, writing new
application program to retrieve data is difficult.

5) Integrity Problems

The data values may need to satisfy some integrity constraints. For example the balance field
Value must be greater than 5000. We have to handle this through program code in file
processing systems. But in database we can declare the integrity constraints along with
definition itself.

6) Atomicity problems:
A computer system, like any other mechanical or electrical device, is subject to failure. In
many applications, it is crucial that, if a failure occurs, the data be restored to the consistent
state that existed prior to the failure.

Example:
 Consider a program to transfer $50 from account A to account B. If a system failure
occurs during the execution of the program, it is possible that the $50 was removed
from account Abut was not credited to account B, resulting in an inconsistent database
state.

3 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

  Clearly, it is essential to database consistency that either both the credit and debit
occur, or that neither occur. That is, the funds transfer must be atomic—it must
happen in its entirety or not at all. It is difficult to ensure atomicity in a conventional
file-processing system.

7) Concurrent-access anomalies.
For the sake of overall performance of the system and faster response, many systems allow
multiple users to update the data simultaneously. In such an environment, interaction of
concurrent updates may result in inconsistent data.
Example:
 Consider bank account A, containing $500. If two customers withdraw funds (say $50
and $100 respectively) from account A at about the same time, the result of the
concurrent executions may leave the account in an incorrect (or inconsistent) state.
Suppose that the programs executing on behalf of each withdrawal read the old
balance, reduce that value by the amount being withdrawn, and write the result back.
If the two programs run concurrently, they may both read the value $500, and write
back $450 and $400, respectively.
 Depending on which one writes the value last, the account may contain either $450 or
$400, rather than the correct value of $350. To guard against this possibility, the
system must maintain some form of supervision.
 But supervision is difficult to provide because data may be accessed by many
different application programs that have not been coordinated previously.
8) Security problems.

Not every user of the database system should be able to access all the data.
 For example, in a banking system, payroll personnel need to see only that part of the
database that has information about the various bank employees. They do not need
access to information about customer accounts. But, since application programs are
added to the system in an ad hoc manner, enforcing such security constraints is
difficult. These difficulties, among others, prompted the development of database
systems. In what follows, we shall see the concepts and algorithms that enable
database systems to solve the problems with file-processing systems.

9) Data isolation

Because data are scattered in various files, and files may be in different formats, writing new
application programs to retrieve the appropriate data is difficult.

4 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 2) Explain three level architecture (ANSI-SPARC) architecture of DBMS.

Figure: Three level Architecture

1) Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., customer) is stored.

 storage space allocation for data storage.
 record description for storage with storage size.
 record placement
 Data compression and data encryption technique.

2) Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships among the data.

type customer = record

customer_id : string(20);
customer_name : string(45);
customer_street : string(20);
customer_city : string(20);
end;
Constraint on data.
Check to retain data consistency and integrity
security information
3) View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can also hide
information (such as an employee‘s salary) for security purposes.

5 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 3) Explain advantage and disadvantage of DBMS.

Reduction of Redundancy:
This is perhaps the most significant advantage of using DBMS. Redundancy is the
problem of storing the same data item in more one place. Redundancy creates several
problems like requiring extra storage space, entering same data more than once during
data insertion, and deleting data from more than one place during deletion. Anomalies
may occur in the database if insertion, deletion etc are not done properly.
Sharing of Data:
In a paper-based record keeping, data cannot be shared among many users. But in
computerized DBMS, many users can share the same database if they are connected
via a network. Data Integrity: We can maintain data integrity by specifying integrity
constrains, which are rules and restrictions about what kind of data may be entered or
manipulated within the database. This increases the reliability of the database as it can
be guaranteed that no wrong data can exist within the database at any point of time.
Data independence:
Application programs should be as independent as possible from details of data
representation and storage. The DBMS can provide an abstract view of the data to
insulate application code from such details.
Efficient data access:
A DBMS utilizes a variety of sophisticated techniques to store and retrieve data
efficiently. This feature is especially important if the data is stored on external storage
devices. Data integrity and security: If data is always accessed through the DBMS, the
DBMS can enforce integrity constraints on the data. For example, before inserting
salary information for an employee, the DBMS can check that the department budget
is not exceeded. Also, the DBMS can enforce access controls that govern what data is
visible to different classes of users.
Data administration:
When several users share the data, centralizing the administration of data can offer
significant improvements. Experienced professionals who understand the nature of the
data being managed, and how different groups of users use it, can be responsible for
organizing the data representation to minimize redundancy and fine-tuning the storage
of the data to make retrieval efficient.
Concurrent access and crash recovery:
A DBMS schedules concurrent accesses to the data in such a manner that users can
think of the data as being accessed by only one user at a time. Further, the DBMS
protects users from the effects of system failures.
Reduced application development time:
Clearly, the DBMS supports many important functions that are common to many
applications accessing data stored in the DBMS. This, in conjunction with the high-
level interface to the data, facilitates quick development of 44 applications. Such
applications are also likely to be more robust than applications developed from
scratch because many important tasks are handled by the DBMS instead of being
implemented by the application.

6 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 DISADVANTAGES OF A DBMS

Danger of a Overkill:
For small and simple applications for single users a database system is often not
advisable.
Complexity: A database system creates additional complexity and requirements. The
supply and operation of a database management system with several users and
databases is quite costly and demanding.
Qualified Personnel: The professional operation of a database system requires
appropriately trained staff. Without a qualified database administrator nothing will
work for long.
Costs: Through the use of a database system new costs are generated for the system
itself but also for additional hardware and the more complex handling of the system.
Lower Efficiency: A database system is a multi-use software which is often less
efficient than specialized software which is produced and optimized exactly for one
problem.

4) What is instance and schema?

Schema – the overall design of the database is called database schema.

 Example: The database consists of information about a set of customers and
accounts and the relationship between them)
 The plan of the database is known as schema.
 Analogous to type information of a variable in a program
Instance – the collection of information stored in the database at a particular point in
time.
 Analogous to the value of a variable

5) What is database language? Explain its type with example.

A database system provides a data definition language to specify the database schema
and a data manipulation language to express database queries and updates.

DATA-DEFINITION LANGUAGE

We specify a database schema by a set of definitions expressed by a special language

called a data definition language (DDL). For instance, the following statement in the
SQL language defines the account table:

Example:
Create table account (account-number char(10), balance integer)

7 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

  Execution of the above DDL statement creates the account table. In addition, it
updates a special set of tables called the data dictionary or data directory.
 A data dictionary contains metadata—that is, data about data. The schema of a table is
an example of metadata. A database system consults the data dictionary before
reading or modifying actual data.
 We specify the storage structure and access methods used by the database system by a
set of statements in a special type of DDL called a data storage and definition
language.
 These statements define the implementation details of the database schemas, which
are usually hidden from the users. The data values stored in the database must satisfy
certain consistency constraints. For example, suppose the balance on an account
should not fall below $100.
 The DDL provides facilities to specify such constraints. The database systems check
these constraints every time the database is updated.
DATA-MANIPULATION LANGUAGE
Data manipulation is
 the retrieval of information stored in the database
 the insertion of new information into the database
 the deletion of information from the database the
 modification of information stored in the database
A data-manipulation language (DML) is a language that enables users to access or
manipulate data as organized by the appropriate data model. There are basically two
types:
 Procedural DMLs require a user to specify what data are needed and how to
get those data.
 Declarative DMLs (also referred to as nonprocedural DMLs) require a user to
specify what data are needed without specifying how to get those data.
Declarative DMLs are usually easier to learn and use than are procedural DMLs.
However, since a user does not have to specify how to get the data, the database
system has to figure out an efficient means of accessing data.
The DML component of the SQL language is nonprocedural. A query is a statement
requesting the retrieval of information. The portion of a DML that involves
information retrieval is called a query language. Although technically incorrect, it is
common practice to use the terms query language and data manipulation language
synonymously.

Data Control Language

 Control Access of Data in the Database.

Example

 Commit
 Savepoint

8 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

  Rollback
 Grant/revoke.

6) What is data dictionary? Explain in details.

We can define a data dictionary as a DBMS component that stores the definition of data
characteristics and relationships. It is simple ―data about data‖ as metadata. The DBMS data
dictionary provides the DBMS with its self describing characteristic. In effect, the data
dictionary resembles and X-ray of the company‘s entire data set, and is a crucial element in
the data administration function.

The two main types of data dictionary exist, integrated and stand alone.

1) An integrated data dictionary is included with the DBMS. For example, all relational
DBMSs include a built in data dictionary or system catalog that is frequently accessed
and updated by the RDBMS.
2) Other DBMSs especially older types, do not have a built in data dictionary instead the
DBA may use third party stand alone data dictionary systems

Data dictionaries can also be classified as active or passive. An active data dictionary is
automatically updated by the DBMS with every database access, thereby keeping its access
information up-to-date. A passive data dictionary is not updated automatically and usually
requires a batch process to be run. Data dictionary access information is normally used by the
DBMS for query optimization purpose.

The data dictionary‘s main function is to store the description of all objects that interact with
the database. Integrated data dictionaries tend to limit their metadata to the data managed by
the DBMS. Stand alone data dictionary systems are more usually more flexible and allow the
DBA to describe and manage all the organization‘s data, whether or not they are
computerized. Whatever the data dictionary‘s format, its existence provides database
designers and end users with a much improved 47 ability to communicate. In addition, the
data dictionary is the tool that helps the DBA to resolve data conflicts. Although, there is no
standard format for the information stored in the data dictionary several features are common.
For example, the data dictionary typically stores descriptions of all:

 Data elements that are define in all tables of all databases. Specifically the data dictionary
stores the name, data types, display formats, internal storage formats, and validation rules.
The data dictionary tells where an element is used, by whom it is used and so on.
 Tables define in all databases. For example, the data dictionary is likely to store the name
of the table creator, the date of creation access authorizations, the number of columns,
and so on.
 Indexes define for each database tables. For each index the DBMS stores at least the
index name the attributes used, the location, specific index characteristics and the creation
date.

9 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 Define databases: who created each database, the date of creation where the database is
located, who the DBA is and so on.
 End users and The Administrators of the data base
 Programs that access the database including screen formats, report formats application
formats, SQL queries and so on.
 Access authorization for all users of all databases.
 Relationships among data elements which elements are involved: whether the relationship
is mandatory or optional, the connectivity and cardinality and so on.

If the data dictionary can be organized to include data external to the DBMS itself, it
becomes an especially flexible to for more general corporate resource management. The
management of such an extensive data dictionary, thus, makes it possible to manage the use
and allocation of all of the organization information regardless whether it has its roots in the
database data.

7) What is database user? Explain different types of database user.

There are four different types of database-system users, differentiated by the way they expect
to interact with the system. Different types of user interfaces have been designed for the
different types of users.

1) Naive users are unsophisticated users who interact with the system by invoking one of
the application programs that have been written previously. For example, a bank teller
who needs to transfer $50 from account A to account B invokes a program called transfer.
This program asks the teller for the amount of money to be transferred, the account from
which the money is to be transferred, and the account to which the money is to be
transferred.
As another example, consider a user who wishes to find her account balance over the
World Wide Web. Such a user may access a form, where she enters her account number.
An application program at the Web server then retrieves the account balance, using the
given account number, and passes this information back to the user. The typical user
interface for naive users is a forms interface, 48 where the user can fill in appropriate
fields of the form. Naive users may also simply read reports generated from the database.
2) Application programmers are computer professionals who write application programs.
Application programmers can choose from many tools to develop user interfaces. Rapid
application development (RAD) tools are tools that enable an application programmer to
construct forms and reports without writing a program. There are also special types of
programming languages that combine imperative control structures (for example, for
loops, while loops and if-then-else statements) with statements of the data manipulation
language. These languages, sometimes called fourth-generation languages, often include
special features to facilitate the generation of forms and the display of data on the screen.
Most major commercial database systems include a fourth generation language.

10 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

3) Sophisticated users interact with the system without writing programs. Instead, they
form their requests in a database query language. They submit each such query to a query
processor, whose function is to break down DML statements into instructions that the
storage manager understands. Analysts who submit queries to explore data in the database
fall in this category.
4) Specialized users are sophisticated users who write specialized database applications that
do not fit into the traditional data-processing framework. Among these applications are
computer-aided design systems, knowledge base and expert systems, systems that store
data with complex data types (for example, graphics data and audio data), and
environment-modeling systems.

8) What is DBA? Explain roles and responsibilities of DBA.

A person who has such central control over the system is called a database administrator
(DBA).
The functions of a DBA include:
Schema definition. The DBA creates the original database schema by executing a set of data
definition statements in the DDL.
Schema and physical-organization modification. The DBA carries out changes to the
schema and physical organization to reflect the changing needs of the organization, or to alter
the physical organization to improve performance.
Granting of authorization for data access. By granting different types of authorization, the
database administrator can regulate which parts of the database various users can access. The
49 authorization information is kept in a special system structure that the database system
consults whenever someone attempts to access the data in the system.
Routine maintenance. Examples of the database administrator‘s routine maintenance
activities are:
1. Periodically backing up the database, either onto tapes or onto remote servers, to prevent
loss of data in case of disasters such as flooding.
2. Ensuring that enough free disk space is available for normal operations, and upgrading disk
space as required.
3. Monitoring jobs running on the database and ensuring that performance is not degraded by
very expensive tasks submitted by some users.

11 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 9) What is data independency? Explain types of data independency.

Data independence, which can be defined as the capacity to change the schema at one level
of a database system without having to change the schema at the next higher level. We can
define two types of data independence:

1. Logical data independence is the capacity to change the conceptual schema without
having to change external schemas or application programs. We may change the conceptual
schema to expand the database (by adding a record type or data item), or to reduce the
database (by removing a record type or data item). In the latter case, external schemas that
refer only to the remaining data should not be affected. Only the view definition and the
mappings need be changed in a DBMS that supports logical data independence. Application
programs that reference the external schema constructs must work as before, after the
conceptual schema undergoes a logical reorganization. Changes to constraints can be applied
also to the conceptual schema without affecting the external schemas or application
programs.

2. Physical data independence is the capacity to change the internal schema without having
to change the conceptual (or external) schemas. Changes to the internal schema may be
needed because some physical files had to be reorganized—for example, by creating
additional access structures—to improve the performance of retrieval or update. If the same
data as before remains in the database, we should not have to change the conceptual schema.
Whenever we have a multiple-level DBMS, its catalog must be expanded to include
information on how to map requests and data among the various levels. The DBMS uses
additional software to accomplish these mappings by referring to the mapping information in
the catalog. Data independence is accomplished because, when the schema is changed at
some level, the schema at the next higher level remains unchanged; only the mapping
between the two levels is changed. Hence, application programs referring to the higher-level
schema need not be changed.

10) What is database model? Explain types of database model

Data model is a collection of tools for describing

a. Data
b. Data relationships
c. Data semantics
d. Data constraints
 It is a way to describe the design of the database.

Types of data model:

 Hierarchical databases.
 Network databases.

12 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

  Relational databases.
 Object-oriented databases

1) Hierarchical Database Model we have to learn about the databases. It is very fast
and simple. In a hierarchical database, records contain information about there groups
of parent/child relationships, just like as a tree structure. The structure implies that a
record can have also repeating information.
In this structure Data follows a series of records; It is a set of field values attached to
it. It collects all records together as a record type. These record types are the
equivalent of tables in the relational model, and with the individual records being the
equivalent of rows. To create links between these record types, the hierarchical model
uses these type Relationships.

2) Network Database: A network databases are mainly used on large digital computers.
It more connections can be made between different types of data, network databases
are considered more efficiency It contains limitations must be considered when we
have to use this kind of database.
It is Similar to the hierarchical databases, network databases .Network databases are
similar to hierarchical databases by also having a hierarchical structure. A network
database looks more like a cobweb or interconnected network of records. In network
databases, children are called members and parents are called occupier. The
difference between each child or member can have more than one parent.

3) Relational Databases:
In relational databases, the relationship between data files is relational. Hierarchical
and network 54 databases require the user to pass a hierarchy in order to access
needed data. These databases connect to the data in different files by using common
data numbers or a key field. Data in relational databases is stored in different access
control tables, each having a key field that mainly identifies each row. In the
relational databases are more reliable than either the hierarchical or network database
structures. In relational databases, tables or files filled up with data are called relations
(tuples) designates a row or record, and columns are referred to as attributes or fields.
Relational databases work on each table has a key field that uniquely indicates each
row, and that these key fields can be used to connect one table of data to another.

4) Object-Oriented Model:
In this Model we have to discuss the functionality of the object oriented Programming
.It takes more than storage of programming language objects. Object DBMS's
increase the semantics of the C++ and Java .It provides full-featured database
programming capability, while containing native language compatibility. It adds the
database functionality to object programming languages.This approach is the
analogical of the application and database development into a constant data model and
language environment. Applications require less code, use more natural data
modeling, and code bases are easier to maintain. Object developers can write
13 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya
 complete database applications with a decent amount of additional effort. The object-
oriented database derivation is the integrity of object-oriented programming language
systems and consistent systems. The power of the object-oriented databases comes
from the cyclical treatment of both consistent data, as found in databases, and
transient data, as found in executing programs

11) Explain function and service provided by DBMS.

A DBMS performs several important functions that guarantee the integrity and consistency of
the data in the database. Most of those functions are transparent to end users, and most can be
achieved only through the use of a DBMS. They include data dictionary management, data
storage management, data transformation and presentation, security management, multiuser
access control, backup and recovery management, data integrity management, database
access languages and application programming interfaces and database communication
interfaces. Each of these functions is explained below.

1. Data dictionary management.

The DBMS stores definitions of the data elements and their relationships (metadata) in a data
Dictionary. In turn, all programs that access the data in the database work through the DBMS.
The DBMS uses the data dictionary to look up the required data component structures and
relationships, thus relieving you from having to code such complex relationships in each
program. Additionally, any changes made in a database structure are automatically recorded
in the data dictionary, thereby freeing you from having to modify all of the programs that
access the changed structure. In other words, the DBMS provides data abstraction, and it
removes structural and data dependence from the system.

2. Data storage management.

The DBMS creates and manages the complex structures required for data storage, thus
relieving you from the difficult task of defining and programming the physical data
characteristics. A modern DBMS provides storage not only for the data, but also for related
data entry forms or screen definitions, report definitions, data validation rules, procedural
code, structures to handle video and picture formats, and so on.

3. Data transformation and presentation.

The DBMS transforms entered data to conform to required data structures. The DBMS
relieves you of the chore of making a distinction between the logical data format and the
physical data format. That is, the DBMS formats the physically retrieved data to make it
conform to the user‘s logical expectations. For example, imagine an enterprise database used
by a multinational company. An end user in England would expect to enter data such as July
11, 2010, as ―11/07/2010.‖ In contrast, the same date would be entered in the United States as
―07/11/2010.‖ Regardless of the data presentation format, the DBMS must manage the date
in the proper format for each country.

4. Security management.
The DBMS creates a security system that enforces user security and data privacy. Security
rules determine which users can access the database, which data items each user can access,
and which data operations (read, add, delete, or modify) the user can perform. This is
especially important in multiuser database systems.

14 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

5. Multiuser access control.
To provide data integrity and data consistency, the DBMS uses sophisticated algorithms to
ensure that multiple users can access the database concurrently without compromising the
integrity of the database.

6. Backup and recovery management.

The DBMS provides backup and data recovery to ensure data safety and integrity. Current
DBMS systems provide special utilities that allow the DBA to perform routine and special
backup and restore procedures. Recovery management deals with the recovery of the
database after a failure, such as a bad sector in the disk or a power failure. Such capability is
critical to preserving the database‘s integrity.

7. Data integrity management.

The DBMS promotes and enforces integrity rules, thus minimizing data redundancy and
maximizing data consistency. The data relationships stored in the data dictionary are used to
enforce data integrity. Ensuring data integrity is especially important in transaction-oriented
database systems.

8. Database access languages and application programming interfaces.

The DBMS provides data access through a query language. A query language is a
nonprocedural language—one that lets the user specify what must be done without having to
specify how it is to be done. Structured Query Language (SQL) is the de facto query
language and data access standard supported by the majority of DBMS vendors.

9. Database communication interfaces.

Current-generation DBMSs accept end-user requests via multiple, different network
environments. For example, the DBMS might provide access to the database via the Internet
through the use of Web browsers such as Mozilla Firefox or Microsoft Internet Explorer. In
this environment, communications can be accomplished in several ways

12) Explain Client server architecture with figure.

Figure: Pictorial presentation of client server architecture

15 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

  Client server architecture has two tiers. First is client and second is server.
 Client contains application logic and business logic while server tier contain
database.
 Client send request to server for processing and information of data from databse.
 Client can communicate with server using query based approach or remote
procedure call.
 Reduced traffic, since required content is only transferred
 The application exists entirely on the client PC while the database sits out on a
server machine.
 The full processing load is lying onto the PC while the more powerful server
machines act as a traffic controller between the application and the database.
 Arises a very high inhibition on scalability, availability and performance on the
system.
 Another main problem with any two-tiered client/server approach is that of
maintenance.

16 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 1) SELECT

The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.

SQL SELECT Syntax

SELECT column_name,column_name
FROM table_name;
and
SELECT * FROM table_name;
Example:
SELECT CustomerName,City FROM Customers;
SELECT * FROM Customers;

2) DISNTINCT

The SELECT DISTINCT statement is used to return only distinct (different) values. In a
table, a column may contain many duplicate values; and sometimes you only want to list the
different (distinct) values.

The DISTINCT keyword can be used to return only distinct (different) values.

SELECT DISTINCT column_name, FROM table_name;

SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Customers;

3) WHERE

The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified criterion.

SELECT column_name,column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value;

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE Country='Mexico';

17 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 4) SQL AND & OR Operators

The AND & OR operators are used to filter records based on more than one condition.

The AND operator displays a record if both the first condition AND the second condition are
true.

The OR operator displays a record if either the first condition OR the second condition is
true.

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE Country='Germany'
AND City='Berlin';

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE City='Berlin'
OR City='München';

5) ORDER BY

The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set by one or more columns.

The ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in ascending order by default. To sort the records
in a descending order, you can use the DESC keyword.

SELECT column_name, column_name

FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name DEC;

SELECT * FROM Customers

ORDER BY Country;

6) INSERT INTO

The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.

It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two forms.

The first form does not specify the column names where the data will be inserted, only their
values:

18 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...);

INSERT INTO table_name (column1,column2,column3,...)

VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...);

INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode,

Country) VALUES ('Cardinal','Tom B. Erichsen','Skagen 21','Stavanger','4006','Norway');

7) UPDATE

The UPDATE statement is used to update existing records in a table.

UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value1,column2=value2,...
WHERE condition;

UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName='Alfred Schmidt', City='Hamburg'
WHERE CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste';

8) DELETE

The DELETE statement is used to delete rows in a table.

DELETE FROM table_name

WHERE condition;

DELETE FROM Customers

WHERE CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste' AND ContactName='Maria Anders';

9) SELECT NUBER OF ROWS

The SELECT TOP clause is used to specify the number of records to return.

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE ROWNUM <= number;

SELECT *
FROM Persons
WHERE ROWNUM <=5;

19 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 10) LIKE operator

The LIKE operator is used to search for a specified pattern in a column.

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern;

% A substitute for zero or more characters

_ A substitute for a single character
[charlist]
Sets and ranges of characters to match

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "ber":

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE City LIKE 'ber%';

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "L", followed by
any character, followed by "n", followed by any character, followed by "on":

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE City LIKE 'L_n_on';

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "b", "s", or "p":

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE City LIKE '[bsp]%';

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "a", "b", or "c":

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE City LIKE '[a-c]%';

11) IN OPERATOR ( SET MEMBERSHIP TEST)

The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...);

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City of "Paris" or "London":

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE City IN ('Paris','London');

20 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 12) BETWEEN OPERATOR

The BETWEEN operator selects values within a range. The values can be numbers, text, or
dates.

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;

The following SQL statement selects all products with a price BETWEEN 10 and 20:

SELECT * FROM Products

WHERE Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20;

NOT BETWEEN

To display the products outside the range of the previous example, use NOT BETWEEN:

SELECT * FROM Products

WHERE Price NOT BETWEEN 10 AND 20;

BETWEEN Operator with IN Example

The following SQL statement selects all products with a price BETWEEN 10 and 20, but
products with a CategoryID of 1,2, or 3 should not be displayed:

SELECT * FROM Products

WHERE (Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20)
AND NOT CategoryID IN (1,2,3);

13) Table and Column Alias

SQL aliases are used to give a database table, or a column in a table, a temporary name.
Basically aliases are created to make column names more readable.

SELECT column_name AS alias_name

FROM table_name;

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name AS alias_name;

SELECT CustomerName AS Customer, ContactName AS [Contact Person]

FROM Customers AS custmors_details

21 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 14) CREATE TABLE FROM ANOTHER TABLE

Create new table from existing table with transfer of all structure of existing table with data.

Option 1: Create table tablename as select * from tablename;

Option 2: Create table tablename as select columan1,column2 from tablename;

Option 3: Create table tablename as select * from tablename where ‗1‘=‘2‘; (without data)

Create table customer as select * from employee;

Create table customer as select ename, eno from employee;

15) INSERT DATA IN TO TABLE FROM ANOTHER TABLE

The INSERT INTO SELECT statement selects data from one table and inserts it into an
existing table. Any existing rows in the target table are unaffected.

INSERT INTO table2

SELECT * FROM table1;

INSERT INTO Customers

SELECT * FROM Suppliers;

INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, Country)

SELECT SupplierName, Country FROM Suppliers;

16) CREATE TABLE

The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a table in a database. Tables are organized
into rows and columns; and each table must have a name.

CREATE TABLE table_name

(
column_name1 data_type(size),
column_name2 data_type(size),
column_name3 data_type(size),
....);

 The column_name parameters specify the names of the columns of the table.
 The data_type parameter specifies what type of data the column can hold (e.g.
varchar, integer, decimal, date, etc.).
 The size parameter specifies the maximum length of the column of the table.

22 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

CREATE TABLE Persons
(
PersonID int,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
);

The empty table can be filled with data with the INSERT INTO statement.

17) ALTER

The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an existing table.

1) Add column in to existing table

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD column_name datatype

2) Drop column from existing table

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP COLUMN column_name

3) To change the data type of a column in a table

ALTER TABLE table_name

MODIFY column_name datatype

Example:

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD DateOfBirth date;

ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP COLUMN DateOfBirth;

ALTER TABLE Persons

ALTER COLUMN DateOfBirth varchar2(12);

23 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 18) DROP

The DROP TABLE statement is used to delete a table.

DROP TABLE table_name

DROP table custmors;

19) DELETE

The DELETE statement is used to delete rows in a table.

1) DELETE FROM table_name; ( Delete entire data from table)

2) DELETE FROM table_name\

WHERE condition; ( Delete specific rows from table on condition)

20) TRUNCATE

if we only want to delete the data inside the table, and not the table itself Then, use the
TRUNCATE TABLE statement:

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

TRUNCATE TABLE customer;

21) SQL AUTO INCREMENT FIELD

Auto-increment allows a unique number to be generated when a new record is inserted into a
table.

Step 1: Create Sequence

CREATE SEQUENCE seq_person

MINVALUE 1
START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
CACHE 10

The code above creates a sequence object called seq_person, that starts with 1 and will
increment by 1. It will also cache up to 10 values for performance. The cache option specifies
how many sequence values will be stored in memory for faster access.

To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will have to use the nextval function (this
function retrieves the next value from seq_person sequence):

24 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

Step 2:

INSERT INTO Persons (ID,FirstName,LastName)

VALUES (seq_person.nextval,'Lars','Monsen')

The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The "ID"
column would be assigned the next number from the seq_person sequence. The "FirstName"
column would be set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column would be set to "Monsen".

22) VIEW

In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.

A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are fields from
one or more real tables in the database.

You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and present the data as
if the data were coming from one single table.

1) Create View

CREATE VIEW view_name AS

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition

CREATE VIEW Current_Product List AS

SELECT ProductID,ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No

2) UPDATE VIEW
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Current_Product_List AS

SELECT ProductID,ProductName,Category
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No
3) DROP View

DROP VIEW view_name

25 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 23) NULL VALUES

 If a column in a table is optional, we can insert a new record or update an existing

record without adding a value to this column. This means that the field will be saved
with a NULL value.
 NULL values are treated differently from other values.
 NULL is used as a placeholder for unknown or inapplicable values.

How do we select only the records with NULL values in the "Address" column? We will
have to use the IS NULL operator:

SELECT LastName,FirstName,Address FROM Persons

WHERE Address IS NULL

IS NOT NULL

SELECT LastName,FirstName,Address FROM Persons

WHERE Address IS NOT NULL

26 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 SQL DATA CONSTRAINT
 SQL constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table.
 If there is any violation between the constraint and the data action, the action is
aborted by the constraint.
 Constraints can be specified when the table is created (inside the CREATE TABLE
statement) or after the table is created (inside the ALTER TABLE statement).

SQL CREATE TABLE + CONSTRAINT Syntax

CREATE TABLE table_name

(
column_name1 data_type(size) constraint_name,
column_name2 data_type(size) constraint_name,
column_name3 data_type(size) constraint_name,
....
);

In SQL, we have the following constraints:

 NOT NULL - Indicates that a column cannot store NULL value

 UNIQUE - Ensures that each row for a column must have a unique value
 PRIMARY KEY - A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Ensures that a
column (or combination of two or more columns) have an unique identity which helps
to find a particular record in a table more easily and quickly
 FOREIGN KEY - Ensure the referential integrity of the data in one table to match
values in another table
 CHECK - Ensures that the value in a column meets a specific condition
 DEFAULT - Specifies a default value when specified none for this column

1) PRIMARY KEY

 The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.
 Primary keys must contain UNIQUE values.
 A primary key column cannot contain NULL values.
 Most tables should have a primary key, and each table can have only ONE primary
key.

1) Define primary key on create table.

CREATE TABLE Persons

(P_Id number(10) PRIMARY KEY,
LastName varchar(255) ,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255));

2) Define primary key on alter table.

27 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)

3) Assign user define name to constraint

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID PRIMARY KEY (P_Id,LastName)

2) FOREIGN KEY

 Foreign key represent relationship between two tables.

 It is a column or group of column whose value are derived from the primary key or
unique key of some other table.
 The table in which foreign key is defined is called foreign table.
 The table that defines the primary or unique key and is referenced by foreign key is
called the primary table.
 It defines at create table statement or alter table statement.
 Foreign key is column that references a column of a table .
 Parent record can be delete provided if no child record exit.
 Master table cannot be updated if child record exit.
 This constraint establish relationship between records(column data). Across master
and detail table.
 Record cannot be inserted into detail table if corresponding record in master table do
not exist.
 Record of the master table cannot be deleted if the corresponding record in the detail
table actually exists.

1) CREATE TABLE Orders

(O_Id varchar2(10) PRIMARY KEY,
OrderNo number(10) ,
P_Id number(10) FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES Persons(P_Id));

2) ALTER TABLE Orders

ADD FOREIGN KEY (P_Id)
REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)

3) Unique Key

 The UNIQUE constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.

 The UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints both provide a guarantee for
uniqueness for a column or set of columns.
 A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a UNIQUE constraint defined on it.
 Note that you can have many UNIQUE constraints per table, but only one PRIMARY
KEY constraint per table.

CREATE TABLE CUST_MSTR (

28 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 "CUST_NO" VARCHAR2(10) UNIQUE,
"FNAME" VARCHAR2(25),
"PHOTOGRAPH" VARCHAR2(25),
"SIGNATURE" VARCHAR2(25),
"PANNO" VARCHAR2(1) UNIQUE,
\ "FORM60" VARCHAR2(1));

4) NOT NULL

 The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values.
 The NOT NULL constraint enforces a field to always contain a value. This means that
you cannot insert a new record, or update a record without adding a value to this field.

CREATE TABLE employees(

employee_id NUMBER(6),
Last_name VARCHAR2(25) NOT NULL,
salary NUMBER(8,2),
commission_pct NUMBER(2,2),
hire_date DATE NOT NULL);

5) CHECK CONSTRAINT (BUSINESS RULE CONSTRAINT)

 The CHECK constraint is used to limit the value range that can be placed in a column.
 If you define a CHECK constraint on a single column it allows only certain values for
this column.
 If you define a CHECK constraint on a table it can limit the values in certain columns
based on values in other columns in the row.

Syntax: CHECK (<logical expression>)

CREATE TABLE CUST_MSTR(

"CUST_NO" VARCHAR2(10) CHECK(CUST_NO LIKE ‗C%‘),
"FNAME" VARCHAR2(25) CHECK (FNAME = upper(Fname)),
"MNAME" VARCHAR2(25) CHECK (MNAME = upper(Mname)),
"LNAME" VARCHAR2(25) CHECK (LNAME = upper(Lname)),
"DOB_INC" DATE,
"OCCUP" VARCHAR2(25),
"PHOTOGRAPH" VARCHAR2(25),
"SIGNATURE" VARCHAR2(25),
"PANCOPY" VARCHAR2(1));
6) DEFAULT

 The DEFAULT constraint is used to insert a default value into a column.

 The default value will be added to all new records, if no other value is specified.

29 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

CREATE TABLE Persons
(LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255) DEFAULT 'Sandnes')

SQL JOIN OPERATION

 An SQL JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a
common field between them.
 The most common type of join is: SQL INNER JOIN (simple join). An SQL
INNER JOIN return all rows from multiple tables where the join condition is met.
 Before we continue with examples, we will list the types of the different SQL JOINs
you can use:

 INNER JOIN: Returns all rows when there is at least one match in BOTH tables
 LEFT JOIN: Return all rows from the left table, and the matched rows from the
right table
 RIGHT JOIN: Return all rows from the right table, and the matched rows from
the left table
 FULL JOIN: Return all rows when there is a match in ONE of the tables

1) INNER JOIN

The INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both tables as long as there is a match
between the columns in both tables.

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;

The following SQL statement will return all customers with orders:

SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID

FROM Customers
INNER JOIN Orders
ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID
ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;

30 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 2) NATURAL JOIN

The SQL NATURAL JOIN is a type of EQUI JOIN and is structured in such a way that,
columns with same name of associate tables will appear once only.

Natural Join: Guidelines

- The associated tables have one or more pairs of identically named columns.
- The columns must be the same data type.
- Don‘t use ON clause in a natural join.

SELECT *
FROM table1
NATURAL JOIN table2;

SELECT *
FROM foods
NATURAL JOIN company;

3) OUTER JOIN

 It is similar to inner join but give a bit more flexibility when selecting the data.
 This type of join can be used in situations where it desired.
 This is used when you select the data from left (right or both).
 It selects the values in common and enter NULL where data is missing.

a) LEFT OUTER JOIN

The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the left table (table1), with the matching rows
in the right table (table2). The result is NULL in the right side when there is no match.

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
LEFT OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;

SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID

FROM Customers
LEFT JOIN Orders
ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID

31 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 b) RIGHT OUTER JOIN

The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the right table (table2), with the matching
rows in the left table (table1). The result is NULL in the left side when there is no match.

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
RIGHT OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;

SELECT Orders.OrderID, Employees.FirstName

FROM Orders
RIGHT JOIN Employees
ON Orders.EmployeeID=Employees.EmployeeID

c) FULL OUTER JOIN

The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all rows from the left table (table1) and from the
right table (table2).The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword combines the result of both LEFT and
RIGHT joins.

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
FULL OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;

SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID

FROM Customers
FULL OUTER JOIN Orders
ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID

32 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 SQL Aggregate Functions
SQL aggregate functions return a single value, calculated from values in a column.

Useful aggregate functions:

 AVG() - Returns the average value

 COUNT() - Returns the number of rows
 MAX() - Returns the largest value
 MIN() - Returns the smallest value
 SUM() - Returns the sum

SQL Scalar functions

 SQL scalar functions return a single value, based on the input value.

1) AVG ( )

The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.

SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name;

The following SQL statement gets the average value of the "Price" column from the
"Products" table

SELECT AVG(Price) AS PriceAverage FROM Products;

2) COUNT( )

The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified criteria.

SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name;

The COUNT(*) function returns the number of records in a table:

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table_name;

The COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) function returns the number of distinct values of

the specified column:

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) FROM table_name;

The following SQL statement counts the number of orders from "CustomerID"=7 from
the "Orders" table:

SELECT COUNT(CustomerID) AS OrdersFromCustomerID7 FROM Orders

WHERE CustomerID=7;

33 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 The following SQL statement counts the total number of orders in the "Orders" table:

SELECT COUNT(*) AS NumberOfOrders FROM Orders;

3) MAX( )

The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.

SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name;

The following SQL statement gets the largest value of the "Price" column from the
"Products" table:

SELECT MAX(Price) AS HighestPrice FROM Products;

4) MIN( )

The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.

SELECT MIN(column_name) FROM table_name;

The following SQL statement gets the smallest value of the "Price" column from the
"Products" table:
SELECT MIN(Price) AS SmallestOrderPrice FROM Products;
5) SUM( )
The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.
SELECT SUM(column_name) FROM table_name;
The following SQL statement finds the sum of all the "Quantity" fields for the
"OrderDetails" table:
SELECT SUM(Quantity) AS TotalItemsOrdered FROM OrderDetails;

GROUP BY STATEMENT

The GROUP BY statement is used in conjunction with the aggregate functions to group the
result-set by one or more columns.

Aggregate functions often need an added GROUP BY statement.

SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)

FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name;

34 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

Select count(*), city from client_master group by city;

HAVING CLAUSE

The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could not be used
with aggregate functions.

SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value;

Select count(*), city from client_master group by city having count(*) >=4;

COMMIT
Commit command is used to permanently save any transaaction into database.

Following is Commit command's syntax,

commit;

Rollback command
This command restores the database to last committed state. It is also use with savepoint
command to jump to a savepoint in a transaction.

Following is Rollback command's syntax,

rollback to savepoint-name;

Savepoint command

savepoint command is used to temporarily save a transaction so that you can rollback to that
point whenever necessary.

Following is savepoint command's syntax,

savepoint savepoint-name;

35 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

Example of Savepoint and Rollback.
INSERT into class values(5,'Rahul');
commit;
UPDATE class set name='abhijit' where id='5';
savepoint A;
INSERT into class values(6,'Chris');
savepoint B;
INSERT into class values(7,'Bravo');
savepoint C;
SELECT * from class;
rollback to B;
SELECT * from class;
rollback to A;
SELECT * from class;

GRANT/REVOKE PRIVILEGES

This Oracle tutorial explains how to grant and revoke privileges in Oracle with syntax and
examples.

DESCRIPTION
You can GRANT and REVOKE privileges on various database objects in Oracle. We'll first
look at how to grant and revoke privileges on tables and then how to grant and revoke
privileges on functions and procedures in Oracle.

GRANT PRIVILEGES ON TABLE

You can grant users various privileges to tables. These privileges can be any combination of
SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, REFERENCES, ALTER, INDEX, or ALL.

Syntax
The syntax for granting privileges on a table in Oracle is:

GRANT privileges ON object TO user;

privileges
The privileges to assign. It can be any of the following values:

Privilege Description
SELECT Ability to perform SELECT statements on the table.
INSERT Ability to perform INSERT statements on the table.
UPDATE Ability to perform UPDATE statements on the table.
DELETE Ability to perform DELETE statements on the table.
REFERENCES Ability to create a constraint that refers to the table.
Ability to perform ALTER TABLE statements to change the table
ALTER
definition.

36 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 Ability to create an index on the table with the create index
INDEX
statement.
ALL All privileges on table.

Object

The name of the database object that you are granting privileges for. In the case of granting
privileges on a table, this would be the table name.

User

The name of the user that will be granted these privileges.

Example
Let's look at some examples of how to grant privileges on tables in Oracle.

For example, if you wanted to grant SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE privileges
on a table called suppliers to a user name smithj, you would run the following GRANT
statement:
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON suppliers TO smithj;

You can also use the ALL keyword to indicate that you wish ALL permissions to be granted
for a user named smithj.
For example:

GRANT ALL ON suppliers TO smithj;

If you wanted to grant only SELECT access on your table to all users, you could grant the
privileges to the public keyword. For example:

GRANT SELECT ON suppliers TO public;

REVOKE PRIVILEGES ON TABLE

Once you have granted privileges, you may need to revoke some or all of these privileges. To
do this, you can run a revoke command. You can revoke any combination of SELECT,
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, REFERENCES, ALTER, INDEX, or ALL.
Syntax
The syntax for revoking privileges on a table in Oracle is:
REVOKE privileges ON object FROM user;

37 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 Transction Management

1) What is transaction? Explain ACID Properties of database Management system.

 A transaction is a unit of program execution that accesses and possibly updates

various data items.
 There are a set of properties that guarantee that database transactions are processed
reliably, referred to as ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability).
 Atomicity
 Atomicity refers to the ability of the database to guarantee that either all of the tasks
of a transaction are performed or none of them are. Database modifications must
follow an all or nothing rule. Each transaction is said to be atomic if when one part of
the transaction fails, the entire transaction fails.

 Transaction to transfer $50 from account A to account B:

1. read(A)
2. A := A – 50
3. write(A)
4. read(B)
5. B := B + 50
6. write(B)
 Atomicity requirement
 if the transaction fails after step 3 and before step 6, money will be ―lost‖
leading to an inconsistent database state
 Failure could be due to software or hardware
 the system should ensure that updates of a partially executed transaction are
not reflected in the database
 Consistency
The consistency property ensures that the database remains in a consistent state before
the start of the transaction and after the transaction is over (whether successful or not).

 in above example of transaction the sum of A and B is unchanged by the execution of

the transaction
 Durability
 Durability refers to the guarantee that once the user has been notified of success, the
transaction will persist, and not be undone. This means it will survive system failure,
and that the database system has checked the integrity constraints and won't need to
abort the transaction.

38 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

  Isolation
 Isolation refers to the requirement that other operations cannot access or see the data
in an intermediate state during a transaction. This constraint is required to maintain
the performance as well as the consistency between transactions in a database. Thus,
each transaction is unaware of another transactions executing concurrently in the
system.

 T1 T2
1. read(A)
2. A := A – 50
3. write(A)
read(A), read(B), print(A+B)
4. read(B)
5. B := B + 50
6. write(B

if between steps 3 and 6, another transaction T2 is allowed to access the partially

updated database, it will see an inconsistent database (the sum A + B will be less than
it should be).

 Isolation can be ensured trivially by running transactions serially

 That is, one after the other.

2) Explain transaction state diagram with figure.

39 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

  Active – the initial state; the transaction stays in this state while it is executing
 Partially committed – after the final statement has been executed.
 Failed -- after the discovery that normal execution can no longer proceed.
 Aborted – after the transaction has been rolled back and the database restored to its
state prior to the start of the transaction. Two options after it has been aborted:
 restart the transaction
 can be done only if no internal logical error
 kill the transaction
 Committed – after successful completion.

3) What is schedule? Explain types of transaction with example.

A schedule is a collection of many transactions or set of transactions which is

implemented as a unit. Depending upon how these transactions are arranged in within a
schedule,

 Serial: The transactions are executed one after another, in a non-preemptive manner.
 Concurrent: The transactions are executed in a preemptive, time shared method.
 Advantage of concurrent transction:
o increased processor and disk utilization, leading to better transaction
throughput
 E.g. one transaction can be using the CPU while another is reading
from or writing to the disk
o Reduced average response time for transactions: short transactions need not
wait behind long ones.

Let us consider there are two transactions T1 and T2, whose instruction sets are given as
following.

 T1
Read A;
A = A – 100;
Write A;
Read B;
B = B + 100;
Write B;

 T2
Read A;
Temp = A * 0.1;
Read C;
C = C + Temp;
Write C;

40 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 If we prepare a serial schedule, then either T1 will completely finish before T2 can begin, or T2 will
completely finish before T1 can begin. However, if we want to create a concurrent schedule, then
some Context Switching need to be made, so that some portion of T1 will be executed, then some
portion of T2 will be executed and so on. For example say we have prepared the following
concurrent schedule.

T1 T2

Read A;
A = A - 100;
Write A;
Read A;
Temp = A * 0.1;
Read C;
C = C + Temp;
Write C;
Read B;
B = B + 100;
Write B;

4) What is serializability? Explain conflict and view serializability in detail.

 A (possibly concurrent) schedule is serializable if it is equivalent to a serial schedule.

Different forms of schedule equivalence give rise to the notions of:
1. conflict serializability
2. view serializability

Conflict serializability

We say that a schedule S is conflict serializable if it is conflict equivalent to a atleast one

possible serial schedule.

 If a schedule S can be transformed into a schedule S´ by a series of swaps of non-

conflicting instructions, we say that S and S´ are conflict equivalent.

41 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 Schedule 1 Schedule 2
 Schedule 1 can be transformed into Schedule 2, a serial schedule where T2 follows T1,
by series of swaps of non-conflicting instructions. Therefore Schedule 1 is conflict
serializable.

 Example of a schedule that is not conflict serializable:

 We are unable to swap instructions in the above schedule to obtain either the serial
schedule < T3, T4 >, or the serial schedule < T4, T3 >.

View Serializabiltiy

 Let S and S´ be two schedules with the same set of transactions. S and S´ are view
equivalent if the following three conditions are met, for each data item Q,

1. If in schedule S, transaction Ti reads the initial value of Q, then in schedule S’

also transaction Ti must read the initial value of Q.

2. If in schedule S transaction Ti executes read(Q), and that value was produced

by transaction Tj (if any), then in schedule S’ also transaction Ti must read the
value of Q that was produced by the same write(Q) operation of transaction Tj
.

42 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 3. The transaction (if any) that performs the final write(Q) operation in schedule
S must also perform the final write(Q) operation in schedule S’.

 A schedule S is view serializable if it is view equivalent to a serial schedule.

 Every conflict serializable schedule is also view serializable.
 Below is a schedule which is view-serializable but not conflict serializable.

43 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 Concurrency Control

1) Why concurrency is need in database management system.

 mechanisms to achieve isolation

 that is, to control the interaction among the concurrent transactions in order to
prevent them from destroying the consistency of the database
 . Advantages are:
 increased processor and disk utilization, leading to better transaction
throughput
 E.g. one transaction can be using the CPU while another is reading
from or writing to the disk
 Reduced average response time for transactions: short transactions need not
wait behind long ones.

2) What is locking? Explain Lock Based Protocol.

 A lock is a mechanism to control concurrent access to a data item

 Data items can be locked in two modes :
1. exclusive (X) mode. Data item can be both read as well as
written. X-lock is requested using lock-X instruction.
2. shared (S) mode. Data item can only be read. S-lock is
requested using lock-S instruction.
 Lock requests are made to concurrency-control manager. Transaction can
proceed only after request is granted.
 Lock-compatibility matrix

 A transaction may be granted a lock on an item if the requested lock is compatible

with locks already held on the item by other transactions
 Any number of transactions can hold shared locks on an item,
l but if any transaction holds an exclusive on the item no other transaction may
hold any lock on the item.

44 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

  Example of a transaction performing locking:
T2: lock-S(A);
read (A);
unlock(A);
lock-S(B);
read (B);
unlock(B);
display(A+B)

Disadvantage of Locking Base Protocol

o Consider the partial schedule


 Neither T3 nor T4 can make progress — executing lock-S(B) causes T4 to wait for T3
to release its lock on B, while executing lock-X(A) causes T3 to wait for T4 to release
its lock on A.

 Such a situation is called a deadlock.

l To handle a deadlock one of T3 or T4 must be rolled back and its locks

released.

 Another Example for Inconsistency of database after applying locking Protocol.

T1 T2
Lock-X(P) Lock- S(Q)
Read(P) Read(Q)
P= P – 100 Unlock(Q)
Write(P) Lock- S(P)
Unlock(P) Read(P)
Lock-X(Q) Unlock(P)
Read(Q) Display(P + Q)
Q= Q + 100
Write(Q)
Unlock(Q)

45 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

3) Explain Two Phase Locking Protocol.

 This is a protocol which ensures conflict-serializable schedules.

Phase 1: Growing Phase
1) transaction may obtain locks
2) transaction may not release locks
Phase 2: Shrinking Phase
3) transaction may release locks
4) transac1tion may not obtain locks
 The protocol assures serializability. It can be proved that the transactions can be
serialized in the order of their lock points (i.e. the point where a transaction acquired
its final lock).
 Two-phase locking does not ensure freedom from deadlocks

T1 T2
Lock-X(P) Lock- S(Q)
Read(P) Lock- S(P)
P= P – 100 Read(Q)
Write(P) Read(P)
Lock-X(Q) Display(P + Q)
Read(Q) Unlock(Q)
Q= Q + 100 Unlock(P)
Write(Q)
Unlock(P)
Unlock(Q)

 above Transaction is in deadlock in some situation

 Cascading roll-back is possible under two-phase locking. To avoid this, follow a

modified protocol called strict two-phase locking. Here a transaction must hold all
its exclusive locks till it commits/aborts.

 Rigorous two-phase locking is even stricter: here all locks are held till commit/abort.
In this protocol transactions can be serialized in the order in which they commit.

46 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 T1 T2
Lock-X(P) Lock- S(P)
Read(P) Lock- S(Q)
P= P – 100 Read(Q)
Write(P) Read(P)
Lock-X(Q) Display(P + Q)
Read(Q) Unlock(Q)
Q= Q + 100 Unlock(P)
Write(Q)
Unlock(P)
Unlock(Q)

 In above schedule we swapped the one instruction in transaction T2 and we avoid the
deadlock but after this situation above schedule is not more concurrent.
 So we have to improve the concurrency using some technique this is called lock
upgrdation protocol.

LOCK CONVERSION (Upgrade/ Downgrade):

 Two-phase locking with lock conversions:

– First Phase:
1. can acquire a lock-S on item
2. can acquire a lock-X on item
3. can convert a lock-S to a lock-X (upgrade)
– Second Phase:
1. can release a lock-S
2. can release a lock-X
3. can convert a lock-X to a lock-S (downgrade)
 This protocol assures serializability. But still relies on the programmer to insert the
various locking instructions.
 After applying above protocol in previous schedule for enhance the concurrency.

47 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 T1 T2
Lock-S(P) Lock- S(P)
Read(P) Lock- S(Q)
P= P – 100 Read(Q)
Upgrade(P) Read(P)
Write(P) Display(P + Q)
Lock-S(Q) Unlock(Q)
Read(Q) Unlock(P)
Q= Q + 100
Upgrade(Q)
Write(Q)
Unlock(P)
Unlock(Q)

5) Explain Time Stamp Based Protocol.

 Each transaction is issued a timestamp when it enters the system. If an old transaction
Ti has time-stamp TS(Ti), a new transaction Tj is assigned time-stamp TS(Tj) such that
TS(Ti) <TS(Tj).

 The protocol manages concurrent execution such that the time-stamps determine the
serializability order.

 In order to assure such behavior, the protocol maintains for each data Q two
timestamp values:

1) W-timestamp(Q) is the largest time-stamp of any transaction that executed

write(Q) successfully.

2) R-timestamp(Q) is the largest time-stamp of any transaction that executed

read(Q) successfully.

 The timestamp ordering protocol ensures that any conflicting read and write
operations are executed in timestamp order.

 Suppose a transaction Ti issues a read(Q)

1) If TS(Ti)  W-timestamp(Q), then Ti needs to read a value of Q that was

already overwritten.

 Hence, the read operation is rejected, and Ti is rolled back.

2) If TS(Ti) W-timestamp(Q), then the read operation is executed, and R-

timestamp(Q) is set to max(R-timestamp(Q), TS(Ti)).

48 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

  Suppose that transaction Ti issues write(Q).

1) If TS(Ti) < R-timestamp(Q), then the value of Q that Ti is producing was

needed previously, and the system assumed that that value would never be
produced.

 Hence, the write operation is rejected, and Ti is rolled back.

2) If TS(Ti) < W-timestamp(Q), then Ti is attempting to write an obsolete value

of Q.

 Hence, this write operation is rejected, and Ti is rolled back.

3) Otherwise, the write operation is executed, and W-timestamp(Q) is set to

TS(Ti).

6) What is deadlock? Explain Deadlock Prevention Technique.

System is deadlocked if there is a set of transactions such that every transaction in the set is
waiting for another transaction in the set.

Deadlock prevention protocols ensure that the system will never enter into a deadlock state.
Some prevention strategies :

a. Require that each transaction locks all its data items before it begins execution
(predeclaration).

b. Impose partial ordering of all data items and require that a transaction can lock
data items only in the order specified by the partial order (graph-based
protocol).

Following schemes use transaction timestamps for the sake of deadlock prevention alone.

wait-die scheme — non-preemptive

 older transaction may wait for younger one to release data item. Younger
transactions never wait for older ones; they are rolled back instead.

 a transaction may die several times before acquiring needed data item

wound-wait scheme — preemptive

 older transaction wounds (forces rollback) of younger transaction instead of

waiting for it. Younger transactions may wait for older ones.

 may be fewer rollbacks than wait-die scheme.

49 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

  Both in wait-die and in wound-wait schemes, a rolled back transactions is restarted
with its original timestamp. Older transactions thus have precedence over newer ones,
and starvation is hence avoided.

n Timeout-Based Schemes:

 a transaction waits for a lock only for a specified amount of time. After that,
the wait times out and the transaction is rolled back.

 thus deadlocks are not possible

 simple to implement; but starvation is possible. Also difficult to determine

good value of the timeout interval.

7) Explain Deadlock Detection and recovery technique.( Wait For Graph)

Deadlocks can be described as a wait-for graph, which consists of a pair G = (V,E),

 V is a set of vertices (all the transactions in the system)

 E is a set of edges; each element is an ordered pair Ti Tj.
 If Ti  Tj is in E, then there is a directed edge from Ti to Tj, implying that Ti is waiting for
Tj to release a data item.
 When Ti requests a data item currently being held by Tj, then the edge Ti Tj is inserted in
the wait-for graph. This edge is removed only when Tj is no longer holding a data item
needed by Ti.
 The system is in a deadlock state if and only if the wait-for graph has a cycle. Must
invoke a deadlock-detection algorithm periodically to look for cycles.

50 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

  When deadlock is detected :

 Some transaction will have to rolled back (made a victim) to break deadlock.
Select that transaction as victim that will incur minimum cost.

 Rollback -- determine how far to roll back transaction

 Total rollback: Abort the transaction and then restart it.

 More effective to roll back transaction only as far as necessary to break

deadlock.

o Starvation happens if same transaction is always chosen as victim.

Include the number of rollbacks in the cost factor to avoid starvation

8) What is log based recovery? Explain its type with example.

A log is kept on stable storage.

a. The log is a sequence of log records, and maintains a record of update

activities on the database.

When transaction Ti starts, it registers itself by writing a <Ti start>log record.

Before Ti executes write(X), a log record <Ti, X, V1, V2> is written, where V1 is the value
of X before the write (the old value), and V2 is the value to be written to X (the new value).

When Ti finishes it last statement, the log record <Ti commit> is written.

<Ti, Abort> Transaction Ti has aborted

 Two approaches using logs

 Deferred database modification

 Immediate database modification

1) Immediate Database Modification

 The immediate-modification scheme allows updates of an uncommitted transaction

to be made to the buffer, or the disk itself, before the transaction commits

 Update log record must be written before database item is written

1) We assume that the log record is output directly to stable storage

 Output of updated blocks to stable storage can take place at any time before or after
transaction commit Order in which blocks are output can be different from the order
in which they are written.

51 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 2) Deferred database modification
The deferred-modification scheme performs updates to buffer/disk only at the time
of transaction commit
 Simplifies some aspects of recovery
 But has overhead of storing local copy

52 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 Relational Algebra

1) Explain Select, Project, Union, set intersection and set difference operation in
relational algebra.

1) Selection

 Notation:  p(r)
 p is called the selection predicate

Where p is a formula in propositional calculus consisting of terms connected by : 

(and),  (or),  (not)
Each term is one of:
<attribute>op <attribute> or <constant>
Where op is one of: =, , >, . <. 
 Example of selection:

 branch_name=“Perryridge”(account)
 branch_name=“Perryridge” ^ amount > 1200 (account)

2) Project

 Notation:

 A1 , A2 ,, Ak (r )

where A1, A2 are attribute names and r is a relation name.

 The result is defined as the relation of k columns obtained by erasing the columns that
are not listed

 Duplicate rows removed from result, since relations are sets

 Example: To eliminate the branch_name attribute of account

 loan_number,amount (loan)
3) Union
 Notation: r  s
 Defined as: r  s = {t | t  r or t  s}

53 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

  For r  s to be valid.
1. r, s must have the same arity (same number of attributes)
2. The attribute domains must be compatible (the domain of the ith attribute of the
and the ith attribute of the s must be same.)

Example: to find all customers with either an account or a loan

customer_name (depositor)  customer_name (borrower)

4) Set Difference

 Notation r – s
 Defined as: r – s = {t | t  r and t  s}
 Set differences must be taken between compatible relations.
 r and s must have the same arity
 attribute domains of r and s must be compatible

 Notation r – s

 Defined as:

r – s = {t | t  r and t  s}

 Set differences must be taken between compatible relations.

 r and s must have the same arity

 attribute domains of r and s must be compatible

Example is Customers with an account but no loan

customer_name (depositor) - customer_name (borrower)

5) Set intersection

Notation: r  s

Defined as: r  s = { t | t  r and t  s }

Assume:

a. r, s have the same arity

b. attributes of r and s are compatible

Customers with both an account and a loan at the bank

customer_name (borrower)  customer_name (depositor)

54 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

2) Explain Natural join with example in relational algebra.

 Notation: r s

 Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively.

Then, r s is a relation on schema R  S obtained as follows:

1) Consider each pair of tuples tr from r and ts from s.

2) If tr and ts have the same value on each of the attributes in R  S, add a tuple t
to the result, where

 t has the same value as tr on r

 t has the same value as ts on s

Find the name of all customers who have a loan at the bank and the loan amount
customer_name, loan_number, amount (borrower loan)

55 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

3) What is outer join? Explain different types of outer join.

 An extension of the join operation that avoids loss of information.

 Computes the join and then adds tuples form one relation that does not match tuples
in the other relation to the result of the join.

 Uses null values:

1) null signifies that the value is unknown or does not exist

2) All comparisons involving null are (roughly speaking) false by definition.

56 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

57 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya
 E- R Modeling

1) What is attribute? Explain its type with example.

 An entity is represented by a set of attributes that is descriptive properties possessed

by all members of an entity set.

Domain – the set of permitted values for each attribute

 Attribute types:

 Simple and composite attributes.

 Single-valued and multi-valued attributes

 Example: multivalued attribute: phone_numbers

 Derived attributes

 Can be computed from other attributes

Example: age, given date_of_birth

 E-R Diagram With Composite, Multivalued, and Derived Attributes

58 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

2) What is mapping cardinality constraint? Explain its types.
 Express the number of entities to which another entity can be associated via a
relationship set.
 Most useful in describing binary relationship sets.
 For a binary relationship set the mapping cardinality must be one of the following
types:

1. One to one
2. One to many
3. Many to one
4. Many to many
 We express cardinality constraints by drawing either a directed line (), signifying
―one,‖ or an undirected line (—), signifying ―many,‖ between the relationship set and
the entity set.

 One-to-one relationship:

 A customer is associated with at most one loan via the relationship borrower

 A loan is associated with at most one customer via borrower

 In the one-to-many relationship a loan is associated with at most one customer via
borrower, a customer is associated with several (including 0) loans via borrower

59 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

  In a many-to-one relationship a loan is associated with several (including 0)
customers via borrower, a customer is associated with at most one loan via borrower

 In many to many relationship a customer is associated with several (possibly 0) loans

via borrower

 A loan is associated with several (possibly 0) customers via borrower

60 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 3) What is weak entity set? Explain with example.

 An entity set that does not have sufficient attribute to form a primary key is referred to
as a weak entity set.

 The existence of a weak entity set depends on the existence of a identifying entity set

 it must relate to the identifying entity set via a total, one-to-many

relationship set from the identifying to the weak entity set
 Identifying relationship depicted using a double diamond

 The discriminator (or partial key) of a weak entity set is the set of attributes that
distinguishes among all the entities of a weak entity set.

 The primary key of a weak entity set is formed by the primary key of the strong entity
set on which the weak entity set is existence dependent, plus the weak entity set‘s
discriminator.

 We depict a weak entity set by double rectangles.

 We underline the discriminator of a weak entity set with a dashed line.

 payment_number – discriminator of the payment entity set

 Primary key for payment – (loan_number, payment_number)

61 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 4) Explain specialization and generalization concept in E-R Model.

 Top-down design process; we designate sub groupings within an entity set that are
distinctive from other entities in the set.
 Specialization is the process of identifying the subset of entity set( the superclass or
supertype) that share some distinguishing characteristics.

 These sub groupings become lower-level entity sets that have attributes or participate
in relationships that do not apply to the higher-level entity set.
 Depicted by a triangle component labeled ISA (E.g. customer ―is a‖ person).

Generalization:

 A bottom-up design process – combine a number of entity sets that share the same
features into a higher-level entity set.

 Specialization and generalization are simple inversions of each other; they are
represented in an E-R diagram in the same way.

 Generalization is a process in which multiple entity set are synthesized into higher
level entity set on the basis of common future.

 For example the customer and employee have some common future like name, city,
street then using generalization we give the person attribute.

62 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

  The terms specialization and generalization are used interchangeably.

 Higher level entity set also may be designated by the terms superclass and subclass.

 Advantage:

 It avoids the need to describe similar concept more than once.

 Thus saving the time for data modeling.

 It results in more readable and better looking E-R diagrams.

 This adds more semantic content and information to the design in concise form.

5) Explain aggregation in E-R model.

 Consider the ternary relationship works_on.

 Suppose we want to record managers for tasks performed by an employee at a

branch.

 Relationship sets works_on and manages represent overlapping information

 Every manages relationship corresponds to a works_on relationship

 However, some works_on relationships may not correspond to any manages

relationships

 So we can‘t discard the works_on relationship

 Eliminate this redundancy via aggregation

63 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

  Aggregation is an abstraction through which relationship are treated as
higher level entities.

 Abstraction of relationship into new entity

 Without introducing redundancy, the following diagram represents:

 An employee works on a particular job at a particular branch

 An employee, branch, job combination may have an associated manager

 E-R Diagram With Aggregation

64 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 6) Draw a different symbol for E-R Diagram.

65 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

7) Draw an E-R Diagram for banking enterprise system.

66 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

8) Draw an E-R Diagram for Library Management system.

67 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 9) Draw an E- R diagram for hospital management system.

68 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 10) Draw an E-R diagram for university management system.

69 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 11) Draw an E-R Diagram for Hotel management system.

70 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 PL/SQL

1) Write a PL/SQL Block for print sum of odd number 1 to 100.

 DECLARE

 N NUMBER(3):=1;

 S NUMBER(4):=0;

 BEGIN

 WHILE N <=100

 LOOP

 S:=S+N;

 N:=N+2;

 END LOOP;

 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('THE SUM OF 1 TO 100 IS '||S);

 END;

2) Write a PL/SQL Block for Sum of digit of given number.

 DECLARE

 N NUMBER(5):=&N;

 S NUMBER:=0;

 R NUMBER(2):=0;

 BEGIN

 WHILE N !=0

 LOOP

 R:=MOD(N,10);

 S:=S+R;

 N:=TRUNC(N/10);

 END LOOP;

71 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('SUM OF DIGITS OF GIVEN NUMBER IS '||S);

 END;

3) What id cursor? Explain different types of cursor.

 The oracle engine use a work area for its internal processing in order to execute an
SQL statement.

 This work area is private to SQL operation is called cursor.

 The data is stored into cursor is called active data set.

 The size of the cursor is memory occupied by active dataset.

 Oracle has pre-defined area in main memory in which cursor are opened.

 Cursors are classified depending on the circumstance under which they are opened.

 If the oracle engine opened a cursor for its internal processing it is known as implicit
cursor.

 A cursor can also opened for processing data through PL/SQ block, on demand such
a user defined cursor known as explicit cursor.

 General cursor attributes

72 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

  The select statement can return multiple rows as a query result. If you want to process
single row at a time then you can define an explicit cursor for this select statement.

 Cursor is like a temporary area where you can process fetch the records and process
then individually as required

 Explicit cursor management

 declare a cursor mapped to SQL select statement

 Opening the cursor
 Fetch the data from cursor one row at a time and move in to memory variable.
 Process the data held in memory variable using loop.
 exit from loop
 Close the cursor.

4) Explain stored procedure in PL/SQL.

 Stored procedure is a group of SQL statements that form a logical unit and perform a
particular task.

 Stored procedure has been pre-compiled and stored in oracle engine‘s system table (
data dictionary).

 They define a programming interface for the database rather than allowing the client
application to interact with database objects directly.

 Stored procedures are typically used for data validation or to encapsulate large,
complex processing instructions that combine several SQL queries.

 Advantages of Stored Procedure are below.

 Precompiled execution. SQL Server compiles each stored procedure once and then
reutilizes the execution plan. This results in tremendous performance boosts when
stored procedures are called repeatedly.

73 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

  Reduced client/server traffic. If network bandwidth is a concern in your
environment, you'll be happy to learn that stored procedures can reduce long SQL
queries to a single line that is transmitted over the wire.

 Efficient reuse of code and programming abstraction. Stored procedures can be

used by multiple users and client programs. If you utilize them in a planned manner,
you'll find the development cycle takes less time.

 Enhanced security controls. You can grant users permission to execute a stored
procedure independently of underlying table permissions

Example of stored procedure.

 SELECT Product, Quantity

FROM Inventory
WHERE Warehouse = 'FL

 create Stored procedure

CREATE PROCEDURE sp_GetInventory

@location varchar(10) AS
SELECT Product, Quantity
FROM Inventory
WHERE Warehouse = @location
Call stored procedure

EXECUTE sp_GetInventory 'FL'

5) Explain Database trigger.

 A database trigger is procedural code that is automatically executed in response to

certain events on a particular table in a database.

 Unlike the stored procedure and functions, which have to be called explicitly, the
database triggers are fires (executed) or called implicitly .

 To implement complex business rule, this cannot be implemented using integrity

constraints.

 To audit the process. For example, to keep track of changes made to a table.

 Types of Trigger.

 Row-level Trigger

 A row trigger is fired once for each row that is affected by DML command. For
example, if an UPDATE command updates 100 rows then row-level trigger is fired
100 times.

74 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

  Whereas a statement-level trigger is fired only for once.

 Row-level trigger are used to check for the validity of the data. They are typically
used to implement rules that cannot be implemented by integrity constraints.

 Statement Level Trigger:

 It is fired once on behalf of the triggering statement, independent on number of rows

the triggering statements affect.

 Before Triggers

 While defining a trigger, you can specify whether the trigger is to be fired before the
command (INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE) is executed or after the command is
executed.

 Before triggers are commonly used to check the validity of the data before the action
is performed. For instance, you can use before trigger to prevent deletion of row if
deletion should not be allowed in the given case.

 AFTER Triggers

 After triggers are fired after the triggering action is completed. For example, If after
trigger is associated with INSERT command then it is fired after the row is inserted
into the table.

 For example, the following trigger is fired only when perk is more than 500.

create trigger inst_trig

before insert on Employee

For each row

BEGIN

update Employee set salary=salary - 300 where perks>500;

END;

75 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 NORMALIZATION
1) What is normalization? Explain goal of normalization.

A: Normalization is a process of reducing redundancies of data in a database.

All these data might not be necessary all the time whenever we use those tables. So, a better option is to
split up the bulk table into small parts and use only those tables which suit the actual purpose at a given
instance of time. In this way, redundancy is reduced. To make the long story short, we can simply say that
normalization is a process of dividing a big table into smaller ones in order to reduce redundancy.

Normalization Avoids

 Duplication of Data – The same data is listed in multiple lines of the database
 Insert Anomaly – A record about an entity cannot be inserted into the table without first inserting
Information about another entity – Cannot enter a customer without a sales order
 Delete Anomaly – A record cannot be deleted without deleting a record about a related entity.
Cannot delete a sales order without deleting all of the customer‘s information.
 Update Anomaly – Cannot update information without changing information in many places. To
Update customer information, it must be updated for each sales order the customer has placed

2) Explain anomalies in database.

A:
Insertion Anomaly
It is a failure to place information about a new database entry into all the places in the database
Where information about the new entry needs to be stored. In a properly normalized database,
Information about a new entry needs to be inserted into only one place in the database, in an
Inadequately normalized database, information about a new entry may need to be inserted into
more than one place, and human fallibility being what it is, some of the needed additional
insertions may be missed.

Deletion anomaly
It is a failure to remove information about an existing database entry when it is time to remove
that entry. In a properly normalized database, information about an old, to-be-gotten-rid-of entry
needs to be deleted from only one place in the database, in an inadequatly normalized database,
information about that old entry may need to be deleted from more than one place.

Update Anomaly
An update of a database involves modifications that may be additions, deletions, or both. Thus
―update anomalies‖ can be either of the kinds discussed above. All three kinds of anomalies are
highly undesirable, since thier occurence constitutes corruption of the database. Properly
normalized database are much less susceptible to corruption than are unnormalized databases.

76 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

3) Explain 1NF, 2NF & 3NF in detail.

A: FIRST NORMAL FORM(1NF)

 First normal form (1NF) sets the very basic rules for an organized database:

 Definition: A table (relation) is in 1NF if

 1. There are no duplicated rows in the table.

 2. Each cell is single-valued (i.e., there are no repeating groups or arrays).

 3. Entries in a column (attribute, field) are of the same kind.

Order No Order Date Item Lines

Item code Quantity Price/unit

1456 26021999 3687 52 50.40

4627 38 60.20

3214 20 17.50

1886 04031999 4629 45 20.25

4627 30 60.20

1788 04041999 4627 40 60.20

 After Conversion of above unormaized relation in to 1st normal form. Below table is
in 1st normal form.

77 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 Order No Order Date Item code Quantity Price/unit

1456 26021999 3687 52 50.40

1456 26021999 4627 38 60.20

1456 26021999 3214 20 17.50

1886 04031999 4629 45 20.25

1886 04031999 4627 30 60.20

1788 04041999 4627 40 60.20

2nd Normal Form:

 The relation is in 1st NF.

 Non key attribute are functionally dependant on the key attributes.

 If the key attributes has more than one attributes then non key attribute should be
functionally dependant on part of the key attribute.

After 2nd normal form below are the tables. It is divided in to 3 tables.

78 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

3rd Normal Form

 The relation in 2nd NF.

 If two non key attribute are functionally dependant.

 Example:Student(rollno, name, department, year, hostel)

After 3rd Normal Form.

79 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

80 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya
 SECURITY
1) Explain discretionary access control & Mandatory access control.

A: A DBMS offers two main approaches to access control. Discretionary access control is
based on the concept of access rights, or privileges, and mechanisms for giving users such
privileges. A privilege allows a user to access Borne data object (e.g., to read or Modify). A
user, who creates a database object such as a table or a vie\v automatically, gets all applicable
privileges on that object.
Mandatory access control is based on system wide policies that cannot be changed by
individual users. In this approach each databal.'3e object is assigned a security class, each
user is assigned clearance for a security class, and rules are imposed on reading and writing
of database objects by users.

DISCRETIONARY ACCESS CONTROL

SQL supports discretionary access control through the GRANT and REVOKE commands.
The GRANT command gives users privileges to base tables and views. The syntax of this
command is as follows
GRANT privileges ON object TO users [WITH GRANT OPTION]

For our purposes object is either a base table or a views. Several privileges can be specified,
Including these:
 SELECT: The right to access (read) all columns of the table specified as the object,
including columns added later through ALTER TABLE commands.
 INSERT( column-name): The right to insert rows with (non-null or non default) values
in the column of the table named as object. If this right is to be granted with respect to all
columns, including columns that might be added later, we can simply use INSERT. The
privileges UPDATE( column name) and UPDATE are similar.
 DELETE: The right to delete rows from the table named as object.
 REFERENCES(column-name): The right to define foreign keys (in other tables) that
refer to the specified column of the table object. REFERENCES without a column name
specified denotes this right with respect to all columns, including any that are added later.

MANDATORY ACCESS CONTROL

Discretionary access control mechanisms, while generally effective, have certain weaknesses.
In particular they are susceptible to Trojan horse schemes whereby a devious unauthorized
user can trick an authorized user into disclosing sensitive data.
The popular model for mandatory access control, called the Bell-La Padula model, is
described in terms of objects (e.g., tables, views, rows, columns), subjects (e.g., users,
programs), security classes, and clearances.

81 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

Each database object is assigned a security class, and each subject is assigned clearance for a
security class; we denote the class of an object or subject A as class(A).

The Bell-La Padula model imposes two restrictions on all reads and writes of database
objects:

1) Simple Security Property: Subject S is allowed to read object 0 only if class(8) > class
(()). For example, a user with TS clearance can read a table with C clearance, but a user with
C clearance is not allowed to read a table with TS classification.

2) *-Property: Subject S is allowed to write object 0 only if class(S) <class (O). For
example, a user with S clearance can write only objects with S or TS classification.

Definitions (Chapter Wise)

Chapter -1

1) DBMS: Database management system is collection of interrelated data and a set of

programs to access those data.
2) FPS: File processing system is a system that stores permanent records in various
files, and it needs different application programs to extract records from, and add
records to, the appropriate files.
3) Data redundancy: it is the various copies of same data or repetition of same data.
4) Data isolation can be defined as scattering of data into different files and isolating
information.
5) Instance can be termed as collection of information stored in database at a
particular moment.
6) Schema can be defined as overall design of database.
7) Physical schema describes the database design at physical level.
8) Logical schema describes the database design at logical level.
9) A database may also have several schemas at view level, which are known as sub
schemas.
10) Data model is a collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships,
data semantics, and consistency constraints.
11) Entity Relationship Model: Entity Relationship data model is based on perception of
a real world that consists of a collection of basic objects called entities and of
relationships among these objects.
12) DDL: The language used to specify properties, storage structure, and access method
in dbms is termed as data definition language.
13) DML: TheLanguage used to access or manipulate data is termed as data
manipulation language.
14) A query is a statement requesting the retrieval of information.

82 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 15) Assertion is any condition that a database must always satisfy.
16) A relationship is an association among several entities.
17) The set of all entities of same type and set of all relationships of same data type are
termed an entity set and relationship set.
18) Mapping Cardinalities expresses the number of entities to which another entity can
be associated via a relationship set.
19) A storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the low
level data stored in database and the application programs and queries submitted to
system.
20) Data dictionary stores metadata about the structure of database, in particular the
scheme of database.

21) A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single logical function in a

database application.
22) Data mining refers loosely to process of semi automatically analyzing large
databases to find useful patterns.
23) A person who has central control over the system is called a Database
Administrator.
24) The Query processor subsystem compiles and executes DDL and DML statements.

CHAPTER-2
1) A superkey is a set of one or more attributes that, taken collectively, allow us to
identify uniquely a tuple in relation.
2) Candidate key is a minimal superkey for which no proper subset is a superkey.
3) Primary key is a chosen candidate key that is chosen by the database designer as
the principal means of identifying tuples within a relation.
4) A query language is a language in which a user requests information from database.
5) A database schema, along with primary key and foreign key dependencies, can be
depicted pictorially by schema diagram.
6) The relation algebra defines a set of algebraic operations that operate on tables and
output tables as their results.
7) Null value signifies that the value is unknown or does not exist.
8) A domain is set of values that are allowed to keep for attributes.
9) A Tuple is term to signify rows.
10) A tuple variable is a variable whose domain is set of all tuples.
11) Database schema is the logical design of database.
12) Database instance is a snapshot of data in a database at a given instant in time.
13) In procedural language, user instructs the system to perform a sequence of
operations on the database to compute the desired result.

83 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 14) In non-procedural language, user describes the desired information without giving a
specific procedure for obtaining that information.
15) The select operation selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate.
16) Generalized Projection operation extends the project operation by allowing
arithmetic functions to be used in projection list.
17) Aggregate functions take a collection of values and return a single value as a result.

CHAPTER - 6
1. An entity is an object that exists and is distinguishable from other objects.
a. Example: specific person, company, event, plant
2. A relationship is an association among several entities
3. A relationship set is a mathematical relation among n 2 entities, each taken from
entity sets
a. {(e1, e2, …en) | e1E1, e2E2, …, enEn}
4. Degree of relationship is number of entity sets that participate in a relationship set.
5. Domain – the set of permitted values for each attribute
6. An entity is represented by a set of attributes that is descriptive properties
possessed by all members of an entity set.
7. Mapping Cardinality-it express the number of entities to which another entity can
be associated via a relationship set.
8. A super key of an entity set is a set of one or more attributes whose values uniquely
determine each entity.
9. A candidate key of an entity set is a minimal super key: Customer_id is candidate key
of customer,account_number is candidate key of account
10. Although several candidate keys may exist, one of the candidate keys is selected to
be the primary key.
11. Total participation (indicated by double line): every entity in the entity set
participates in at least one relationship in the relationship setE.g. participation of
loan in borrower is total every loan must have a customer associated to it via
borrower
12. Partial participation: some entities may not participate in any relationship in the
relationship setExample: participation of customer in borrower is partial
13. The discriminator(or partial key) of a weak entity set is the set of attributes that
distinguishes among all the entities of a weak entity set
14. The process of designating subgroupings within an entity set is called specialization.
15. Generalization is a process in which multiple entity set are synthesized into higher
level entity set on the basis of common feature.
16. Aggregation is an abstraction through which relationship are treated as higher level
entities.
17. Normalization-process of removing redundant data and ensuring data dependency.

84 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya

 TRANSACTION

1. A transaction is a unit of program execution that accesses and possibly updates

various data items.
2. Atomicity. Either all operations of the transaction are properly reflected in the
database or none.
3. Consistency. Execution of a transaction in isolation preserves the consistency of the
database.
4. Isolation. Although multiple transactions may execute concurrently, each
transaction must be unaware of other concurrently executing transactions.
Intermediate transaction results must be hidden from other concurrently executed
transactions.
5. Durability. After a transaction completes successfully, the changes it has made to
the database persist, even if there are system failures
6. Schedule – a sequences of instructions that specify the chronological order in which
instructions of concurrent transactions are executed
7. If a schedule S can be transformed into a schedule S´ by a series of swaps of non-
conflicting instructions, we say that S and S´ are conflict serializable.

PL/SQL
1. Cursor-The oracle engine use a work area for its internal processing in order to
execute an SQL statement. This work area is private to SQL operation is called cursor.
2. The data is stored into cursor is called active data set.
3. A database trigger is procedural code that is automatically executed in response to
certain events on a particular table in a database.
4. A row trigger is fired once for each row that is affected by DML command.
5. Statement Level Trigger: It is fired once on behalf of the triggering statement,
independent on number of rows the triggering statements affect.

Query Processing

1. Query processing – refers to the range of activities involved in extracting data from a
database.
2. A relational algebra operation annotated with instruction on how to evaluate is
called evaluation primitive.
3. Query optimization is process of selecting the most efficient query-evaluation plan
from among the many strategies usually possible for processing a given query
especially if the query is complex.

85 Prepared By: Dr. Vipul Vekariya