UNIT-1

Fundamentals of D.C. circuits

An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements

D.C. circuits means Direct Current

 Ohm’s Law
 Given by Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German physicist
 finding the relationship between current and voltage for a resistor. This
relationship is known as Ohm’s law.
• Statement: Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is
directly proportional to the current i flowing through the resistor.
• Mathematically,

This is the mathematical form of Ohm’s law

• R is measured in the unit of ohms
• V is the Potential Difference between two ends of the conductor (in Volts)
• I=Current flowing through the conductor (in Ampere)

• The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric
current; it is measured in ohms ( )
• 1 = 1 V/1A
 Applications of Ohm’s Law
• 1. To find unknown Voltage (V)
• 2. To Find unknown Resistance (R)
• 3. To Find unknown Current (I)
• 4. Can be used to find Unknown Conductance (G)=1/R
• 5. Can be used to find unknown Power (P)=VI
• 6. Can be used to find unknown conductivity or Resistivity
 For Example

• Q.1 An electric iron draws 2 A at 120 V. Find its resistance.

• Solution:

• Q.2 The essential component of a toaster is an electrical element (a resistor)

that converts electrical energy to heat energy. How much current is drawn by
a toaster with resistance 15 ohm at 110 V?
Solution: I=V/R=110/15=7.333A
 Some other Problems on Ohm’s Law
• Q.3 In the circuit shown in Fig., calculate the current i, the conductance G,
and the power p.
• Solution:
Q.4 For the circuit shown in Fig., calculate the voltage v, the conductance
G, and the power p.

• Solution:

• Q.5 A voltage source of is connected across a 5-k resistor. Find the

current through the resistor and the power dissipated.
• Solution:
6. Practice Problem
 DISADVANTAGES
• Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits.
• Unable to solve typical Numerical problems
What possible values of resultant resistance can one get by combining two
resistances, one of value 2 ohm and the other 6 ohm?
A)8,1.5 B)3,8 C) 4,3
A) 45 B)35 C)23
Poll
• The resistors 3 Ω and 6 Ω are in series and so
are 5 Ω and 10 Ω resistors. These two series
equivalents are in parallel to each other and
also to the 4 resistors. :
• Req = 1 + 2.34 + 2
• Req = 5.34 Ω
A short circuit implies that the two terminals are
externally connected with resistance R=0 , the same as an
ideal wire. This means there is zero voltage difference for
any current value. (Note that real wires have non-zero
resistance!)
An open circuit implies that the two terminals are points
are externally disconnected, which is equivalent to a
resistance R=∞ . This means that zero current can flow
between the two terminals, regardless of any voltage
difference. (Note that very high voltages can cause arcs of
current to flow even over large air or vacuum gaps!)
 Nodes, Branches, and Loops
• BRANCH: A branch represents a single element
such as a voltage source or a resistor.
• NODE: A node is the point of connection
between two or more branches.
• LOOP: A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
A network with b branches, n nodes, and l
independent loops will satisfy the fundamental
theorem of network topology:
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
• First introduced in 1847 by the German
physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the
algebraic sum of currents
entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.
Mathematically, KCL implies that
 Sign Convention for KCL:
Entering Current: Taken as +ve
Leaving Current: Taken as -ve

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents
leaving the node.
Example for KCL
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the
algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed
path (or loop) is zero.
• mathematically, KVL states that
 Sign Convention for KVL

• KVL can be applied in two ways:

• 1. By taking either a clockwise or a
counterclockwise trip around the loop.
• 2. By the algebraic sum of voltages
around the loop is zero.
Sign Convention of KVL for R, L and C
 Example-1 for
KVL
 Example-2 for KVL

Equivalent Circuit
Sum of voltage rises=Sum of voltage drops
 Example-3 for KVL
For the circuit in Fig.1(a), find voltages v1 and v2.
Example-4 for KVL
Example-5 for Ohm’s Law and KVL
Practice Problem-3
Note: This rule can be generalized for any number of resistors in series
Example for Voltage Division Rule
Numerical Problem for Current Division Rule
Example-2 for Current Division Rule
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
• First introduced in 1847 by the German
physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the
algebraic sum of currents
entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.
Mathematically, KCL implies that
 Sign Convention for KCL:
Entering Current: Taken as +ve
Leaving Current: Taken as -ve

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents
leaving the node.
Example for KCL
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the
algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed
path (or loop) is zero.
• mathematically, KVL states that
Note: This rule can be generalized for any number of resistors in series
Example for Voltage Division Rule
• A 9V
• B 3V
• C 6V
 Calculate, the total resistance, the value of the current flowing
around the circuit, and the voltage drops across each resistor.

• A 36,6,12,18
• B 36,12,6,18
• C 36 18,6,12
Numerical Problem for Current Division Rule
Example-2 for Current Division Rule
 Sign Convention for KVL

• KVL can be applied in two ways:

• 1. By taking either a clockwise or a
counterclockwise trip around the loop.
• 2. By the algebraic sum of voltages
around the loop is zero.
KVL KCL problems
Sign Convention of KVL for R, L and C
 Example-1 for
KVL
 Example-2 for KVL

Equivalent Circuit
Sum of voltage rises=Sum of voltage drops
 Example-3 for KVL
For the circuit in Fig.1(a), find voltages v1 and v2.
Example-4 for KVL
Example-5 for Ohm’s Law and KVL
Practice Problem-3
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the
algebraic sum of currents
entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.
Mathematically, KCL implies that
 Sign Convention for KCL:
Entering Current: Taken as +ve
Leaving Current: Taken as -ve

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents
leaving the node.
Example for KCL
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the
algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed
path (or loop) is zero.
• mathematically, KVL states that
Note: This rule can be generalized for any number of resistors in series
Example for Voltage Division Rule
• A 9V
• B 3V
• C 6V
 Calculate, the total resistance, the value of the current flowing
around the circuit, and the voltage drops across each resistor.

• A 36,6,12,18
• B 36,12,6,18
• C 36 18,6,12
Numerical Problem for Current Division Rule
Example-2 for Current Division Rule
 Sign Convention for KVL

• KVL can be applied in two ways:

• 1. By taking either a clockwise or a
counterclockwise trip around the loop.
• 2. By the algebraic sum of voltages
around the loop is zero.
KVL KCL problems
Sign Convention of KVL for R, L and C
 Example-1 for
KVL
 Example-2 for KVL

Equivalent Circuit
Sum of voltage rises=Sum of voltage drops
 Example-3 for KVL
For the circuit in Fig.1(a), find voltages v1 and v2.
Example-4 for KVL
Example-5 for Ohm’s Law and KVL
Practice Problem-3
 A) .2A B).4A C).3A
Determine the electric current that flows in circuit as shown in
figure below.
• Find V1, V2, V3,and V4
 Circuit Analysis
• When given a circuit with sources and
resistors having fixed values, you can use
Kirchoff’s two laws and Ohm’s law to
determine all branch voltages and currents
+ VAB -
A I
7Ω B
+
+
12 v 3Ω
VBC
-
-
C
Find V1, V2, and V3.
(note: the arrows are signifying the positive position of the box and the
negative is at the end of the box)
 Circuit Analysis
• By Ohm’s law: VAB = I·7Ω and VBC = I·3Ω
• By KVL: VAB + VBC – 12 v = 0
• Substituting: I·7Ω + I·3Ω -12 v = 0
• Solving: I = 1.2 A + V - AB
A I
7Ω B
+
+
12 v 3Ω
VBC
-
-
C
 Circuit Analysis
• Since VAB = I·7Ω and VBC = I·3Ω
• And I = 1.2 A
• So VAB = 8.4 v and VBC = 3.6 v
+ VAB -
A I
7Ω B
+
+
12 v 3Ω
VBC
-
-
C
 Series Resistors
• KVL: +I·10Ω – 12 v = 0, So I = 1.2 A
• From the viewpoint of the source, the 7 and 3
ohm resistors in series are equivalent to the
10 ohms
I

+
+
12 v 10Ω
I·10Ω
-
-
 Example Circuit

Solve for the currents through each resistor

And the voltages across each resistor
 Example Circuit
+ I1∙10Ω - + I3∙6Ω -

+ +
I2∙8Ω I3∙4Ω
- -

Using Ohm’s law, add polarities and

expressions for each resistor voltage
 Example Circuit
+ I1∙10Ω - + I3∙6Ω -

+ +
I2∙8Ω I3∙4Ω
- -

Write 1st Kirchoff’s voltage law equation

-50 v + I1∙10Ω + I2∙8Ω = 0
 Example Circuit
+ I1∙10Ω - + I3∙6Ω -

+ +
I2∙8Ω I3∙4Ω
- -

Write 2nd Kirchoff’s voltage law equation

-I2∙8Ω + I3∙6Ω + I3∙4Ω = 0
or I2 = I3 ∙(6+4)/8 = 1.25 ∙ I3
 Example Circuit
A

Write Kirchoff’s current law equation at A

+I1 – I2 - I3 = 0
 Example Circuit
• We now have 3 equations in 3 unknowns, so
we can solve for the currents through each
resistor, that are used to find the voltage
across each resistor
• Since I1 - I2 - I3 = 0, I1 = I2 + I3
• Substituting into the 1st KVL equation
-50 v + (I2 + I3)∙10Ω + I2∙8Ω = 0
or I2∙18 Ω + I3∙ 10 Ω = 50 volts
 Example Circuit
• But from the 2nd KVL equation, I2 = 1.25∙I3
• Substituting into 1st KVL equation:
(1.25 ∙ I3)∙18 Ω + I3 ∙ 10 Ω = 50 volts
Or: I3 ∙ 22.5 Ω + I3 ∙ 10 Ω = 50 volts
Or: I3∙ 32.5 Ω = 50 volts
Or: I3 = 50 volts/32.5 Ω
Or: I3 = 1.538 amps
 Example Circuit
• Since I3 = 1.538 amps
I2 = 1.25∙I3 = 1.923 amps
• Since I1 = I2 + I3, I1 = 3.461 amps
• The voltages across the resistors:
I1∙10Ω = 34.61 volts
I2∙8Ω = 15.38 volts
I3∙6Ω = 9.23 volts
I3∙4Ω = 6.15 volts
 Example Circuit

Solve for the currents through each resistor

And the voltages across each resistor using
Series and parallel simplification.
 Example Circuit

The 6 and 4 ohm resistors are in series, so

are combined into 6+4 = 10Ω
 Example Circuit

The 8 and 10 ohm resistors are in parallel, so

are combined into 8∙10/(8+10) =14.4 Ω
 Example Circuit

The 10 and 4.4 ohm resistors are in series, so

are combined into 10+4 = 14.4Ω
 Example Circuit

+
I1∙14.4Ω
-

Writing KVL, I1∙14.4Ω – 50 v = 0

Or I1 = 50 v / 14.4Ω = 3.46 A
 Example Circuit
+34.6 v -

+
15.4 v
-

If I1 = 3.46 A, then I1∙10 Ω = 34.6 v

So the voltage across the 8 Ω = 15.4 v
 Example Circuit
+ 34.6 v -

+
15.4 v
-

If I2∙8 Ω = 15.4 v, then I2 = 15.4/8 = 1.93 A

By KCL, I1-I2-I3=0, so I3 = I1–I2 = 1.53 A
Find V1, V2, and V3.
(note: the arrows are signifying the positive position of the box and the
negative is at the end of the box)
 Circuit Analysis
• When given a circuit with sources and
resistors having fixed values, you can use
Kirchoff’s two laws and Ohm’s law to
determine all branch voltages and currents
+ VAB -
A I
7Ω B
+
+
12 v 3Ω
VBC
-
-
C
 Circuit Analysis
• By Ohm’s law: VAB = I·7Ω and VBC = I·3Ω
• By KVL: VAB + VBC – 12 v = 0
• Substituting: I·7Ω + I·3Ω -12 v = 0
• Solving: I = 1.2 A + V - AB
A I
7Ω B
+
+
12 v 3Ω
VBC
-
-
C
 Circuit Analysis
• Since VAB = I·7Ω and VBC = I·3Ω
• And I = 1.2 A
• So VAB = 8.4 v and VBC = 3.6 v
+ VAB -
A I
7Ω B
+
+
12 v 3Ω
VBC
-
-
C
 Series Resistors
• KVL: +I·10Ω – 12 v = 0, So I = 1.2 A
• From the viewpoint of the source, the 7 and 3
ohm resistors in series are equivalent to the
10 ohms
I

+
+
12 v 10Ω
I·10Ω
-
-
 Example Circuit

Solve for the currents through each resistor

And the voltages across each resistor
 Example Circuit
+ I1∙10Ω - + I3∙6Ω -

+ +
I2∙8Ω I3∙4Ω
- -

Using Ohm’s law, add polarities and

expressions for each resistor voltage
 Example Circuit
+ I1∙10Ω - + I3∙6Ω -

+ +
I2∙8Ω I3∙4Ω
- -

Write 1st Kirchoff’s voltage law equation

-50 v + I1∙10Ω + I2∙8Ω = 0
 Example Circuit
+ I1∙10Ω - + I3∙6Ω -

+ +
I2∙8Ω I3∙4Ω
- -

Write 2nd Kirchoff’s voltage law equation

-I2∙8Ω + I3∙6Ω + I3∙4Ω = 0
or I2 = I3 ∙(6+4)/8 = 1.25 ∙ I3
 Example Circuit
A

Write Kirchoff’s current law equation at A

+I1 – I2 - I3 = 0
 Example Circuit
• We now have 3 equations in 3 unknowns, so
we can solve for the currents through each
resistor, that are used to find the voltage
across each resistor
• Since I1 - I2 - I3 = 0, I1 = I2 + I3
• Substituting into the 1st KVL equation
-50 v + (I2 + I3)∙10Ω + I2∙8Ω = 0
or I2∙18 Ω + I3∙ 10 Ω = 50 volts
 Example Circuit
• But from the 2nd KVL equation, I2 = 1.25∙I3
• Substituting into 1st KVL equation:
(1.25 ∙ I3)∙18 Ω + I3 ∙ 10 Ω = 50 volts
Or: I3 ∙ 22.5 Ω + I3 ∙ 10 Ω = 50 volts
Or: I3∙ 32.5 Ω = 50 volts
Or: I3 = 50 volts/32.5 Ω
Or: I3 = 1.538 amps
 Example Circuit
• Since I3 = 1.538 amps
I2 = 1.25∙I3 = 1.923 amps
• Since I1 = I2 + I3, I1 = 3.461 amps
• The voltages across the resistors:
I1∙10Ω = 34.61 volts
I2∙8Ω = 15.38 volts
I3∙6Ω = 9.23 volts
I3∙4Ω = 6.15 volts
 Example Circuit

Solve for the currents through each resistor

And the voltages across each resistor using
Series and parallel simplification.
 Example Circuit

The 6 and 4 ohm resistors are in series, so

are combined into 6+4 = 10Ω
 Example Circuit

The 8 and 10 ohm resistors are in parallel, so

are combined into 8∙10/(8+10) =14.4 Ω
 Example Circuit

The 10 and 4.4 ohm resistors are in series, so

are combined into 10+4 = 14.4Ω
 Example Circuit

+
I1∙14.4Ω
-

Writing KVL, I1∙14.4Ω – 50 v = 0

Or I1 = 50 v / 14.4Ω = 3.46 A
 Example Circuit
+34.6 v -

+
15.4 v
-

If I1 = 3.46 A, then I1∙10 Ω = 34.6 v

So the voltage across the 8 Ω = 15.4 v
 Example Circuit
+ 34.6 v -

+
15.4 v
-

If I2∙8 Ω = 15.4 v, then I2 = 15.4/8 = 1.93 A

By KCL, I1-I2-I3=0, so I3 = I1–I2 = 1.53 A
• Nodal analysis is generally used to
determine_______
a) Voltage
b) Current
c) Resistance
d) Power
Mesh analysis employs the method of
___________
a) KVL
b) KCL
c) Both KVL and KCL
d) Neither KVL nor KCL
Mesh analysis is generally used to determine
_________
a) Voltage
b) Current
c) Resistance
d) Power
How to Solve Simultaneous Equations
EXAMPLE-2
Star-Delta Transformation
 Equivalence
• Equivalence can be found on
the basis that the resistance
between any pair of terminals in
the two circuits have to be the
same, when the third terminal is
left open.
• First take delta connection: between A and C,
there are two parallel paths, one having a
resistance of R2 and other having a resistance
of ( R1+R3)
Hence resistance between terminal A and C is
= R2.(R1+R3)/[R2+( R1+R3)]
• Now take the star connection

The resistance between the same terminal A and C is (RA+RC)

Since terminal resistance have to be same so we must have
(RA+RC) = R2.(R1+R3)/[R2+( R1+R3)] (1)

Similarly for terminals A and B, B and C, we can have the

following expression
(RA+RB) = R3.(R1+R2)/[R3+( R1+R2)] (2)
(RB+RC) = R1.(R2+R3)/[R1+( R2+R3)] (3)
 DELTA to STAR
Now subtracting 2 from 1 and adding the result to 3, we will get the
following values for R1,R2 and R3.

How to remember?
Resistance of each arm of star is given by the product
of the resistance of the two delta sides that meet at its
ends divided by the sum of the three delta resistance
 STAR to DELTA
Multiplying 1 and 2, 2 and 3 , 3 and 1 and adding them
together and simplifying, we will have the following result.

How to remember: The equivalent delta resistance between any

two point is given by the product of resistance taken two at a time
divided by the opposite resistance in the star configuration.
STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION
DELTA-STAR TRANSFORMATION
Example: Delta to Star
Example: Star to Delta
Delta connection is also known
as____________
a) Y-connection
b) Mesh connection
c) Either Y-connection or mesh connection
d) Neither Y-connection nor mesh connection
 •
Problem
A delta-section of resistors is given in
figure. Convert this into an equivalent
star-section.

Ans. : RA  3 ; RB  1.0 ; RC  1.5 .

 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
• If a circuit has two or more independent sources,
one way to determine the value of a specific
variable (voltage or current) is to use nodal or
mesh analysis.
• Another way is to determine the contribution of
each independent source to the variable and
then add them up. The latter approach is known
as the superposition.
• The idea of superposition rests on the linearity
property.
 STATEMENT

“The superposition principle states that

the voltage across (or current through) an
element in a linear circuit is the algebraic
sum of the voltages across (or currents
through) that element due to each
independent source acting alone”.
NOTE: Superposition is not limited to circuit analysis but is
applicable in many fields where cause and effect bear a linear
relationship to one another.
Procedure to Apply Superposition Principle/Theorem

• 1. Turn off all independent sources except one source.

• 2. Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active source

using any techniques such as Ohm’s Law, KCL, KVL, Nodal/Mesh
Analysis etc.

• 3. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.

• 4. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the

contributions due to the independent sources.
Numerical Problem
Superposition theorem does not work for
________
a) Current
b) Voltage
c) Power
d) Works for all: current, voltage and power
Explanation: Power across an element is not equal to the power across it
due to all the other sources in the system. The power in an element is
the product of the total voltage and the total current in that element.
• Superposition theorem is valid for _________
a) Linear systems
b) Non-linear systems
c) Both linear and non-linear systems
d) Neither linear nor non-linear systems
Explanation: Superposition theorem is valid only for linear systems because
the effect of a single source cannot be individually calculated in a non-linear
system.
 Thevenin’s Theorem

• Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-

terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source
VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is
the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and
RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are
turned off.
In Thevenin’s theorem Vth is __________
a) Sum of two voltage sources
b) A single voltage source
c) Infinite voltage sources
d) 0
Answer: b
Explanation: Thevenin’s theorem states that a
combination of voltage sources, current
sources and resistors is equivalent to a single
voltage source V and a single series resistor R.
 Thevenin’s Theorem

• Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-

terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source
VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is
the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and
RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are
turned off.
In Thevenin’s theorem Vth is __________
a) Sum of two voltage sources
b) A single voltage source
c) Infinite voltage sources
d) 0
Answer: b
Explanation: Thevenin’s theorem states that a
combination of voltage sources, current
sources and resistors is equivalent to a single
voltage source V and a single series resistor R.
Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
for the following circuit.
Thevenin’s theorem is true for __________
a) Linear networks
b) Non-Linear networks
c) Both linear networks and nonlinear networks
d) Neither linear networks nor non-linear networks
Nortons Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several energy
sources and resistances can be replaced by a single Constant Current
generator in parallel with a Single Resistor“.
As far as the load resistance, RL is concerned this single resistance, RS is the
value of the resistance looking back into the network with all the current
sources open circuited and IS is the short circuit current at the output
terminals
Determine the values of iN and RN.
• Determine the current I1 through the voltage
source in the circuit
Which of the following is also known as the
dual of Norton’s theorem?
a) Thevenin’s theorem
b) Superposition theorem
c) Maximum power transfer theorem
d) Millman’s theorem
 Can we use Norton’s theorem on a circuit
containing a BJT?
a) Yes
b) No
c) Depends on the BJT
d) Insufficient data provided
Find norton equivalent circuit
Norton's equivalent resistance is the
..............as Thevenin's equivalent resistance.

A. Not same
B. Same
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above
Norton theorem is ________ form of an
equivalent circuit.

Both current and voltage

Current
Voltage
None of the above
• For transfer of maximum power, the relation
between load resistance R and internal resistance
r of the voltage source is

• R = 2r
• R = 1.5r
• R=r
• R = 0.5r