MODULE-3

Introduction to IC Engines: Components and working principles, 4-Stroke Petrol and Diesel
engines, Application of IC Engines, performance of IC engines (Simple numerical).
Introduction to IC Engines
Internal Combustion Engines (IC Engines) are a class of engines that generate power by burning
fuel inside a combustion chamber. These engines are widely used in various applications, including
automobiles, motorcycles, airplanes, and industrial power generation. The key principle behind IC
engines is the conversion of chemical energy in fuel into mechanical energy through controlled
combustion.
Components:

Figure 8.2 illustrates the principal parts of a IC engine in its simplest form. The pictorial view of IC
engine is shown in figure 8.3 for clear understanding of its constructional and operational features.
The various parts are briefed as follows.

a) Cylinder (Cylinder Block)

The cylinder, as the name indicates is a cylindrical shaped component in which combustion of fuel
takes place. The cylinder is usually made from gray cast iron or steel alloys in order to withstand the
high pressure and temperature generated inside the cylinder due to combustion of fuel. The functions
of the cylinder include:

 to contain the working fluid under pressure, and

 to guide the piston while reciprocating inside the cylinder.
b) Cylinder Head
The top portion of the cylinder is closed by a removable component called cylinder head. It is usually
made from cast iron or alloys of cast iron. The cylinder head is designed to incorp orate inlet and
exhaust valves, or other components like spark plug, or fuel injector.

c) P i s t o n
The piston is a cylindrical shaped component that fits perfectly inside the cylinder. The primary
functions of the piston include:

 to compress the charge (fuel) during the compression stroke

 to receive the force or impulse produced by the combustion of fuel, and to transmit this force
to the crankshaft through the connecting rod.
 Act as a guide (supporting member) for the upper end of the connecting rod.
 Serve as a carrier for the piston rings that are used to seal the combustion chamber from the
crankcase.
Pistons are usually made from cast iron, or aluminum alloy for lightness.

d) Piston Rings
Towards the top of the piston, a few grooves are provided to accommodate the piston rings. The piston
rings are of two types: compression ring and oil ring.
  Compression ring
The compression rings (at least 2 rings) press hard with the cylinder walls maintaining a tight seal between the
piston and the cylinder. This is required to prevent the high pressure gases from escaping into the crankcase.
 Oil ring
The function of the oil ring is to extract the excess lubricating oil from the cylinder walls and send it back to the
oil sump through the holes provided on the piston. These holes are called oil holes.

Figure 8.2 Principal Parts of IC engine

e) Connecting Rod
The connecting rod forms a link between the piston and the crankshaft. The upper end of t he
connecting rod is connected to the piston by means of a piston pin or gudgeon pin, while its
lower end is connected to the crankshaft through the crank. The function of the connecting
rod is to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion of the crankshaft.
f) Crank
The crank is a lever, with one of its end connected to the lower end of the connecting rod,
while the other end connected to the crankshaft.
g) Crankshaft
The crankshaft transmits the power developed by the engine through the flywheel, clutch,
transmission and differential to drive (move) the vehicle. The crankshaft is forged or cast
from an alloy of steel and nickel.
 h) Crankcase
Crankcase is the lower part of the cylinder block that encloses the crankshaft & provides a
reservoir for the lubricating oil.
i) Flywheel
The flywheel is a large disc or a wheel mounted on the crankshaft, forming an inertial mass
that stores rotational energy and supplies the same for the piston to reciprocate during
subsequent strokes.
j) Valves
There are two valves for each cylinder: inlet valve and exhaust valve. Fresh air and/or fuel
mixture enters the engine cylinder through the inlet valve, while the burnt gases are
discharged outside the cylinder through the exhaust valve. Both the valves are opened and
closed by means of cams driven by the camshaft through a timing gear or chain so that the
charge enters or discharges the cylinder at the right time.
Working principles, 4-Stroke Petrol:
In 4-s engines, the working cycle is completed in four different strokes (movement) of the
piston, or two revolutions of the crankshaft. The four different strokes performed are:
(i) Suction stroke (ii) Compression stroke (iii) Power stroke (iv) Exhaust stroke

Four stroke engines are commonly classified based on the type of fuel used. They are:

(a) 4-s Petrol engine, where petrol is used as fuel

(b) 4-s Diesel engine, where diesel is used as fuel.

8.5.1 Four-Stroke (4-s) Petrol Engine

A four-stroke petrol engine works on Otto cycle. Hence it is also called Otto cycle engine.
The charge used in a 4-s petrol engine is a mixture of air and petrol, and is supplied by the
carburetor in suitable proportions. The charge is ignited by the spark generated by a spark
plug, and for this reason, petrol engines are also called Spark Ignition (SI) engines. Four-
stroke petrol engines are commonly used in scooters, motor bikes, cars, large boats, etc.
Working
Figure 8.5 shows the working principle of a 4-s petrol engine. The pressure-volume (p-v)
diagram* is shown in figure 8.6. The details regarding each stroke are described in detail as
follows.
a) Suction stroke
At the beginning of the suction stroke, the piston is at the top dead center (TDC), and is about
to move towards the bottom dead center (BDC). At this instance, the inlet valve is opened and
the exhaust value is closed. Refer figure 8.5 (a).
The downward movement of the piston produces suction (partial vacuum) in the cylinder,
due to which fresh charge of air and petrol mixture is drawn into the cylinder through the
inlet valve. When the piston reaches the BDC, the suction stroke ends and the inlet valve is
closed. The suction of air takes place at atmospheric pressure, and is represented by the line
Ali on p-v diagram. With this stroke, the crankshaft rotates through 180° or half-revolution.
The energy required for the piston movement is taken from a battery.

Figure 8.5 Working principle of 4-s petrol engine

b) Compression stroke
During the compression stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC. Both the inlet and
exhaust valves remain closed as shown in figure 8.5 (b). As the piston moves upwards, the
air-petrol mixture in the cylinder gets compressed (squeezed), due to which the pressure and
temperature of the mixture increases. The compression process is adiabatic^ in nature and
is shown by the curve BC on p-v diagram. When the piston is about to reach the TDC, the
spark plug initiates a spark that ignites the air-petrol mixture. Combustion of fuel takes place
at constant volume as shown by the line CD on p-v diagram. Since combustion of fuel takes
place at constant volume, 4-s petrol engines are also called as constant volume cycle engines.
With this stroke, the crankshaft rotates by another 180° or half revolution. Th e energy
required for the piston movement is taken from a battery.
c) Power stroke (Expansion stroke or Working stroke)
During this stroke, both the valves will remain closed. As the combustion of fuel takes place,
the burnt gases expand and exert a large force on the piston causing it to move rapidly from
the TDC to BDC. Refer figure 8.5 (c). The force (or power) is transmitted to the crankshaft
through the connecting rod. As a result, the crankshaft rotates at high speeds. The crankshaft
then transmits the power through clutches, gears, chains, etc., to turn the wheels of the vehicle
and cause it to move. The expansion of gases is adiabatic in nature and is shown by the curve
DE on p-v diagram. Since the actual power or work is produced by the engine in this stroke, it
is also called as power stroke or working stroke. Also, expansion of gases occurs during this
stroke, and hence the name expansion stroke.
c) Exhaust stroke
Towards the end of the expansion stroke, the exhaust valve opens, while the inlet valve remains
closed. Refer figure 8.5(d). A part of the burnt gases due to their own expansion escapes out
of the cylinder through the exhaust valve. This drop in pressure at constant volume inside the
cylinder is represented by the line EB on p-v diagram. The exhaust stroke begins when the
piston starts moving from the BDC to TDC. The energy for this stroke is supplied by the
flywheel, which it had absorbed in the previous stroke. As the piston moves upwards, it forces
the remaining burnt gases to the atmosphere through the exhaust valve. The exhaust taking
place at atmospheric pressure is shown by the line BA on p-v diagram.
When the piston reaches the TDC, the exhaust valve closes and the working cycle is completed.
In the next cycle, the piston starts moving from TDC to BDC, the inlet valve opens allowing
fresh charge to enter into the cylinder, and the process continues. Thus, the four different
strokes or one working cycle is completed when the crankshaft rotates through 720° or two
revolutions.

Figure 8.6 p-v diagram for 4-s petrol engine

8.5.2 Working principles, 4-Stroke Diesel:
A 4-s Diesel engine works on Diesel cycle. Hence it is also called Diesel cycle engine. The
working principle is similar to that of 4-s petrol engine, except a fuel injector is used in place
of spark plug, and only air enters the cylinder during the suction stroke and gets compressed
in the compression stroke. Four-stroke diesel engines are particularly preferred for heavy
duty applications, as in buses, trucks, tractors, bulldozers, marine, and industrial
applications.
Working
Figure 8.7 shows the working principle of a 4-s diesel engine. The pressure-volume (p-v)
diagram is shown in figure 8.8. The details regarding each stroke are described in detail as
follows.
a) Suction stroke
At the beginning of the suction stroke, the piston is at the top dead center (TDC), and is
about to move towards the bottom dead center (BDC). At this instance, the inlet valve is
opened and the exhaust value is closed. Refer figure 8.7 (a). The downward movement of
the piston produces suction (partial vacuum) in the cylinder, due to which air from the
atmosphere is drawn into the cylinder through the inlet valve. When the piston reaches the
BDC, the suction stroke ends and the inlet valve is closed. The suction of air takes place at
atmospheric pressure, and is represented by the line AB on p-v diagram. With this stroke,
the crankshaft rotates through 180° or half-revolution. The energy required for the piston
movement is taken from a battery.
b) Compression stroke
During the compression stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC. Both the inlet and
exhaust valves remain closed as shown in figure 8.7 (b). As the piston moves upwards, the
air in the cylinder gets compressed (squeezed), due to which the pressure and temperature
of the air increases. The compression process is adiabatic in nature and is shown by the
curve BC on p-v diagram. When the piston is about to reach the TDC, a metered quantity
of diesel oil is injected in the form of fine sprays into the hot compressed air by a fuel
injector. Combustion of fuel takes place at constant pressure as shown by Om line CD on
p-v diagram. Since combustion of fuel takes place at constant pressure, 4-s diesel engines
are also called al constant pressure cycle engines. With this stroke, the crankshaft rotates
by another 180° or half revolution. The energy required for the piston movement is taken
from a battery. Since the heat of compression ignites the diesel in the cylinder, diesel
engines are also called as compression ignition engines,
c) Power stroke (Expansion stroke or Working stroke)
During this stroke, both the valves will remain closed. As the combustion of fuel takes
place, the burnt gases expand and exert a large force on the piston causing it to move rapidly
from the TDC to BDC. Refer figure 8.7 (c). The force (or power) is transmitted to the
crankshaft through the connecting rod. As a result, the crankshaft rotates at high speeds.
The crankshaft then transmits the power through clutches, gears, and other transmission
elements to turn the wheels of the vehicle and cause it to move. The expansion of gases is
adiabatic in nature and is shown by the curve DE on p-v diagram. Since the actual power
or work is produced by the engine in this stroke, it is also called as power stroke or working
stroke. Also, expansion of gases occurs during this stroke, and hence the name expansio n
stroke.
d) Exhaust stroke
Towards the end of the expansion stroke, the exhaust valve opens, while the inlet valve
remains closed. Refer figure 8.7 (d). A part of the burnt gases due to their own expansion
escapes out of the cylinder through the exhaust valve. This drop in pressure at constant
volume inside the cylinder is represented by the line EB on p-v diagram. The exhaust stroke
begins when the piston starts moving from the BDC to TDC. The energy for this stroke is
supplied by the flywheel, which it had absorbed in the previous stroke. As the piston moves
upwards, it forces the remaining burnt gases to the atmosphere through the exhaust valve.
The exhaust taking place at atmospheric pressure is shown by the line BA on p -v diagram.
When the piston reaches the TDC, the exhaust valve closes and the working cycle is
completed. In the next cycle, the piston starts moving from TDC to BDC, the inlet valve opens
allowing fresh air from the atmosphere to enter into the cylinder, and the process continues.
Thus, the four different strokes or one working cycle is completed when the crankshaft rotates
through 720° or two revolutions.

Figure 8.7 Working principle of Four stroke (4-s) diesel engine

 Figure 8.8 Theoretical p-v diagram for 4-s diesel engine

8.6 FOUR STROKE PETROL v/s DIESEL ENGINE

Sl Description Petrol Engine Diesel Engine
No (Spark Ignition Engine) (Compression Ignition Engine)

1 Cycle of Works on Otto cycle or constant Works on Diesel cycle or constant

operation volume combustion cycle. pressure combustion cycle
2 Fuel used Petrol or Gasoline. Diesel
3 Admission of Mixture of air and petrol enters the Only air enters the cylinder during
charge cylinder during the suction stroke. suction stroke. Diesel is injected at the
end of compression stroke.
4 Compression Compression ratio ranges from 6:1 to Compression ratio is comparatively
ratio 10:1 high and is in the range of 16:1 to 22:1.
5 Ignition of fuel Fuel is ignited by a spark generated The heat of compression of air ignites
by the spark plug. the fuel.
6 Power developed Power developed is low due to low Comparatively higher due to high
compression ratios. compression ratios.
7 Thermal Thermal efficiency is low due to low Comparatively higher due to high
efficiency compression ratios compression ratios.
8 Fuel consumption More Comparatively less
9 Weight/space Lighter in weight and also occupies In order to withstand high
occupied less space. temperatures and pressures during
compression, the engine is designed to
be somewhat heavier and stronger.
Also occupies more space.
10 Speed Due to light weight, they run at high Due to heavy weight, they run at
speeds. low/medium speeds.
11 Uses Used in scooters, motor bikes, cars, Used in buses, trucks, tractor,
large boats, etc. bulldozers, marine, and industrial
applications.
 12 Torque Low torque High torque. The engine can pull
heavy loads easily than a petrol
engine.
13 Running/ The initial cost of petrol engine is Initial cost of diesel engine is high,
operating low, but the running cost is high, but the running cost is low, because
costs because the cost of petrol is high and the cost of diesel oil is less, and also
also fuel consumed is more. fuel consumed is less.
14 Maintenance Low Comparatively higher, because they
cost require frequent maintenance.
15 Engine life Petrol destroys lubrication. The Diesel fuel has better lubrication
Life expectancy of the engine is properties, and also increased strength
comparatively low. of parts used improves the engine life.
16 Noise & Negligible due to low operating Noise and vibrations are high due to
vibration pressures inside the cylinder. higher operating pressures inside the
cylinder.
17 Pollution Exhaust pollution is more. The air- Diesel engine consumes less fuel
petrol mixture supplied by the than petrol engine. Also, they burn
carburetor is constant, and hence fuel in excess air which results in
the un-burnt fuel due to lack of air wide range of air-fuel ratios. Hence
escapes to the atmosphere causing less pollution. However they produce
more pollution. black soot at low temperatures, as the
fuel is not fully atomized.
18 Starting of Can be easily started even in Difficult to start in cold conditions.
engine cold conditions.
19 Governing Quantitative method of Qualitative method of governing is
governing is employed. employed.
20 Uses Used in scooters, motor bikes, cars, Preferred for heavy duty applications,
large boats, etc. as in buses, trucks, tractors,
bulldozers, marine, and
industrial applications.

8.9 APPLICATIONS OF IC ENGINES

IC engine has been the dominant prime mover since its invention. Applications range from
vehicle propulsion like automobiles, ships, locomotives, etc., driving small machines like lawn
movers, chain saws, etc., to power generating sets. A few applications from the syllabus point of
view are briefed as follows:
 Automobiles
IC engine is the heart of an automobile. It is the most common power source for driving
automobiles. Cars, bikes and mopeds are propelled by spark ignition IC engine, which makes use
of petrol as fuel, while heavy duty vehicles like trucks and buses, and even some types of cars are
propelled by compression ignition IC engine, which makes use of Diesel as fuel.
 Power generation
IC engines can be used to generate power, however only in small capacities as back-up or stand-
by power station and gensets. Four-stroke Diesel engines are used as the prime mover for the
generation of electrical energy. Although expensive due to maintenance and fuel costs, Diesel power
engines are beneficial at places where demand of power is less or unavailable, sufficient quantity of
coal and water is not available, and the transportation facilities are inadequate. Small capacity
gensets finds applications in hospitals, construction sites, business, and recreational events, etc.
 Agriculture
Since Diesel engines produce more torque (high power output) at low speeds, they are preferred
for various agricultural applications. Diesel engine powered tractors helps in faster
ploughing/tilling, planting, and harvesting, along with the ability to manage spraying of pesticides
and water crops in the event of droughts. Tractors can be used for different jobs by attaching
implements and tools, as single unit. They are also used for transportation of agricultural
requirements.
 Marine & Aircraft propulsion
In view of their robustness, operating simplicity and fuel economy, Diesel engines are used to drive
the ship's propeller and move the ship through water. Small general aviation aircrafts like sea
plane, flight trainers, sports plane, and private airplanes are powered by IC engines.
Introduction to Refrigeration and Air Conditioning: Principle of refrigeration, Refrigerants
and their desirable properties. Working principle of VCR refrigeration system, working principle
of room air conditioner & Applications of air Conditioners

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Refrigeration is one of those miracles of modern living that totally changes life. Food stuff, medical
supplies, and other important products have to be kept cool to stay fresh and usable. It is well-known
that bacteria and enzymatic activity are responsible for degradation (spoilage) of food stuffs and other
products. However, by cooling or reducing the temperature of these products, the growth of bacteria
and enzymatic activity can be reduced. This helps to preserve the products for longer time. For
example, bacteria will spoil milk in two or three hours, if it is left out in the kitchen at room temperature.
However, by reducing the temperature of the milk, it will stay fresh for a week or two. By freezing* the
milk, the growth of bacteria can be stopped altogether, and the milk can be stored for months.
The process of cooling or reducing the temperature of a substance below that of the surrounding
atmosphere, and maintaining this lower temperature within the boundary of a given space is
called Refrigeration. The machine or device employed to produce refrigeration effect is called
Refrigerating machine or Refrigerator (often called a fridge for short).
Refrigeration and air conditioning are generally treated in a single subject due to the fact that one of
the most important applications of refrigeration is air conditioning. Air conditioning involves
simultaneous control of temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and air motion in a confined space. Air
conditioning has made the living conditions more comfortable, hygienic and healthy in offices,
laboratories and homes. The present chapter deals with the fundamentals, working principles and
applications of refrigeration and air conditioning in a simple and an interesting manner.

10.2 PRINCIPLE OF REFRIGERATION

The primary purpose of refrigeration is to keep the substance cold. However cold is only the
absence of heat, just as darkness is the absence of light. Hence in order to keep the substance cold,
heat must be continuously removed from the given substance. According to the law of
thermodynamics, heat naturally flows from a hot substance to a cold substance. But if heat has to
flow from a cold substance to a hot substance, some form of work has to be performed.
Refrigeration works on the above principle, wherein heat is continuously extracted from the low
temperature substance by performing mechanical work, and rejecting this heat to the surrounding
atmosphere (high temperature level). A carrier substance is used to extract the heat, and this
substance is known as refrigerant. The refrigerant is a chemical substance, and includes ammonia,
carbon dioxide, methyl chloride, Freon, etc.
The refrigerant in the liquid state is made to circulate in a cycle, through a series of events where it
undergoes a change of phase from liquid to vapour (gaseous), and again back to the liquid state. During
its change from liquid to vapour state, it absorbs heat from the substance, & a change from vapour to
liquid phase helps in rejection of heat to the surroundings. The process repeats again & again thereby
maintaining low temperatures in the given space or substance.
10.3. Vapour Compression Refrigerator (VCR)
Vapour compression refrigerator works on vapour compression cycle, and finds use for domestic
(household) purpose►. as well as in many large commercial and industrial refrigeration. The details
of VCR are briefed as follows.
Construction

Figure 10.1 shows the refrigeration circuit with four basic components in its simplest form.
The basic components include: evaporator, compressor, condenser, & expansion valve.
The evaporator is a component located inside the cabinet in which the substance has to be
cooled. It consists of a serpentine or coiled set of pipes through which the refrigerant flow.
A reciprocating compressor with a piston-cylinder arrangement is placed at the bottom portion of the
refrigerator. The compressor is driven by an electric motor from an AC power supply. It performs two
functions:

 Compress the vapour refrigerant to high pressures and temperatures.

 Circulate the refrigerant in a circuit so that the refrigerant can perform its heat absorbing
function over and over again.
The condenser is similar in appearance to the evaporator, and is usually placed at the back of t he
refrigerator. The condenser acts like a heat exchanger, wherein the vapour refrigerant while flowing
through it, gives away its heat to the cooling medium (air / water) circu lating around the coils. The
vapour refrigerant after rejecting heat gets condensed to liquid state.

The expansion valve is a small orifice (tiny opening), which performs two functions:
 Reduce the pressure of the refrigerant as it flows through it.
 Regulate the flow of refrigerant to the evaporator.

Figure 10.1 Vapour compression refrigeration cycle

Working
To begin with, let us assume that the low pressure and low temperature liquid refrigerant (partly vapour)
in the evaporator absorbs the heat from the inside of the cabinet and undergoes a change of phase from
liquid to vapour. This vapour at low temperature and low pressure is drawn into the compressor,
where it is compressed (squeezed) to high pressure and temperature. The compressor then circulates
the refrigerant to the condenser.
While the high-temperature, high-pressure refrigerant flows through the condenser, it gives away
its latent heat to the cooling medium, either air or water flowing around the condenser coils. As a
result, the vapour refrigerant gets condensed to liquid state. The temperature of the refrigerant
decreases, but its pressure remains constant.
The high pressure and low temperature liquid refrigerant coming from the condenser passes through
the expansion valve (a tiny opening), where it is expanded to low pressure and temperatures. The
temperature of the refrigerant after expansion will be below than the temperature inside the cabinet.
The low pressure, low temperature liquid refrigerant now enters the evaporator where it absorbs heat
from the cabinet and changes to vapour phase. The low pressure, low temperature vapour refrigerant
is drawn into the compressor and the cycle repeats. Thus, heat is continuously extracted from
the cabinet thereby keeping the substance inside the cabinet at the required lower temperature.
10.5 REFRIGERANTS

A refrigerant is a chemical substance that absorbs heat from a substance (or given space) by evaporating
at a low temperature and pressure, and rejecting the heat by condensing at a high temperature and
pressure. The refrigerant does not undergo any chemical change during the process, instead undergoes
a change of phase from liquid to vapour by absorbing heat, and vapour to liquid phase by rejecting
the heat. The different types of refrigerants include: ammonia, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, methyl
chloride, Freon, etc.
10.5.1 Properties of Refrigerants
Refrigerants are specially selected substances that have certain characteristics. These include;
a) Thermodynamic properties
 Low boiling point. A good refrigerant should have a boiling point below the target temperature.
Since boiling point is affected by pressure*, refrigerants should be selected based on the operating
pressures.
 Low freezing point, so that the liquid refrigerant must not solidify under a specified pressure.
 High latent heat of vapoursation, so that heat transfer can occur with least possible
circulating refrigerant.
 High critical temperature A, for easy condensation of refrigerant vapour.
b) Physical properties
 Low viscosity for easy circulation of the refrigerant.
  Low liquid specific heat, and high vapour specific heat so as to increase the refrigerating effect
per kg of refrigerant circulated.
 Low specific volume, so that the refrigerant occupies minimum space thereby keeping th e
compressor capacity to a minimum and pipe diameters relatively small.
 High thermal conductivity, so that heat transfer takes place easily.
 High electric insulation.
c) Chemical properties
 Non-toxic for health and safety reasons.
 Non-flammable & non-explosive to avoid risks of fire and explosion.
 Non-corrosive, so that the refrigerant does not corrode the machine components.
 Good chemical stability, so that it does not disassociate or break down. The refrigerant has to be
stable for the life time of the refrigerator.
 Miscible with lubricating oil, i.e., the refrigerant should have good mixing* properties with the
lubricant oil, which is used to lubricate the moving parts of the compressor.
d) Other properties
Availability • Low cost • Ease of handling • No impact on the ozone layer
10.5.2 Types of Refrigerants
There are various types of refrigerants in use since the invention of refrigeration. Yet the search for
a better refrigerant is a ongoing process. Some of the commonly used refrigerants, its properties and
uses are briefed as follows.
a) Ammonia
Ammonia is the oldest and widely used of all the refrigerants. It has a norma l boiling point
temperature of -33.3°C, soluble in water, produce high refrigeration effect, costs less, and does not
harm the ozone layer. However it is highly toxic, not miscible with lubricating oil, explosive,
moderately flammable, irritating and corrosive. These food destroying properties makes it unsuitable
for domestic refrigerators. But this type of refrigerant is used where its toxic nature is not considered
seriously. It is used in large commercial applications like ice manufacturing plants, packaging plants,
cold storage, etc.

b) Sulphur dioxide
Sulphur dioxide is non-flammable, non-corrosive, absorbs a lot of heat in evaporation, and
dissolves oil well. However, it has a high boiling point of -10°C resulting in low refrigerating
effect. Also, it is suffocating and possesses irritating odour, and in the presence of moisture
it forms sulphuric acid that is corrosive to refrigerator parts. The refrigerant was used in
domestic refrigerators in olden days, but now obsolete (no longer used).
c) Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is non-toxic, non-flammable, inexpensive, and odourless gas. It has a normal boiling
point of-77.6°C. It is nearly 1.53 times heavier than air, and hence requires high operating pressures
thereby lowering the efficiency of refrigeration. However, due to its low specific volume, the plant
size can be made compact (small in size) to be used in large ships, theater air conditioning systems,
and similar such applications where space consideration is more important.
d) F r e o n
Freon group of refrigerants are highly efficient, and overcomes the disadvantages of all the above
types of refrigerants. However, these refrigerants were discovered to deplete the ozone layer thereby
making us to search for newer refrigerants. Two types of freon refrigerants are briefed as follows.
 Freon-12 (R 12)
Freon-12. shortly designated as R12 with a chemical formula CC/2F2 (dichloro difluoromethane)
is non-flammable, non-explosive, non-corrosive and odourless. It has a normal boiling point of -
29.8°C. It is used in small capacity equipment’s such as domestic refrigerators, water coolers,
air conditioners, automobiles, etc.
 Freon-22 (R 22)
Freon-22, shortly designated as R22 with a chemical formula CHCIF, (chloro difuoromethane)
has almost similar properties as that of Freon-12. It has a normal boiling point of -40.8°C that
is about 10° less than that of Freon-12. It is therefore, a comparatively high pressure refrigerant.
Freon-22 is employed in large capacity plants like packaged air conditioning units where size
of equipment and economy are important. It is also used for low and medium temperature
refrigeration.
Note In India, from the year 2010, only recycled or saved stocks of Freon refrigerants can be used. It
will no longer be manufactured.
e) Modern Refrigerants — HFC (Hydro Fluoro Carbon)
Hydrofluoro carbons (HFCs) are a family of hydrocarbons containing one or several fluorine
atoms, but no chlorine atoms; thus have no ozone depleting potential. Members of this family of
compounds possess favourable thermodynamic, health and safety properties to be used as an alternative
refrigerant to R12 and R22. For example R134A known as tetra fluoromethane (CH2FCF 3) is a HFC
compound with no chlorine content, is non-corrosive, non-toxic, and non-flammable. It has a normal
boiling point of -15°C. It is identified as a replacement for R12 refrigerant.
R134A is used for medium temperature applications such as air conditioning and commercial
refrigeration. The refrigerant in widely used in modern car air conditioners. Other refrigerant of
HFC compounds include R407C. R410A, etc.
10.8.1 Room Air Conditioner
Room air conditioner, also called window units is the simplest form of air conditioning
designed to cool a single room. Figure 10.3 shows the top view of the various components
of a room air conditioner.
Construction
The air conditioner unit mainly consists of a compressor, condenser, expansion valve, and a
evaporator working in a vapour compression cycle. Other components include an air filter,
a control panel, a double shaft motor that drives a fan at one end and a blower at the other
end. The evaporator and expansion valve are located at the room side (indoor), while the
compressor and condenser are located at the outdoor side. The room side and the outdoor
side of the unit are separated by an insulated partition wall within the casing of the air
conditioner as shown in the figure.

Working

The blower draws the warm air from the room through the air filter and over the evaporator coils.
The low pressure and low temperature liquid refrigerant (partly vapour) flowing through the
evaporator coils absorb heat from the warm air and undergoes a change of phase from liquid to
vapour. The blower then delivers the cool air to the room where it mixes with the room air to
bring down the temperature and humidity of the room.
The low temperature and low pressure vapour refrigerant from the evaporator is drawn by the suction
of the compressor, which compresses it to high pressure and temperature. The high pressure, high
temperature vapour refrigerant now flows through the condenser coils. The fan located at the outdoor
side draws atmospheric air and blows it over the condenser coils. The heat contained in the refrigerant
is dissipated to the atmosphere, and as a result, the vapour refrigerant condenses to liquid state.
The high pressure, low temperature liquid refrigerant now enters the expansion valve, where it is
expanded to low pressure and temperature. The low pressure and low temperature liquid refrigerant
(partly vapour) enters the evaporator coils, absorb heat from the warm air, and the cycle repeats
until the desired temperature inside the room is achieved.
After the desired room temperature has been achieved, the thermostat in the air conditioner unit cuts
the power supply to turn the compressor OFF. As the room warms up, the thermostat initiates the
power supply and the cycle repeats till the desired temperature in the room is achieved. Usually, the
compressor has to be turned OFF for at least 3 minutes before turning ON again to prevent it from
being damaged.

11.9 APPLICATIONS OF AIR CONDITIONING

Tide various applications of air conditioning can be grouped into two categories namely, comfort
applications and process applications, briefed as follows:

a) Comfort applications
Comfort applications aims to provide an indoor environment that remains constant in a range
preferred by human beings despite variations in external weather conditions or internal heat loads.
Applications include:
• Residential house and buildings, Institutional buildings like hospitals, academic laboratories, etc.,
commercial buildings like malls, shopping centers, restaurants, offices, etc., and transportation like cars,
buses, ships, aircrafts, space craft etc.

b) Process applications
Process applications aims to provide a suitable environment for a process being carried out,
irrespective of changes in internal heat loads and external weather conditions. Applications include:
 Medical operation theaters, where air is filtered to high levels to reduce infection risk, and the
humidity controlled to limit patient dehydration, etc.
 Industrial environment, especially in the production of integrated chips, microprocessors, nano
material fabrication, and other production environments like textile industries that require a very
high level of air cleanliness and control over humidity for efficient production & maintenance
of machines & equipments.
 For breeding laboratory animals
 Oil refineries, chemical plants and petrochemical plants, to maintain processes at low
temperatures. For example, liquefy gases like oxygen, nitrogen, propane and methane,
alkylation of butane and butaneto to produce a high octane gasoline component, etc.
 Pharmaceutical industries, for the production procedures of biological and
biochemical reactions, drug and medicine productions etc.
 Dam centers that store groups of servers used to process and distribute data. The servers
naturally produce plenty of heat during operation, requiring efficient cooling system.
 Food and beverage industries, etc.