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Chapter 2 - Bag Implementations that use Arrays

True/False (10)

1. Any methods that a core method might call are part of the core group.

Answer: true

2. You should implement all methods of an ADT implementation before testing to make testing
easier.

3. You should never suppress compiler

warnings. Answer: false

4. When defining the bag class, you should implement the isArrayFull and remove operations first.

Answer: false

5. When defining the bag class write methods that have simple implementation first to get them
out of the way.

6. A class should not return a reference to an array that is a private data

field. Answer: true

7. A final class is more secure than one that is not final.

8. Write stubs early in the implementation of an ADT so you can begin testing early.

Answer: true

9. When testing a method, you only need to check for arguments that lie within the legal range of
their corresponding parameter.

10. When comparing objects in a bag, we assume that the class to which the objects belong
defines its own version of equals.

Answer: true
Short Answer (7)

1. It is a good practice to identify a group of core methods to implement and test before
continuing with the rest of the class definition. What type of methods should you begin with?

Answer: You should begin with methods that add to the collection or methods that have complex
implementations.

2. Why is it better to implement the add operation in a collection before implementing the
remove operation?

Answer: You cannot test remove functionality until you have written and tested add functionality.

3. What is the difference between the numberOfEntries data field in the ArrayBag implementation
and the DEFAULT_CAPACITY field?

Answer: If the client does not specify the size of the bag, the numberOfEntries field will be set to the
DEFAULT_CAPACITY value in the constructor. Otherwise, the numberOfEntries field will be set to the
size specified by the client.

4. Why is it a safer practice for the toArray method to return a copy of the array instead of
a reference to the array?

Answer: A client would then have direct access to the private data and could either inadvertently or
maliciously alter the data without using the public methods of the class.

5. What is fail-safe programming?

Answer: It is the practice of checking for anticipated errors in your program.

6. Why is it a good security practice to declare the ArrayBag to be a final class?

Answer: A programmer cannot use inheritance to change its behavior.

7. Why doesn’t the contains method return the index of a located entry?

Answer: Returning the index implies an explicit position in the array. A client should be shielded
from this level of detail.

Multiple Choice (30) WARNING: CORRECT ANSWERS ARE IN THE SAME POSITION AND TAGGED
WITH **. YOU SHOULD RANDOMIZE THE LOCATION OF THE CORRECT ANSWERS IN YOUR EXAM.

1. Which of the following methods is a good candidate for a core method:

a. add() **
 b. clear()
c. contains()
d. remove()

2. Which of the following methods is a good candidate for a core method:

a. add()
b. toArray()
c. isArrayFull()
d. all of the above **

3. Which one of the following Java statements allocates an array in the bag constructor causing a
compiler warning for an unchecked operation? Assume capacity is an integer.
a. bag = (T[ ]) new Object[capacity]; **
b. bag = new T[capacity];
c. bag = new Object[capacity];
d. bag = new (T[ ]) Object[capacity];

4. Which instruction suppresses an unchecked-cast warning from the compiler?

a. @SuppressWarnings(“unchecked”) **
b. @SuppressUnchecked()
c. @SuppressUncheckedWarnings()
d. @Warning(“suppress unchecked”)

5. What are the consequences of returning a reference to the bag array in the toArray method?
a. the return variable is an alias for the private instance array variable
b. the client will have direct access to the private instance array variable
c. the client could change the contents of the private instance array variable without
using the public access methods
d. all of the above **

6. Which one of the following is considered a safe and secure programming practice?
a. validating input data and arguments to a method **
b. identifying a group of core methods to implement first
c. using generic data types
d. none of the above

7. Which one of the following is considered a safe and secure programming practice?
a. making no assumptions about the actions of clients and users **
b. using @SupressWarning (“unchecked”)
c. adding the comments and headers of the public methods to the class by copying
them from the interface
 d. all of the above

8. When implementing the bag ADT, which scenario could result in a security problem?
a. a constructor throw an exception or error before completing its initialization **
b. the programmer validates input data to a method
c. generics are used to restrict data types of the entries in the collection
d. a group of core methods is not defined

9. When implementing the bag ADT, which scenario could result in a security problem?
a. a client attempts to create a bag whose capacity exceeds a given limit **
b. a SecurityException is thrown in the constructor
c. an IllegalStateException is thrown in the constructor
d. the delete method is implemented before the add method

10. An incomplete definition of a method is called a .

a. stub **
b. core method
c. fail-safe method
d. security problem

11. A stub is created for what purpose?

a. to avoid syntax errors **
b. to avoid duplicate code
c. to protect the integrity of the ADT
d. to practice fail-safe programming

12. A stub should

a. report that is was invoked by displaying a message
b. include a return statement that returns a dummy value
c. be written early for testing programs
d. all of the above **

13. A test driver for the bad add method should check for which one of the following
a. an over capacity condition **
b. printing elements of the bag
c. adding elements of the correct type
d. an empty bag condition

14. The method remove that has no parameter in the bag implementation
a. removes the last entry in the array **
b. removes the first entry in the array
c. removes a random entry in the array
 d. none of the above

15. If a bag is empty before the remove method executes, it

a. returns null **
b. throw an exception
c. returns an error message
d. all of the above

16. Decrementing the private class variable numberOfEntries in a bag

a. causes the last entry to be ignored **
b. causes an IllegalState exception to be thrown
c. destroys the integrity of the bag container
d. is a security problem

17. In the remove method, setting the last entry of the array to null
a. flags the removed object for garbage collection
b. prevents malicious code from accessing it
c. is a good security practice
d. all of the above **

18. The remove method replaces the removed entry with null because
a. the entry could potentially be scheduled for garbage collection **
b. the client expects a null return value
c. it is a fail-safe programming practice
d. otherwise it could be considered a duplicate value

19. When calling the remove method with an argument if there are multiple entries
a. exactly which occurrence removed is unspecified
b. only one occurrence is removed
c. the first occurrence is removed
d. all of the above **

20. The most efficient approach to dealing with a gap left in an array after removing an entry from a
bag is to
a. replace the entry being removed with the last entry in the array and replace the
last entry with null **
b. replace the entry being removed with the first entry in the array and replace the first
entry with null
c. shift subsequent entries and replace the duplicate reference to the last entry with null
d. replace the entry being removed with null
21. If an array bag contains the entries “lions”, “elephants”, “otters”, “bears”, “tigers”, “lemurs” and
a call to the remove method with the entry “bears” is made, what does the array look like after
remove?
a. ““lions”, “elephants”, “otters”, “lemurs”, “tigers”, null **
b. “lions”, “elephants”, “otters”, null, “tigers”, “lemurs”
c. “lions”, “elephants”, “otters”, “tigers”, “lemurs”, null
d. “lions”, “elephants”, “otters”, “tigers”, “lemurs”

22. A return value of -1 from the getIndex method indicates

a. the entry was not present in the bag **
b. the entry was found at the end of the array
c. the bag was empty
d. the bag was full

23. A fixed size array

a. has a limited capacity
b. can waste memory
c. prevents expansion when the bag becomes full
d. all of the above **

24. In order to resize an array to accommodate a larger bag, you must

a. define an alias that references the original array
b. create a new array that is larger than the original array and make the alias reference it
c. copy the contents of the original array reference by the alias to the new array and
discard the original array
d. all of the above **

25. When the need to expand the size of a bag occurs, the common practice is to
a. double the size of the array **
b. increase the size of the array by one to accommodate the new entry
c. use the Fibonacci sequence to determine the incremental size of the new array
d. prompt the user for how much larger the bag will need to be

26. The Java Class Library method to resize an array is called

a. Arrays.copyOf **
b. Arrays.resize
c. Arrays.copy
d. Arrays.double

27. When resizing an array to increase the bag size, if the copy exceeds the maximum memory
specified for the computer, the checkCapacity method should
a. throw an IllegalStateException **
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c. throw a MaxMemoryExceededException
d. return false

28. In a ResizableArrayBag class, why does the add method always return true?
a. to conform to the bag interface **
b. because the array will always double in size
c. returning void is not a fail-safe programming practice
d. all of the above

29. Which of the following is an advantage of using an array to implement the ADT bag?
a. adding an entry to a bag is fast **
b. removing a particular entry requires time to locate the entry
c. increasing the size of the array requires time to copy its entries
d. the client has control over the size of the bag

30. Which of the following is a disadvantage of using an array to implement the ADT bag?
a. increasing the size of the array requires time to copy its entries **
b. adding an entry to a bag is fast
c. removing an unspecified entry from the array is fast
d. all of the above
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
seem idle; but when a portion of the leaf has been folded backward,
out of sight, the folded part may very likely escape notice, and, to
insert it, many pages of matter may afterward require to be overrun:
we have known such cases.
Abbreviate those words only, which you wish the printer to
abbreviate.
Never erase with a lead pencil; for an erasure with lead leaves it
questionable whether or not the marked {p29} word is to go in. Use
ink, drawing the pen horizontally through the words or lines to be
omitted; and be careful that the marking leave off on exactly the
right word. If you afterward regret the cancellation, you may write
“stet” in the margin, and place dots under the canceled words; but
as “stet” may not be noticed, in the presence of obvious erasures,
the better way will be to re-write the passage, and paste it in the
place you wish it to occupy.
Take time to write plainly and legibly. In writing for the press, the
old adage holds good,—“The more haste, the worse speed”; and for
every hour you save by writing hurriedly, you will be called upon to
pay for several hours’ labor in making corrections. Write joinhand:
mistakes often arise from a long word being broken up, as it were,
into two or three words.
I and J are often mistaken for each other. Either imitate the
printed letters, or uniformly carry the loop of the J below the line.
It is often impossible to distinguish Jan. from June, in
manuscript, unless the context furnishes a clew.
Whatever may be the divisions of your work (as books, chapters,
sections, cantos, and the like), let your entire manuscript be paged
in the order of the natural series of numbers from 1 upward. If you
commence each division with 1,—as is sometimes done,—and two or
three divisions are given out as “takes” to compositors, it is obvious
that portions of one division may exchange places with those of
another; and, further, if leaves happen to become transposed, they
can readily be restored to their right {p30} places if no duplicate
numbers have been used in indicating the pages.
Make sure that the books, chapters, etc., are numbered
consecutively. The best proof-reader must confess to some
unguarded moments; and it would be very awkward, after having
had two hundred and forty chapters stereotyped, to find that two
chapter V.’s have been cast, that every subsequent chapter is
numbered one less than it should have been, and that compositor
and proof-reader have exactly followed copy.
Examine your manuscript carefully with reference to the points.
Avoid the dash when any other point will answer your purpose. A
manuscript that is over-punctuated occasions more perplexity than
one that is scarcely pointed at all.
Before sending it to press, get your manuscript into a shape you
can abide by. Alterations made on the proof-sheet must be paid for;
and, further, matter that has undergone alterations seldom makes a
handsome page: some lines will appear crowded, others too widely
spaced.
In writing a footnote¹ let it immediately follow
¹ In many works the footnotes, by a slight change of arrangement, might
advantageously become a portion of the text.
the line of text which contains the asterisk, or other reference-mark;
just as you see in the above example, and do not write it at the
bottom of the manuscript page. The person who makes up the
matter will transfer such note to its proper place.
 If you feel obliged to strike out a word from the {p31} proof,
endeavor to insert another, in the same sentence, and in the same
line if possible, to fill the space. So, if you insert a word or words,
see whether you can strike out, nearly at the same place, as much
as you insert.
When writing for the press, never use a lead pencil. Let your
copy be made with black ink on good white paper. We have been
pained to see the checkered pages of a report to an extensive
religious association, which report had been in the first place wholly
written with a lead pencil: then words canceled, words interlined,
various changes made,—and all these alterations done with pen and
ink. Of course, sleeve and hand rubbing over the plumbago gave the
whole a dingy and blurred appearance. The effect of the ink
sprinkled among the faded pencilings was so much like that of
mending an old garment with new cloth, that the manuscript had an
unchristian, nay, even heathenish aspect. However, from this copy
the report was printed,—let us charitably hope that it did much good
in the world.
If proof-sheets present peculiarities of spelling and language,
such for instance as appear in ancient works, and which are affected
or indulged in by some moderns, every word whose correctness he
doubts and is unable to verify, should be referred by the proof-
reader to author or editor. The latter, familiar with the terms used,
may consider some queries frivolous or puerile; but an author should
appreciate conscientiousness in the reader, and be glad to have {p32}
all doubts settled before his work reaches the eyes of reviewers.
That Dr. Johnson was guilty of harshness toward a proof-reader
is not to be wondered at; but it is a matter of wonder that his
conduct appears to have been approved by other editors. In J. T.
Buckingham’s edition of Shakspeare (1814) is, at page 915, a
remarkable note, apologizing for a few “trifling errors,” and adopting
as an excuse a quotation from an advertisement “from the first
edition of Reed, 1793”:
He, whose business it is to offer this unusual apology, very well remembers to
have been sitting with Dr. Johnson, when an agent from a neighboring press
brought in a proof sheet of a republication, requesting to know whether a
particular word in it was not corrupted. “So far from it, sir,” (replied the Doctor
with some harshness,) “that the word you suspect, and would displace, is
conspicuously beautiful where it stands, and is the only one that could do the
duty expected from it by Mr. Pope.”

Dr. Johnson’s assumption that the agent would displace the word,
seems to have been wholly gratuitous. The employees of the
neighboring press did precisely what they should have done,—what
every conscientious proof-reader often feels obliged to do. If
suspected words were passed without questioning, there would be
many errors of the press which would justify some show of
“harshness” toward the neglectful “agent.”
 CHAPTER II.
PROOF-READING.

So long as authors the most accomplished are liable to err, so long

as compositors the most careful make occasional mistakes, so long
as dictionaries authorize various spellings, just so long must there be
individuals trained and training to detect errors, to rectify mistakes,
and to decide upon and settle all points which lex­ic­ og­raphers leave
in doubt. Such individuals are known as Proof-readers.
Movable types, after having been used in printing newspaper or
book, etc., are distributed to their several compartments (boxes) for
future use. In distributing, the compositor, holding several lines in his
left hand, takes from the top line, between the thumb and forefinger
of his right hand, as many words or letters as he can conveniently
manipulate, and moving his hand over the case drops each letter
into its proper box. Suppose, for instance, he takes up the word
“feasible”; he carries his hand to the “f” box, and drops off the first
letter; of course he knows, without looking at the word again, that
he is next to drop off the “e”—and so, very quickly, his hand glides
from box to box, each receiving its proper letter. This process is
repeated until the {p34} types which composed the form are all,
apparently, returned to the compartments whence they were taken.
Suppose, however, that when ready to distribute “feasible,” his
attention is drawn momentarily to a neighbor who desires his
opinion as to a blotted word in his take, and that, on returning to his
work of distributing, he imagines, or seems to remember, that the
word in hand is “fencible,”—the “a” goes into the “n” box, and the
“s” finds itself at “c.” By and by, in setting type from this same case,
the compositor picks up the letters for “emancipate.” If he happens
to take up the two wrong letters consecutively from the right boxes,
his proof-sheet—unless he reads and corrects the matter in his stick
—will present the word “emaasipate”—which the proof-reader will
mark, for the compositor to correct.
Or it may happen in distributing, that the “f” and “e” cohere, and
are both dropped into the “f” box. If the compositor’s mind is not
intent on the matter in hand, the error may not be noticed at once;
in which case the “a” gets into the “e” box, and some or all the other
letters of the word go wrong. The error must be discovered when
the last letter is reached; but to search for each misplaced type until
it is found, would probably take more time than would be required to
correct the errors which must otherwise appear in the proof.
But it is not in distributing only, that blunders occur. There are
many other sources of error, and will be so long as present methods
continue in vogue. {p35} The only wonder is, that so few errors
escape detection before the printer’s work is handed over to the
reading public. We have by us an octavo Shakspeare, each page of
type from which it was printed, having contained, as can be
demonstrated, over six thousand pieces of metal, the misplacing of
any one of which would have caused a blunder.
But the detection and marking of wrong letters forms a
comparatively small part of a proof-reader’s duty. He must be able to
tell at sight whether a lead is too thick or too thin, and to
discriminate between a three-em space and a four-em space. Many
other important matters fall within his province,—and these we shall
endeavor to point out before closing the present chapter.
Other things being equal, printers make the best proof-readers.
We have known two or three remarkably skillful readers, whose work
could not be surpassed, who never imposed a form, nor set a line of
type. These, however, were rare exceptions.
A practical printer who never heard of the digamma, and who
has never read anything but newspapers, will generally make a
better proof-reader than an educated man who is not practically
acquainted with the typographic art; for the printer has, year in and
year out, had a daily drill which makes him skillful in orthography,
and he has been compelled to give close attention to the
grammatical points. Further, his dealing with individual types enables
him to see, without searching, errors which men far more learned
than he, do not readily {p36} perceive; and his pen pounces on a
wrong letter as instinctively and unerringly as the bird darts on its
insect prey.
Sterne has uttered a sneer at the husk and shell of learning; but
the best bread is made from the whole meal, and includes the
“shorts” and the “middlings” as well as the fine flour. If every lawyer,
physician, and clergyman were to spend six months at the “case”
before entering upon his profession, he would find, even in that
short term of labor, a useful fitting and preparation for such literary
tasks as may afterward devolve upon him.
Nearly all manuscript copy is indebted to the compositor and
proof-reader for the proper punctuation; and many errors in spelling,
made by men who probably know better, but write hastily, are
silently corrected in the printing-office. Contradictions, errors of fact,
anachronisms, imperfect sentences, solecisms, barbarisms, are
modestly pointed out to the author by the proof-reader’s “quære,” or
by a carefully worded suggestion; and, most usually, the proof is
returned without comment,—and none is needed,—corrected
according to the proof-reader’s intimations. Dickens, and a few other
writers of eminence, have acknowledged their indebtedness in such
cases; but we know one proof-reader—whose experience embraces
an infinite variety of subjects from bill-heads to Bibles—who can
remember but three cases in which his assistance, whether valuable
or otherwise, was alluded to in a kindly manner. On the other hand,
the correction in the proof is sometimes {p37} accompanied by some
testy remark: as, “Does this suit you?” or, “Will it do now?” The
proof-reader is, however, or should be, perfectly callous to all
captious criticisms and foolish comments; he need care nothing for
“harshness” or other nonsense, provided his work is well and
thoroughly done. Let no nervous or touchy man meddle with proof-
reading.
For the especial benefit of our non-professional readers, we will
here point out the usual routine in regard to proofs. The editor or
publisher of a book or periodical sends to the printer such portions
of reading-matter or manuscript as he can, from time to time,
conveniently supply. This copy is passed to a head-workman, who
divides it into a number of parts, called “takes,” each part being a
suitable quantity for a compositor to take at one time; and the name
of each compositor is penciled at the top of his take. The type when
set up is called “matter.”
 When there is enough matter to fill a “galley” (a metallic or
wooden casing about two feet in length), an impression, or “proof,”
is taken on a strip of paper wide enough to receive in the margin the
correction of such errors as may be found. This proof, with the
corresponding copy, is carried to the proof-reader’s desk for
examination and correction.
The reader will have at hand a copy of such directions as may
have been furnished by author, editor, or publisher, to which he
appends, from time to time, memoranda of all eccentricities of
orthography and cap­i­tal­iz­ a­tion,—in short, all peculiarities of style, as
they arise. This he consults frequently while {p38} reading the proof-
sheet, and, for obvious reasons, with especial attention after any
unusual delay in the progress of the work. Directions and notes as to
captions, sizes of type, form of tables, etc., are of utility, especially
when several readers are employed on the same publication; but
directions can scarcely be framed so as to ensure⁠[3] uniformity,
except in few particulars. We subjoin two or three samples of
directions and memoranda: our remarks in brackets.
3 Vide page 170, on the orthography of this word.

MEMORANDA FOR PROOF-READERS.

The form is regular octavo.
Text is long primer, single leaded.
Tables and lists, having rules and boxheads, nonpareil solid.
Headings of tables and lists, brevier italic, lower case.
There are no numbered chapters. The heading of each section, which takes
the place of chapter heading, is pica light-face celtic caps, spaced.
Geological ages and epochs are capitalized; for example, “Devonian,” “Trias,”
“sub-Carboniferous” v. [page 176.]
 Quoted extracts in regular text type (long primer), between quotation marks.
Capitalize “the West,” “the South,” etc., but not “western New York,” “central
Pennsylvania,” etc.
Do not use “&c.” for “etc.”
“Prof.,” “Gen.,” etc., preceding initials or Christian name; “Professor,”
“General,” etc., when last name alone is used; for example, “Prof. J. Smith,”
“General Grant,” etc.
Full point after roman numerals.
“Saint Louis,” etc.; spell out “Saint.”
Names of periodicals, in italics.
Names of books, roman, in quotation marks.
“Panther creek”; but “Panther Creek district.” That is, capitalize titles. {p39}

The following sample relates to an octavo on Fishes:

Make “cod fishery” two words.
“Offshore,” “Inshore” [no hyphen].
“Sheepshead” [name of fish. Webster inserts an apostrophe and a hyphen,
—“Sheep’s-head”].
“Herring fisheries” [no hyphen].
“Herring-nets” [insert hyphen].

From a quarto on Fishes:

“Cod-fisherman” [hyphen].
“Cod fishery” [two words].

Engineer work:
Make footnotes of the “Remarks” column.
For “D. D.” in copy, spell “dry-dock.”
Use figures in all cases, for weights, distances, etc.

The following was for a Digest—Decisions:

Spell “travelling,” “employee,” and divide “ser-vice.” [“Travelling” and “ser-vice”
are Worcester style. Webster divides “serv-ice.”—In regard to “employee,” neither
Webster nor Worcester gives it place; but, instead, the French “employé.” Webster
has this note following the French word: “The English form of this word, viz.,
employee, though perfectly conformable to analogy, and therefore perfectly
legitimate, is not sanctioned by the usage of good writers.” Since Webster’s note
was written, some good writers, as in the book of Decisions above mentioned,
have used the English word, as many printing-office employees can testify,—and
“employé” may as well be sent home, according to the immigration laws, as
unable to sustain itself in this country.⁠[4]]
4 Since the above remark was written, we have found “employee” admitted as a
correct English word, in Worcester’s “Supplement.”

Weather Reports:
The “upper Missouri valley” [small v].
The “Mississippi river” [small r].

Geological Survey:
The “Missouri Valley” [cap. V].
The “Missouri River” [cap. R].

The proof-reader knows, that (as we have already remarked)

every printing-office has a style of its own; that, if left to itself, its
style would be practically uniform and always respectable,—and he
soon learns that some writers for the press have very firm opinions
about matters of little or no consequence, and are very tenacious, if
not pugnacious, in preferring tweedledee to tweedledum; not
because it is written with more e’s, but because it is more correct—in
their opinion. However great may be a reader’s capacity for
memorizing trifling details, it is next to impossible to keep minute
verbal differences on different mental shelves. After the big book is
bound, one will be likely to find a mingling of styles; the big River of
one page becomes a little river on the next; “Pittsburg” here, reads
“Pittsburgh” there; and the dignified “National Park” of the first
chapter will dwindle to a mere “national park” in chapter the twelfth.
If not hurried by a press of work, as may sometimes be the case,
the reader will first glance at the proof as a whole. A variation in the
thickness of the leads, or a wrong indention, will, in this tout-
ensemble survey, very quickly catch his eye. Then, still supposing he
has time, he will read the galley through silently, correcting errors in
spelling; marking turned or inverted letters; improving the {p41}
spacing, the punctuation; noting whether the heads and subheads
are in the required type; whether the cap­i­tal­iz­ a­tion is uniform;
whether—if the “slip” beneath his eye happen to be near the end of
a large volume—the word “ourang-outang” which he now meets
with, was not printed somewhere in the earlier part of the work as
“orang-outang,” or, in fact, whether, after some questioning, it finally
went to press as “orang-utan,”—which word he must now, to
preserve uniformity, hunt for and find among his old proofs, if,
peradventure, author or publisher, or other person, have not
borrowed them “for a few minutes,”—alas! never to be returned.
Having settled this, and all similar cases and other doubtful
matters, he hands the copy to an assistant, called a “copy-holder,”
whose duty it is to read the copy aloud, while he himself keeps his
eye on the print (but in newspaper offices, for the sake of greater
celerity, the proof-reader often reads aloud, while the copy-holder
follows him silently, intent on the copy: interrupting, however,
whenever any discrepancy is observed). If the reader desire the
copy-holder to pause while he makes a correction, he repeats the
word where he wishes the reading to stop; when ready to proceed
he again pronounces the same word, and the copy-holder reads on
from that place.
The manner of marking, in the text, all errors noticed, is shown,
infra, in the “Specimen of First Proof.” The corrections to be made
are indicated, in the margin, by appropriate words or characters
from “Marks used in correcting Proofs”—also {p42} inserted below.
Writers for the press who themselves examine proof-sheets of their
works, should familiarize themselves with proof-reading technics. An
author who received for the first time some proof-sheets returned
them “clean”—apparently having detected no errors. He was
afterward disgusted on finding it necessary to print a leaf of “errata,”
and complained that his corrections had been entirely disregarded.
On re-examining the proofs he had returned, it was found that he
had corrected—with knife as well as pen. Where a comma was
wanting, he had used the pen, carefully and skillfully imitating the
printed character; and to convert semicolons into commas he had
brought the knife into play,—nicely scratching out the superfluous
part of the point.
Sometimes a line, or it may be several lines, of type are by some
mishap out of perpendicular—slanting; so that only one side of each
letter-face shows a full impression on the proof. It is usual in such
case to draw several slanting marks across the faulty line or lines,
and make similar marks in the margin. It is quite common, also, for
readers to insert in the margin the words “off its feet,”—that being
the printing-office designation for sloping matter. One reader
abandoned writing these words, for two reasons: the first, that a
compositor, when correcting, inserted them in the text, making an
astonishing sentence; the second, that the marked passage,—a
piece of close, logical reasoning,—after being carefully scanned by
the author, was brought to the reader, with a very earnest request
that he would {p43} point out what justice there was in that bluff
remark. It is enough to draw what beginners in writing call “straight
marks” across the matter, and also in the margin. We append
other—
MARKS USED IN CORRECTING PROOFS.
Insert an em-quadrat.
Dele, take out; expunge.
Insert space.
Less space.
Close up entirely.
Dele some type, and insert a space in lieu
of what is removed.
Dele some type, and close up.
Broken or battered type.
Plane down a letter. Push down a space or
quadrat.
. . . . Placed under erased words, restores them.
Written in the margin, restores a canceled
word or passage, or such portions of
erased text as have dots under them.
Begin paragraph.
Remove to left.
Remove to right.
Carry higher up on page.
Carry down.
Four lines subscript, denote italic capitals.
Three lines subscript, denote capitals.
Two lines subscript, denote small capitals.
 One line subscript, denotes italics.
Wrong font.
Transpose.
Period.
Colon.
Apostrophe.
=/ Hyphen.
–/ En-dash.
|—| Em-dash.
If there is an omission (an “out”) make a caret at
the place of the out, and if the out is short, write the
omitted word or words in margin; if long, write in
margin “out—see copy,” and pin to the proof the
sheet of copy containing the omitted portion.
Lower-case.
Small capitals.
or or calls attention to some doubtful word or
sentence.

Several other marks are used, which need no explanation.

In order to show our readers the practical application of the
above marks, we will suppose the following paragraph from Guizot
to be put in type abounding in errors, and will then exhibit the
corrections as made by the proof-reader:
 SPECIMEN OF FIRST PROOF.

The above is very bad, even for a first proof,—but we have seen
worse, and have, perhaps, ourself been responsible for some not
much better. While the copy-holder is reading aloud the copy from
which {p45} the above was set up, the reader is busy marking errors,
and making such characters in the margin as will inform the
compositors what is to be done to make their work correct. At the
conclusion of the reading, the proof will present an appearance
somewhat like this corrected—
 SPECIMEN OF FIRST PROOF.

If the proof in hand be a reprint, and the new edition is to

conform to the old, the copy-holder, while reading, pronounces aloud
the points, capitals, etc., {p46} as they occur in the copy—saving labor
and time by using well-understood ab­bre­vi­a­tions. Take, for instance,
the second stanza of Tennyson’s “Voyage”:
“Warm broke the breeze against the brow,
Dry sang the tackle, sang the sail:
The Lady’s-head upon the prow
Caught the shrill salt, and sheer’d the gale.
The broad seas swell’d to meet the keel,
And swept behind: so quick the run,
We felt the good ship shake and reel,
We seem’d to sail into the Sun!”

This stanza the copy-holder reads thus:

Quote “Warm broke the breeze against the brow, (com.)
Dry sang the tackle, (com.) sang the sail: (colon.)
The Lady’s-(cap. pos. s, hyphen.)head upon the prow
Caught the shrill salt, (com.) and sheer’(pos.)d the gale. (full point.)
The broad seas swell’(pos.)d to meet the keel, (com.)
And swept behind: (colon.) so quick the run, (com.)
We felt the good ship shake and reel, (com.)
We seem’(pos.)d to sail into the Sun!” (cap. exclam. close of quote.)

If the work extend beyond a single galley, the slips of proof are
marked in regular sequence, A, B, C, etc., or 1, 2, 3, etc. Each slip is
marked at top “First Proof”: the names of the compositors, which
have been inscribed on their “takes,” are duly transferred to the
printed proof, which, with the errors plainly noted thereon, is then
given for correction to the same persons who set up the matter.
Their duty having been attended to, a “second proof” is taken: {p47}
this the reader compares carefully with the first, to ascertain
whether the requisite changes of type have been properly made;
whether “doublets” have been taken out, and “outs” put in. If any
mark has escaped the notice of the compositors, it is transferred to
the second proof. Close attention should be given to this process of
“revising”; it is not enough to see that a wrong letter has been taken
out, and a right one put in; in the line where a change has been
made, all the words should be compared, and also the line above
and the line below a correction,—since in correcting an error among
movable types, some of the types may move when they ought not,
and get misplaced.
As what escapes the notice of one observer may be perceived by
another, this second proof is again “read by copy” by another proof-
reader and assistant, and a second time corrected and revised. The
“third proof” is now sent to the author, editor, or publisher, with so
much copy as may cover it, the copy-holder being careful, however,
to retain the “mark-off”; i. e., the sheet on which is marked off the
place where the next “first proof” is to begin. But when the work is
of such sort as not to require extraordinary care, the second proof is
sent out, a single reading by copy being deemed sufficient. If the
work is read twice by copy, only one reader should attend to the
punctuation.
If, now, the copy have been hastily or carelessly prepared, or if
the author have gained new light since he prepared it, the outside
party having charge {p48} of the work (whom, for convenience, we
will designate as the “author”) will return his proofs, full of erasures,
additions, alterations, interlineations, and transpositions. With these
the original compositors have no concern; the changes required are
made by “the office,” and the time is charged to the person who
contracted for the printing of the work.
A second, third, or even more consecutive revises of the same
slip are sometimes sent to the author, to the intent that he may see
for himself that his corrections have been duly made, and to allow
him further opportunity to introduce such alterations as to him may
seem desirable. Usually, however, the work, after the correction of
the author’s first proof, is made up into pages; and when there are
enough of these for a “signature” or form of octavo, duodecimo, or
whatever the number of pages on the sheet may be, the proof-
reader revises these pages by the author’s latest returned proof, cuts
off the slip at the line where the last page ends, and sends the
folded leaves, labeled “Second,” “Third,” or “Fourth” proof, as the
case may be, together with the corresponding slips of the next
previous proof, to the author, as before. The portion of slip proof
remaining—termed the “make-up”—should be inscribed with the
proper page, and the letter or figure which is to be the signature of
the next sheet, and given, for his guidance, to the person who
makes up the work; to be returned again to the proof-reader, with
the other slip proofs of the next sheet of made-up pages, when that
is ready for revision. {p49}
The author may be desirous of seeing a fifth, sixth, or, as the
algebraists say, any number, n, of proofs. When he expresses himself
as satisfied with his share of the correcting, the last author’s proof is
corrected, a “revise” taken, and the proof-reader gives this last
revise a final reading for the press. As any errors which escape
detection now, will show themselves in the book, this last reading
should be careful, deliberate, and painstaking. See to it, my young
beginner, that the “signature” is the letter or number next in
sequence to that on your previous press-proof. See to it, that the
first page of the sheet in hand connects in reading with the last page
of the previous one, and that the figures denoting the page form the
next cardinal number to that which you last sent to press. Having
done this, examine the “folios” (the “pagination,” as some say)
throughout; read the running titles; if there be a new chapter
commenced, look back in your previous proofs to make sure that
said new chapter is “XIX. ,” and not “XVIII. ”; see that the head-lines of
the chapter are of the right size, and in the right font of type; for, if
the “minion” case happened to be covered up, the compositor may
have forgotten himself, and set them up in “brevier”; if there is rule-
work, see that the rules come together properly, and are right side
up; if there is Federal money, see that the “$” is put at the beginning
of the number following a rule,⁠[5] and of the number in the top line
of every page; if points are {p50} used as “leaders,” see that there are
no commas or hyphens among them. If the style require a comma
before leaders, see that none have been left out; if the style reject a
comma, see that none have been left in; in short, see to everything,
—and then, on the corner of the sheet, write the word “Press” as
boldly as you can, but with the moral certainty that some skulking
blunder of author, compositor, or corrector has eluded all your
watchfulness.
5 In the Government Printing Office the style omits the “$” in this case,—the
sign at top of table or page being considered sufficient.

The errors made by ourselves are those which occasion us the

most pain. Therefore be chary of changing anything in the author’s
last proof. If a sentence seem obscure, see whether the insertion of
a comma will make it clear. If you find “patonce,” do not change it to
“potence,” unless, from your knowledge of heraldry, you are aware
of a good reason for such an alteration. If you find pro. ami, look in
the dictionary before striking out the point after pro.; peradventure it
is a contraction. If, finally, after puzzling over some intricate
sentence, you can make nothing of it, let it console you that the
following paragraph appears in Hävernick: “Accordingly it is only
from this passage that a conclusion can be drawn as to the historical
condition of the people, which is confirmed also by notices
elsewhere”; and let it content you to say, in the words of Colenso, “I
am at a loss to understand the meaning of the above paragraph.” So
let the obscure passage remain.
Still, however, should you find some gross error of dates, some
obvious solecism, or some wrong footing {p51} in a column of figures,
and find yourself unable to change the reading with absolute
certainty of being right, this proof, which you had hoped would be a
final one, must be returned to the author with the proper quære.
When it comes back to your sanctum, you may perhaps be pleased
at finding on the margin a few words complimentary of your
carefulness; or perhaps a question couched in this encomiastic style:
“Why did not your stupid proof-reader find this out before?”
Whether reading first or final proofs of Records of Court, you
should not change the spelling of words, nor supply omissions, nor
strike out a repeated word or words; for the printed record is
assumed to be an exact transcript of what is written, and there
should be no alterations,—neither uniformity nor correctness is to be
sought at the expense of departing from copy. Inserting the
necessary points where these have been neglected, is not
considered a change of the record,—as, for instance, an in­ter­ro­ga­‐
tion point after a direct question to a witness; for, as “the
punctuation is no part of the law,” a fortiori it is no part of the
record. If the caption be “Deposition of John Prat,” and the signature
be “John Pratt,” and if in another place you find the same individual
designated as “John Pradt,” there is no help for it. You have no
authority to alter the record, and must print it as it stands. So, too,
in regard to dates. If you read “1st Feb. 1889” on one page, “Feb. 1,
1889” on another, so let them stand—the change of style is a trifle;
and, if it be a fault, it is the fault of the record, and not yours. {p52}
And here let us say a word about this matter of uniformity: very
important in some works, in others it is of no consequence whatever,
however much some readers may stickle for it. If, for example, a
mass of letters, from all parts of the country, recommending a
patent inkstand, or stating the prospects of the potato crop, are sent
in to be printed, the dates and addresses will vary in style, according
to the taste and knowledge of the several writers; and there is not
the slightest need of changing them to make them alike, as if all
these widely scattered writers had graduated from the same school.
Let such writings be printed as diversely as they come to hand. If
one writes plough, and another plow, what matters it, so far as your
proof-reading is concerned? If one writes “15th June,” and another
“June 15” or “June 15th,” so let it stand on the printed page. It is
idle to waste time in making things alike, that could not by any
possibility have been written alike. But you can make each letter
consistent with itself, which is all that uniformity requires. You need
not stretch one man out, and cut off the feet of another, to justify all
authors in your composing-stick. So much for exceptional cases.
As a general rule, study to preserve uniformity in every work. If
“A. M.” and “P. M.” are in capitals on one page, it will look very like
carelessness to have them appear “A.M. ” and “P.M. ” in small capitals,
on the next. With the exceptions above pointed out, your only safety
is to have but one style, and to adhere to it with the stiffness of a
martinet, {p53} in all contingencies, unless overruled by those who
have a right to dictate in the premises.
 READING GREEK.
Greek words sometimes appear in copy, and are somewhat
vexatious to printers who never had the good fortune to study Greek
at school—or elsewhere. In a proof-sheet, we once met a word
whose etymology was given thus in the copy: “From Ἕλιος the sun,
and φιλος a lover” (the epsilon was the author’s mistake). The
compositor, not aware of a Greek alphabet, set up the passage in
those English letters which most nearly resemble the Hellenic
characters, and it appeared in this guise: “From Ediog the sun, and
pidog a lover.” We advise proof-readers, and compositors and copy-
holders as well, to acquire—if they do not already possess—so much
knowledge of Greek letters and characters as will enable them to
acquit themselves without discredit, though “Ediog” and “pidog”
condog (v. Wb.) to annoy them. A few hours’ attention to the
alphabet and characters given below, and to the annexed practical
directions, will suffice to fix in the memory as much knowledge of
Greek as will serve for the mechanical following of the copy,—
mechanical following,—for, if you are setting up or reading a reprint
of the 450th page of Webster’s Dictionary, and meet with the word
ἐννενήκοντα you must put in the eleven letters as they stand: and if
copying Worcester’s 486th page, you find ἐννεήκοντα, put in {p54} the
ten letters. If you have any doubts, submit your query.
The Greek alphabet consists of twenty-four letters.
Alpha Αα a
Beta Ββ b
Gamma Γ γ g
 Delta Δδ d
Epsilon Εε ĕ
Zeta Ζζ z
Eta Ηη ē
Theta Θϑθ th
Iota Ιι i
Kappa Κκ k
Lambda Λλ l
Mu Μμ m
Nu Νν n
Xi Ξξ x
Omicron Οο ŏ
Pi Ππ p
Rho Ρϱρ r
Sigma Σ σ, final ς s
Tau Ττ t
Upsilon Υυ u
Phi Φφ ph
Chi Χχ ch
Psi Ψψ ps
Omega Ωω ō

In reading Greek, mention each letter by its English equivalent.

Ε is read, “cap. short e”; ε, “short e”; Η is read, “cap. long e”; η,
“long e.”
Ο is read, “cap. short o”; ο, “short o”; Ω is read, “cap. long o”; ω,
“long o.” {p55}
There are three accents,—the acute ( ΄ ), the grave ( ), and the
circumflex ( ).
 ύ is read, “acute u”; ὶ is read, “grave i”; ᾶ is read, “circumflex a.”
Over every vowel or diphthong beginning a word is placed one of
two characters, called breathings, which, for the purpose of reading,
we may designate as the smooth ( ᾿ ) and the rough ( ῾ ).
ἀ is read, “smooth a”; ἱ is read, “rough i.”

When two marks appear over a letter, both should be mentioned

by the copy-holder.
ὔ is read, “smooth, acute u”; ὅ is read, “rough, acute, short o”;
ὃ, “rough, grave, short o”; ὦ, “circumflex, smooth, long o.”

The compositor and proof-reader should be careful that accented

letters are used according to the copy, as in many cases the
difference of accentuation serves also to mark the difference of
signification. Thus, νέος signifies new; νεὸς, a field: ἴον, a violet; ἰὸν,
going.
ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ, are diphthongs; their second vowel (ι), being silent, is
placed underneath, or subscribed. These should be read thus: ᾳ, “a,
subscript”; ῃ, “long e, subscript”; ῳ, “long o, subscript.”

In Greek, only four points or stops are used: the comma (,); the
note of in­ter­ro­ga­tion (;); the colon, or point at top (·); and the full
stop (.). These should be mentioned as they occur. {p56}

EXAMPLE FOR READING.

EPIGRAM ON THEMISTOCLES.
 Αντὶ τάφου λιτοῖο θὲς Ἑλλάδα, θὲς δ’ ὲπι ταύταν
Δούρατα, βαρβαρικᾶς σύμβολα ναυφθορίας,
Καὶ τύμβῳ κρηπῖδα περίγραφε Περσικὸν Ἄρη
Καὶ Ξέρξην· τούτοις θάπτε Θεμιστοκλέα.
Στάλα δ’ ἁ Σαλαμὶς ἐπικείσεται, ἔργα λέγουσα
Τἀμά· τί με σμὶκροῖς τὸν μέγαν ἐντίτθετε;

The method of reading will, we think, be sufficiently exemplified

if we give but one line. We select the third, which should be read by
the copy-holder, as follows:
Cap. K, a, grave i; t, acute u, m, b, long o subscript; k, r, long e,
p, circumflex i, d, a; p, short e, r, acute i, g, r, a, ph, short e; cap. P,
short e, r, s, i, k, grave short o, n; cap. smooth acute A, r, long e.
Words from dead and foreign languages, introduced into English
text, are printed in italics, until, being frequently met, they cease to
be strangers; then printers and proof-readers anglicify them as much
as possible, by printing them in roman; but some of these retain
certain accents which indicate their alien origin. The Spanish cañon
is completely anglicized into “canyon” (o as in no); our miners write
“arrastra” in roman, although the term has not yet found its way into
our most popular dictionaries; our dreadful accident-makers have set
afloat so many “canards,” that that word has become better English
than French; “papier-mache” usually appears in roman without the
accent on the final e; employé {p57} has become a good “employee”
in our workshops; and at an early day, every “protégé” and
“protégée,” already roman, will throw off the foreign accents, and
remain none the less acute “protegees”; “éclat,” “régime,” and
“résumé” still cling to their acute e’s. Many words and phrases are
hesitating whether to remain foreigners, or to become naturalized.
They have “taken out their first papers,” as it were, having at times
appeared in English garb.
It would be vastly convenient for every compositor and proof-
reader (every author, of course, reads proof) to have at hand two
lists of such Latin and foreign words as most frequently occur in
books, magazines, and newspapers,—the one containing the words
to be set up in italics, the other, words to “go in roman,” as the
phrase is. We append two such lists, as samples rather than as
fixities to be followed, although they represent very nearly, if not
exactly, the present status of the class of words we are considering.
The roman list is destined to be continually lengthening, while the
italic, save as it receives new accretions from foreign sources, must
be correspondingly diminishing.

WORDS TO GO IN ITALICS.
ante ad captandum ad libitum ad quod damnum aliunde
alma mater amende honorable amicus curiæ artiste avant
coureur beau monde coram non judice corpus delicti coup
d’état coup de grâce coup de main de bonis non de facto de
jure del credere de novo dilettante dilettanti dramatis
personæ {p58} duces tecum en route entrée et al. ex officio
ex parte ex post facto ex rel. falsi crimen feme covert feme
sole femme couverte femme sole fleur de lis functus officio
garçon ignes fatui ignis fatuus in extenso infra in statu quo
inter alia in toto in transitu juste milieu malum in se malum
prohibitum matériel nem. con. n’importe non constat non
obstante nous verrons passim peculium personnel postea
postliminium post mortem prima facie procès-verbal pro
forma projet pro tempore rationale res adjudicata sans-
culotte sine die soi disant sotto voce sub judice supra
tabula rasa terra incognita tout ensemble ultima ratio ultima
Thule vide vice versa viva voce vraisemblance

WORDS TO GO IN ROMAN.
addenda addendum ad interim ad valorem alias alibi
alumnus alumnæ alumni animus assumpsit bagatelle
belles-lettres bijou billet-doux bivouac bizarre bona fide
canaille canard capias chargé d’ affaires coterie crevasse
data datum débris dedimus détour devoir diluvion
diluvium éclat emeute ennui entrepot exequatur exuviæ
fasces faubourg feuilleton fiacre fieri facias habeas corpus
hacienda hauteur in banc in situ literati literatim Magna
Charta mandamus menu mittimus nisi prius nolle prosequi
oyer and terminer papier-mache per capita per diem posse
comitatus pro rata protégé quasi régime résumé rôle
savant seriatim sobriquet status supersedeas via venire
venire facias verbatim
 CHAPTER III.
STYLE.

Before beginning to read proof, a man usually prepares himself by

learning how to make the technical marks used in correcting; he
then reads a chapter on the use of capitals; takes up a grammar,
and reviews the rules of punctuation; and by reading, and
conversing with readers, gets such helps as give him a good degree
of confidence. But at the very threshold of his duties he is met by a
little “dwarfish demon” called “Style,” who addresses him somewhat
after this fashion: “As you see me now, so I have appeared ever
since the first type was set in this office. Everything here must be
done as I say. You may mark as you please, but don’t violate the
commands of Style. I may seem to disappear for a time, when there
is a great rush of work, and you may perhaps bring yourself to
believe that Style is dead. But do not deceive yourself,—Style never
dies. When everything is going merrily, and you are rejoicing at
carrying out some pet plan of your own, you will find me back again,
tearing the forms to pieces, and again asserting my irrevocable
authority. Stick to my orders, and all will be well. Don’t tell me of
grammarians or lex­ic­ og­raphers; say nothing of better ways, or
improvements or {p60} progress. I am Style, and my laws are like
those of the Medes and Persians.” And Style states his true
character.