hv

photonics

Article
Similariton-like Pulse Evolution in an Er-Doped Fiber Laser with
Hybrid Mode Locking
Aleksander Y. Fedorenko * , Almikdad Ismaeel, Ilya O. Orekhov, Dmitriy A. Dvoretskiy ,
Stanislav G. Sazonkin , Lev K. Denisov and Valeriy E. Karasik

Research and Education Center “Photonics and IR-Techniques”, Bauman Moscow State Technical University,
105005 Moscow, Russia; [email protected] (A.I.); [email protected] (I.O.O.); [email protected] (D.A.D.);
[email protected] (S.G.S.); [email protected] (L.K.D.); [email protected] (V.E.K.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: An Er-doped all-fiber ultrashort pulse laser with positive total net-cavity group-velocity
dispersion is demonstrated based on a hybrid mode-locking mechanism ensured by single-walled
carbon–boron–nitrogen nanotubes with coaction of the nonlinear polarization evolution effect. The
generation regime with a similariton-like spectrum is obtained. The spectrum width is ~31.5 nm, and
the minimal pulse duration is ~294 fs at full width at half maximum. The average output power is
~3.2 mW, corresponding to 0.376 nJ pulse energy and 1.25 kW peak power. The fundamental pulse
repetition rate is ~8.5 MHz, with a signal-to-noise ratio of 60 dB. The standard deviation of average
output optical power stability, measured for 12 h, is about ~1% RMS, and the maximum level of
relative intensity noise (RIN) does not exceed <−120 dBc/Hz in the 30 Hz–1 MHz frequency range.
To prove the similariton-like regime generation, we also studied numerically and experimentally the
pulse evolution during propagation through a laser resonator and output single-mode fiber with
anomalous dispersion.

Keywords: similariton-like pulses; erbium-doped fiber lasers; ultrashort pulse generation; pulse
evolution

Citation: Fedorenko, A.Y.; Ismaeel, A.; 1. Introduction

Orekhov, I.O.; Dvoretskiy, D.A.;
Ultrashort pulse (USP) lasers with high short-term stability of amplitude and fre-
Sazonkin, S.G.; Denisov, L.K.; Karasik,
quency parameters are of great importance in such high-precision areas as frequency comb
V.E. Similariton-like Pulse Evolution
spectroscopy [1,2], optical frequency standards [3,4] and microwave signal generation [5–7].
in an Er-Doped Fiber Laser with
In recent years, much attention has been paid to the study of various methods for short-term
Hybrid Mode Locking. Photonics 2024,
11, 387. https://doi.org/10.3390/
stabilization of USP radiation and the development of mode-locked sources with low noise
photonics11040387
performance [8–10].
The active short-term stabilization method based on an active electronic feedback loop
Received: 3 April 2024 is widely used for the suppression of intensity noise in mode-locked lasers. It usually in-
Revised: 18 April 2024
cludes a pump current modulator for compensation of laser diode intensity fluctuations [11]
Accepted: 19 April 2024
and a transmittance control system for the acousto-optic modulator [12]. Although this
Published: 21 April 2024
method allows the achievement of relative intensity noise (RIN) levels below −140 dBc/Hz
at a radio frequency of 100 Hz [11,13], it has a significant disadvantage: in the region of the
feedback control band, there is a strong resonant peak, and, as a result, the integrated noise
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
intensity increases.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. At present, the control of total intracavity group velocity dispersion (GVD) toward the
This article is an open access article near-zero region is one of the most common passive methods for the suppression of intensity
distributed under the terms and noise and timing jitter [10,14]. As is known, in the region of zero GVD, there are two main
conditions of the Creative Commons generation regimes that may be observed: stretched pulses [15] and similaritons [16]. The
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// key property that distinguishes a similariton regime from a stretched pulse regime is the
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ absence of significant pulse energy limitations caused by dispersive waves formation,
4.0/). and, as a result, similaritons have the potential to create high-power laser systems [17,18].

Photonics 2024, 11, 387. https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics11040387 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/photonics

Photonics 2024, 11, 387 2 of 14

Similaritons are pulses described by asymptotic self-similar solutions of the modified

nonlinear Schrödinger equation (NLSE) with positive linear chirp [16]. This generation
regime has a parabolic pulse shape and a parabolic spectrum and is realized at a positive
total net-cavity GVD. The passive similaritons [16] considered in this study, in contrast to
amplifier similaritons [19], are formed in dispersion-managed cavities and with minimal
spectral filtering. Such pulses remain self-similar even in the passive fiber and do not act as
a nonlinear attractor. Similaritons are stable as long as the envelope of the optical spectrum
does not expand beyond the amplification band of the active medium [17].
Another straightforward approach to passive noise suppression is the use of bandpass
filters that reduce both RIN [13] and timing jitter [19]. However, it should be noted that
spectral filtering inevitably leads to an increase in pulse duration [20] and insertion loss.
One of the promising methods for short-term stabilization of mode-locked fiber lasers
may be the use of hybrid mode locking in resonators, a combination of natural and artificial
saturable absorbers (SAs). Most USP lasers operate with passive mode locking, using two
types of SAs: natural SAs—semiconductor saturable absorber mirrors (SESAMs), single-
walled nanotubes and graphene; and artificial SAs—the mechanism of nonlinear evolution
of polarization (NPE), the principles of nonlinear optical loop mirror (NOLM) and nonlinear
amplifying loop mirrors (NALMs) [21–26]. Both types of SAs have their advantages and
disadvantages, and their combination allows one to mutually compensate for the other,
and, as a result, it is possible to achieve higher time and frequency stability [27–29].
When developing lasers with the use of the methods discussed above, one of the key
problems is the difficulty of assessing the direct influence of the applied technical solutions
on each other and on the parameters of the generated pulses. This problem is especially
acute for lasers with positive intracavity GVD due to the more complex dynamics of
pulse formation and propagation. Most studies researching the dynamics of the formation
and evolution of pulses in USP lasers with a positive net-cavity dispersion are devoted
to searching for the energy limitations of the generation regimes existence [18,30–32].
However, many investigations have been reported on the dynamics of pulse generation
inside a laser cavity. For example, Chong et. al. [33] performed mathematical modelling
of a Yb-doped fiber laser operating in all-normal dispersion (ANDi) with SA in the form
of NPE and demonstrated the formation of self-similar and M-shaped dissipative soliton
pulses, noting the key role of the spectral filter in this process. Boscolo with colleagues [32]
reported a numerical study of similariton dynamics inside the cavity of a Yb-doped fiber
laser operating at anomalous net-cavity GVD. Luo et al. [34] conducted experimental
research on the pulse evolution inside the cavity of an Er-doped fiber laser with large
positive dispersion, where four output couplers were added to the cavity. To study the
evolution of radiation, the dispersive Fourier transform (DFT) technique is also used [31],
which allows one to study the dynamics depending on the number of pulse round trips
through the resonator.
In this paper, we demonstrate both numerical and experimental studies of the simi-
lariton evolution in an Er-doped fiber laser with hybrid mode locking. In order to carry
out such an investigation, we used an SMF-28 fiber stretcher–compressor at the resonator
output, which is equivalent to the SMF-28 section inside the resonator, adjusted for the
fact that radiation with four times less power propagates through it, and changed its
length. The experimental data were compared with the numerical model. As a result, the
characteristics of the spectrum and pulse duration at the minimum and maximum lengths
were almost equivalent, with a more pronounced spectral filtering effect as the output fiber
length increased.

2. Materials and Methods

The experimental setup for the all-fiber erbium-doped laser resonator is shown in
Figure 1. The resonator is formed with fiber of 3 types, which makes it possible to im-
plement the net-cavity dispersion control mechanism. First is Erbium-doped fiber HE980
(Lucent Technologies Inc., Murray Hill, NJ, USA) with a core absorption of ~4 dB/m and a
 nator. The second type of fiber is the passive SMF-28 fiber (Corning Inc., New York, NY,
USA) with a dispersion parameter of D~+17.4 ps/(nm·km) and a length of 18.21 m. In order
to achieve the overall intracavity GVD required for the parabolic pulse generation, the
main adjustment of the dispersion is realized by changing the SMF-28 length. The third
Photonics 2024, 11, 387 3 of 14
fiber type is CS980, with a dispersion parameter of D~−2.16 ps/(nm·km) [35] and a length
of 2.045 m, and it is used to connect WDM 980/1550 to EDF. All dispersion coefficients are
given at a wavelength of 1550 nm. The total length of the resonator is 26.5 m, and the total
dispersion parameter of D~−54.6 ps/(nm·km), which serves as an active laser medium. In
net-cavity dispersion
order to increase is slightly
the pump positive
absorption (β2 = 6.09
efficiency, +0.025
m ofps thisatfiber
2 1530 nm).inAthe
is used CW laser diode
resonator.
(LC96A74P-20R, Oclaro Inc., San Jose, CA, USA) operating at a
The second type of fiber is the passive SMF-28 fiber (Corning Inc., New York, NY, USA) wavelength of 980 nm is
used
withasathe pump source.
dispersion parameter To ofinput and ps/(nm
D~+17.4 output·km) the pump radiation,
and a length twom.wave
of 18.21 demulti-
In order
to achieve the overall intracavity GVD required for the parabolic pulse
plexing filters (WDM 980/1550) are used. As a result of the property of spectral selectivity, generation, the
main adjustment of the dispersion is realized by changing the SMF-28
they also play the role of a spectral filter, preventing expansion of the optical spectrum. length. The third
Thefiber type is CS980, with a dispersion
polarization-maintaining parameter
fiber isolator of D~−2.16
(ISO-PM) ps/(nm
is used ·km) [35]
to ensure and a length gen-
unidirectional
of 2.045 m, and it is used to connect WDM 980/1550 to EDF. All dispersion coefficients
eration. A fiber coupler is also used to extract lasing radiation from the resonator: 80% of
are given at a wavelength of 1550 nm. The total length of the resonator is 26.5 m, and
thethe
radiation remains in the resonator, and 20% is removed.
total net-cavity dispersion is slightly positive (β2 = +0.025 ps2 at 1530 nm). A CW
The resonator operates with
laser diode (LC96A74P-20R, Oclaro the hybrid
Inc., mode
San Jose, CA,locking (ML) regime
USA) operating using both fast
at a wavelength
andofslow
980 nmsaturable
is usedabsorbers.
as the pump Single-walled
source. To inputcarbon–boron–nitride
and output the pump nanotubes
radiation,(C:BNNTs)
two
actwave
as slow saturable absorbers,
demultiplexing filters (WDM enabling
980/1550)the are
launch
used.ofAs the ML regime.
a result Such materials
of the property of
provide
spectrala relatively
selectivity,low
theymode-locking
also play the rolethreshold and afilter,
of a spectral shorter pulse generation
preventing expansion of compared
the
optical spectrum.
to common carbon The polarization-maintaining
nanotubes [36]. The role of fiber
a fastisolator
saturable(ISO-PM) is used
absorber to ensureby the
is played
NPEunidirectional
effect [29]. generation.
To control ML, A fiber coupler is alsocontroller
a polarization used to extract
(PC) lasing radiation
is installed from
in the the
cavity.
resonator: 80% of the radiation remains in the resonator, and 20% is removed.

Figure 1. The
Figure experimental
1. The setup
experimental of of
setup thethe
Erbium-doped
Erbium-dopedall-fiber
all-fiberUSP
USP laser
laser with
with aa hybrid mode-lock-
hybrid mode-
inglocking
mechanism.
mechanism.

The resonator
3. Experimental operates with the hybrid mode locking (ML) regime using both fast
Results
and slow saturable absorbers. Single-walled carbon–boron–nitride nanotubes (C:BNNTs)
actSlightly
as slowpositive
saturablenet-cavity
absorbers,GVD pulses,
enabling the formed
launch ofinthe
theMLMLregime.
fiber laser
Suchcavity, can tend
materials
to have a parabolic
provide a relativelyshape. The spectrum
low mode-locking of ourand
threshold generation
a shorter regime, shown in
pulse generation Figure 2a, is
compared
well
to common carbon nanotubes [36]. The role of a fast saturable absorber is played which
approximated by the parabolic function in contrast to the Gaussian form, by the may
indicate that [29].
NPE effect the regime weML,
To control are astudying is similariton-like.
polarization controller (PC) is installed in the cavity.
The data shown in Figure 2 were taken at a fiber compressor length of ~5.1 m, at
3. Experimental Results
which the minimum pulse duration was reached. The optical spectrum of a similariton-
Slightly
like pulse positive net-cavity
experimentally GVD pulses,
measured usingformed in the ML fiber
the CMA5000a laser cavity,
optical spectrumcan tend
analyzer
to have a parabolic shape. The spectrum of our generation regime, shown in Figure 2a, is
well approximated by the parabolic function in contrast to the Gaussian form, which may
indicate that the regime we are studying is similariton-like.
The data shown in Figure 2 were taken at a fiber compressor length of ~5.1 m, at
which the minimum pulse duration was reached. The optical spectrum of a similariton-like
pulse experimentally measured using the CMA5000a optical spectrum analyzer (Anritsu
Corporation, Atsugi, Japan) had a central wavelength at 1530 nm and a full width at half
maximum (FWHM) of ~31.5 nm.
 (Anritsu Corporation, Atsugi, Japan) had a central wavelength at 1530 nm and a full width
(Anritsu
at half Corporation,
maximum (FWHM)Atsugi,
of ~31.5Japan)
nm. had a central wavelength at 1530 nm and a full width
Photonics 2024, 11, 387 at half maximum (FWHM) of ~31.5 nm. 4 of 14

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 2. (a) Optical spectrum of output radiation, approximated with Gaussian and parabolic func-
Figure
tions, and 2.
Figure 2.(a)
(a) Optical
spectrum Optical spectrum
of the radiation
spectrum ofin
of output radiation,
relative
output approximated
units (inset).
radiation, withautocorrelation
(b) Intensity
approximated with Gaussian and
Gaussian and parabolic
parabolic
trace withfunc-
tions,
Gaussian and
fitting
functions, spectrum
andand of
pulse of
spectrum the radiation
intensity in
temporal
the radiation relative units
profileunits
in relative (inset).
with (inset). (b) Intensity
phase (inset). autocorrelation trace with
(b) Intensity autocorrelation trace
Gaussian fitting and pulse intensity temporal profile with phase
with Gaussian fitting and pulse intensity temporal profile with phase (inset). (inset).
To estimate the USP duration, the intensity autocorrelation trace was measured after
15 rounds ToTo ofestimate
estimate thethe
averaging, USPUSP
as duration,
duration,
shown in the the intensity
intensity
Figure autocorrelation
autocorrelation
2b (performed trace
traceFR-103
with the was
WSmeasured
was measured after after
autocorre-
1515 rounds
rounds of of averaging,
averaging, as as shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 2b 2b (performed
(performed
lator (FEMTOCHROME RESEARCH Inc., Berkeley, CA, USA)). This graph indicates an with with
the the
FR-103 FR-103
WS WS autocorre-
autocorre-
lator
lator(FEMTOCHROME
(FEMTOCHROME RESEARCH
RESEARCH Inc., Berkeley,
Inc., CA,CA,
Berkeley, USA)). This This
USA)). graph indicates an an
intensity autocorrelation width with a Gaussian approximation of ~424 fs graph
at FWHM indicates
that
intensity
intensityautocorrelation
autocorrelation width
width with a Gaussian
with a Gaussian approximation
approximation of ~424~424fs at FWHM that that
corresponds to the duration of the pulse equal to ~424 × 0.707 = ~294 of fs. fs at FWHM
corresponds
corresponds toto
thetheduration
duration of the
of thepulse equal
pulse to ~424 × 0.707 = ~294 fs. fs.
It is important to note that sometimes theequal to spectrum
optical ~424 × 0.707 = ~294
shape and net-cavity GVD
ItItisisimportant
important to note that sometimes
to note thatregime
sometimes the optical spectrum
the opticalespeciallyshape
spectrum in and
shape net-cavity
and GVD GVD
net-cavity
arearenotnotsufficient
sufficient for forgeneration
generation regime identification,
identification, especially in thezero-dispersion
the zero-dispersion
are To
region. notensure
sufficient for generation regime identification, especially in the zero-dispersion
region. To ensureaccurate
accuratecategorization,
categorization, we wemeasured
measuredthe the pulse
pulse intensity
intensity temporal
temporal pro-
profile
region.
fileand
andphase To
phase(using ensure
(using accurate
GRENOUILLE categorization,
15–40 USB we measured
(Swamp the
Optics pulse
LLC, intensity
Atlanta, temporal pro-
GRENOUILLE 15–40 USB (Swamp Optics LLC, Atlanta, GA,GA, USA)),
USA)), as
file andinphase
as shown
shown Figure (using GRENOUILLE 15–40 USB (Swamp Optics LLC, Atlanta, GA, USA)),
in Figure 3.3.The
The pulse
pulse FWHM,
FWHM, as determined
as determined by temporal
by the the temporal profile
profile (Figure
(Figure 3b),
as shown
3b),isis272 in Figure
272fs.fs.ItItclosely 3.
closelymatches The
matchesthe pulse FWHM,
themeasurement as
measurementobtaineddetermined
obtainedfrom by
fromthe the temporal
theautocorrelation profile
autocorrelationtrace, (Figure
trace,
3b),
confirming is
confirming 272 fs.
itsits It closely matches
representativeness.
representativeness. the measurement obtained from the autocorrelation trace,
confirming its representativeness.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure3. (a) Retrieved
3. (a) RetrievedGRENOUILLE
GRENOUILLE trace with raw
trace with rawdata
data(inset).
(inset).(b)(b) Pulse
Pulse temporal
temporal intensity
intensity pro-
profile
Figureand
file(blue)
(blue) 3. (a) Retrieved
measured GRENOUILLE
phase (orange) trace
with with raw
parabolic fit data (inset). (b) Pulse temporal intensity pro-
(purple).
and measured phase (orange) with parabolic fit (purple).
file (blue) and measured phase (orange) with parabolic fit (purple).
A slightly
A slightlymore
more detailed
detailedconsideration
considerationof of the
the phase necessary.As
phase is necessary. Asmentioned
mentionedininthe
the
A slightly
introduction,
introduction,thethe more detailed
similariton
similariton consideration
generation
generation regime of
regime is the phase is necessary.
is distinguished
distinguished by aa linear
by As
linear mentioned
positive
positive in the
chirp,
chirp,
introduction,
meaning
meaning that thethe
thatthe similariton frequency
instantaneous
instantaneous generation
frequency is regime
aislinear is distinguished
and
a linear increasing
and by afunction.
function.
increasing linear
As a positive
reminder, chirp,
As a re-
minder, the phase is the integral of the instantaneous frequency over time. Consequently,a re-
meaning
the phase isthat
the the instantaneous
integral of the frequency
instantaneous is
frequencya linear
over and
time.increasing function.
Consequently, it As
should
minder,
have the phase
the form is the integral
of a parabolic of the
function instantaneous
with upward branches frequency over time.pulses
for similariton Consequently,
[37].
The measured phase corresponds exactly to the case considered above. Therefore, we
Photonics 2024, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 14

it should have the form of a parabolic function with upward branches for similariton
Photonics 2024, 11, 387 5 of 14
pulses [37]. The measured phase corresponds exactly to the case considered above. There-
fore, we can unambiguously state that the generation regime under study is similariton-
like. The maximum average output optical power was ~3.2 mW at a 450 mW pump power;
can unambiguously state that the generation regime under study is similariton-like. The
this means that the pulse energy was about 0.376 nJ and that the peak power was 1.25 kW.
maximum average output optical power was ~3.2 mW at a 450 mW pump power; this
A further increase in the peak power may be achieved by using an erbium-doped fiber
means that the pulse energy was about 0.376 nJ and that the peak power was 1.25 kW.
amplifier (EDFA) after the laser cavity.
A further increase in the peak power may be achieved by using an erbium-doped fiber
To evaluate the frequency stability of the obtained regime, using the HCA-S-200M
amplifier (EDFA) after the laser cavity.
In-GaAs photodetector (FEMTO, Berlin, Germany) and the ESA FSL 3 model.03 RF spec-
To evaluate the frequency stability of the obtained regime, using the HCA-S-200M In-
trum analyzer (Rohde&Schwarz GmbH&Co. KG, Munich, Germany), we measured the
GaAs photodetector (FEMTO, Berlin, Germany) and the ESA FSL 3 model.03 RF spectrum
radio frequency
analyzer (RF) spectrum
(Rohde&Schwarz presented in
GmbH&Co. KG, Figure 4. The
Munich, RF spectrum
Germany), within thethe
we measured funda-
radio
mental pulse
frequency repetition
(RF) spectrumrate, which isin~8.5
presented MHz,
Figure wasRF
4. The measured
spectrum with
withina resolution of 300
the fundamental
Hz, andrepetition
pulse indicatesrate,
a signal-to-noise
which is ~8.5ratio
MHz, (SNR) of 60 dB with
was measured withexcellent pulse-to-pulse
a resolution of 300 Hz, re-and
gime stability. The full-range RF spectrum (9 kHz–200 MHz) was measured
indicates a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of 60 dB with excellent pulse-to-pulse regimewith a 10 kHz
stability.
resolution and showed
The full-range no Q-switch
RF spectrum laser MHz)
(9 kHz–200 operation
was and the absence
measured with aof10spurious frequency
kHz resolution and
modulations.
showed no Q-switch laser operation and the absence of spurious frequency modulations.

Figure
Figure4.4.RFRFspectrum
spectrumofofthe
theoutput
outputpulse
pulsetrain
trainatatthe
thefundamental
fundamentalrepetition
repetitionfrequency
frequencyand
andRF
RF
spectrum
spectrumatatthe
thefull
fullfrequency
frequencyrange
range(inset).
(inset).

Theoutput
The outputpulse
pulsetrain
train(obtained
(obtainedwithwithananInfinium
InfiniumMSO9254A
MSO9254Aoscilloscope
oscilloscope(Keysight
(Keysight
Technologies, Santa Rosa, CA, USA)) is shown in Figure 5a, inset,
Technologies, Santa Rosa, CA, USA)) is shown in Figure 5a, inset, and also shows no spu-and also shows no
spurious
rious modulations
modulations of theof the radiation
radiation intensity
intensity in the in the obtained
obtained regime.regime. To quantify
To quantify the
the long-
long-term
term intensity
intensity stability,
stability, we measured
we measured (with a(with
PM200 a PM200
powerpower
meter meter (Thorlabs
(Thorlabs GmbH, GmbH,
Da-
Dachau,
chau, Germany))
Germany)) the average
the average output
output optical
optical power power stability
stability for 12for
h, 12
andh,the
andgraph
the graph
of thisof
this measurement is presented in Figure 5a. The standard deviation
measurement is presented in Figure 5a. The standard deviation was ~1% RMS. This value was ~1% RMS. This
for mode-locked fiber lasers was mainly due to the lack of thermal stabilization of theof
value for mode-locked fiber lasers was mainly due to the lack of thermal stabilization
the system
system and,
and, as as a consequence,
a consequence, the thermal
the thermal drift drift
of theofaverage
the average
output output
power.power.
In order to characterize short-term regime stability, we measured the RIN of the USP
fiber laser and the noise floor of the receiving system, which includes a photodetector
(PD) and an electrical spectrum analyzer (ESA). Figure 5b shows the RIN in the range of
30 Hz–100 kHz (obtained with the ESA SR770FFT (Stanford Research Systems, Sunnyvale,
CA, USA) at 250 Hz resolution), where peaks at 30, 59 and 78 kHz may be observed. They
are due to external radio-frequency interference. The minimal observed RIN value of the
laser is <−120 dBc/Hz. The RIN in the range of 9 kHz–1 MHz (obtained with the ESA FSL
3 model.03 RF spectrum analyzer (Rohde&Schwarz GmbH&Co. KG, Munich, Germany)
at 300 Hz resolution) is demonstrated in Figure 5b, inset, and corresponds to a maximum
noise level of <−102 dBc/Hz, ensured mainly by the noise floor of the receiving system
and signal normalization to the carrier.
Photonics 2024, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14
Photonics 2024, 11, 387 6 of 14

(a) (b)
Figure 5.
Figure 5. (a)
(a) Average
Average output
output optical
optical power
power and
and typical
typicalpulse
pulsetrain
train(inset).
(inset).(b)
(b)RIN
RINofofthe
theUSP
USPfiber
fiber
laser and the receiving system noise floor at a low frequency range and RIN at a high frequency
laser and the receiving system noise floor at a low frequency range and RIN at a high frequency range.
range.
To consider the evolution of the pulse, the SMF-28 fiber stretcher–compressor was
In order
connected to to
thecharacterize
output of theshort-term regime
laser, then westability,
measured wethe
measured
optical the RIN of and
spectrum the USP
the
fiber laser and the noise floor of the receiving system, which includes a photodetector
intensity autocorrelation at various fiber lengths and plotted the studied pulse evolution (PD)
and an electrical
during spectrum
the propagation of analyzer
radiation(ESA).
alongFigure 5b shows
the fiber the RIN in the The
using interpolation. range of 30fiber
initial Hz–
100 kHz (obtained with the ESA SR770FFT (Stanford Research Systems, Sunnyvale,
length was 22 m, which is slightly greater than the length of the SMF-28 resonator section, CA,
USA)the
and at minimum
250 Hz resolution),
length of where peaks at 30,
the compressor, due59to
andthe78features
kHz may be observed.
of the measuring They are
circuit,
due to
was ~3external radio-frequency
m. Figure interference. The
6 shows the experimental minimal
results observed
for the spectrumRINevolution,
value of the
as laser
well
is <−120
as dBc/Hz.autocorrelation
the intensity The RIN in the range
trace of 9obtained
of the kHz–1 MHz regime(obtained withon
depending the
theESA FSLof3
length
model.03 RF spectrum analyzer (Rohde&Schwarz GmbH&Co. KG, Munich,
the fiber compressor length, which, as could be noticed, after passing the extremum point, Germany) at
300 Hz resolution) is demonstrated in Figure 5b, inset, and corresponds to a maximum
begins to play the role of a stretcher. The radiation leaves the resonator after 6.09 m EDF noise
level normal
with of <−102dispersion
dBc/Hz, ensured mainly
and 1.02 by the noise
m SMF-28 floor of
fiber with the receiving
anomalous system and
dispersion, and,signal
as a
Photonics 2024, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14
normalization
result, to the positive
it has strong carrier. chirp, which is compensated by a fiber compressor up to a
certainTopoint.
consider the evolution of the pulse, the SMF-28 fiber stretcher–compressor was
connected to the output of the laser, then we measured the optical spectrum and the in-
tensity autocorrelation at various fiber lengths and plotted the studied pulse evolution
during the propagation of radiation along the fiber using interpolation. The initial fiber
length was 22 m, which is slightly greater than the length of the SMF-28 resonator section,
and the minimum length of the compressor, due to the features of the measuring circuit,
was ~3 m. Figure 6 shows the experimental results for the spectrum evolution, as well as
the intensity autocorrelation trace of the obtained regime depending on the length of the
fiber compressor length, which, as could be noticed, after passing the extremum point,
begins to play the role of a stretcher. The radiation leaves the resonator after 6.09 m EDF
with normal dispersion and 1.02 m SMF-28 fiber with anomalous dispersion, and, as a
result, it has strong positive chirp, which is compensated by a fiber compressor up to a
certain point.

(a) (b)
Figure 6.
Figure 6. (a)
(a) Intensity
Intensity autocorrelation
autocorrelationtrace
traceevolution.
evolution. (b)
(b) Optical
Optical spectrum
spectrumevolution.
evolution.

Theevolution
The evolutionofofthe
thepulse
pulseduration
duration(Figure
(Figure6a)
6a)isisquite
quiteeven.
even. Distributed
Distributedinin aa medium
medium
with an anomalous GVD, the pulse is compressed to ~294 fs over a fiber length
with an anomalous GVD, the pulse is compressed to ~294 fs over a fiber length of ~5.1 of ~5.1 m,
after which
after which itit expands
expands relatively
relatively evenly.
evenly. The
The evolution
evolution of the spectrum (Figure 6b) demon-
strates a periodic shift of the emission intensity peak from the central wavelength of 1530
nm to 1540 nm and back. In our opinion, this is due to the effect of the four-wave mixing
process. It should also be noted that the generation regime did not change during the
experiment.
Figure 7 shows a comparative picture of the evolution of the pulse duration and spec-
 (a) (b)
Figure 6. (a) Intensity autocorrelation trace evolution. (b) Optical spectrum evolution.

Photonics 2024, 11, 387 The evolution of the pulse duration (Figure 6a) is quite even. Distributed in a medium
7 of 14
with an anomalous GVD, the pulse is compressed to ~294 fs over a fiber length of ~5.1 m,
after which it expands relatively evenly. The evolution of the spectrum (Figure 6b) demon-
strates a periodic shift of the emission intensity peak from the central wavelength of 1530
strates a periodic shift of the emission intensity peak from the central wavelength of
nm to 1540 nm and back. In our opinion, this is due to the effect of the four-wave mixing
1530 nm to 1540 nm and back. In our opinion, this is due to the effect of the four-wave
process. It should
mixing process. also bealso
It should noted that the
be noted generation
that regime
the generation did not
regime didchange during
not change the
during
experiment.
the experiment.
Figure
Figure 77shows
showsa acomparative
comparative picture of the
picture evolution
of the of the
evolution ofpulse duration
the pulse and spec-
duration and
trum width at FWHM. In general, the expansion and narrowing of
spectrum width at FWHM. In general, the expansion and narrowing of the spectrumthe spectrum is similaris
to the compression and stretching in the time domain. However, these two
similar to the compression and stretching in the time domain. However, these two graphs graphs have
some discrepancies
have some at certain
discrepancies points.
at certain We believe
points. that that
We believe the reason for for
the reason thisthis
is the process
is the of
process
spectral redistribution of energy caused by the effect of four-wave mixing
of spectral redistribution of energy caused by the effect of four-wave mixing as the pulse as the pulse
propagates
propagates in in the output fiber.
the output fiber.

Figure 7.
Figure Pulse duration
7. Pulse duration and
and spectrum
spectrum width
width evolution
evolution at
at FWHM
FWHM depending
depending on
on compressor
compressor length.
length.

According to these results, we can see that the evolution of the spectrum and the pulse
duration strongly correlate with each other. The narrowing of the optical spectrum after
maximum pulse compression is caused by an imbalance between self-phase modulation
(SPM) and anomalous dispersion. The pulse energy at the cavity output is moderate;
therefore, when the pulse temporally expands, its low peak power becomes even lower,
and self-phase modulation, which determines the number of spectral components of the
radiation, decreases. It should also be noted that these graphs characterize the evolution
of pulses inside the resonator in the SMF-28 section (between the coupler and the first
WDM) with respect to the radiation pulse power. These experimental data were used for
verification of a numerical model.

4. Numerical Modeling and Discussion

To obtain deeper insight into the working principle and lasing dynamic, a numerical
model based on the modified NLSE solved by the split-step Fourier method was constructed
to introduce the propagation of ultrashort pulses in active and passive fibers [38].

∂A β ∂2 A ĝ(λ) α
= −i 2 2 + iγ | A|2 A + A(z, t) − A(z, t), (1)
∂z 2 ∂t 2 2
Photonics 2024, 11, 387 8 of 14

where A is the slowly varying amplitude of the pulse envelope, z is the propagation
parameter, β 2 is the second-order dispersion, t is the time parameter, γ is the nonlinear
parameter, α is the loss and ĝ(λ) is the gain, which is given by the following equation:

g0 ( λ )
ĝ(λ) =  , (2)
E0
1+ Esat

where g0 (λ) is the small signal gain and Esat is the saturation energy of the active fiber,
and E0 was calculated by E0 = | A|2 dt. The parameters of the input field and fiber
R

characteristics for numerical simulation are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Parameters of the input field and fiber characteristics for numerical simulation.

Parameter, Unit SMF-28 CS980 EDF

β2 , ps2 /m −0.022 0.0028 0.0696
γ, 1/W·m 0.001 0.00346 0.00346
α, dB/m 0.00017 0.0002 0.00025
Gain (g), 1/m 0 0 20
Length, m 18.21 2.044 6.09

The output pulses of the simulated system are taken from the coupler with a transmis-
sion function q = (1 − Rout − a), where Rout is the coupling efficiency and α is the internal
loss of the coupler. WDM was considered as a spectral filter with Ω = 30 nm bandwidth
and a Gaussian transmission function in the frequency domain described as follows:
!
( w − w0 ) 2
K (w) = exp − . (3)
2Ω2

The effect of the C: BNNTs and NPE were considered as time-domain filters with
transmission functions based on the characteristics of SAs. A slow saturable absorber might
be described by the following transmission function:
 2

/

dqC:BNNT

1 − ∆C:BNNT
 | A|
= −q − q Pabs , (4)
dt τ

where ∆C:BNNT is the modulation depth, Pabs is the saturation power and τ is the relaxation
time of the C:BNNTs. For NPE, we used the following transmission function:

∆ NPE
q NPE = . (5)
| A |2
1+ Pabs

The parameters of the resonator components specified in the mathematical model are given
in Table 2.
Numerical results were recorded after 1000 cavity round trips starting with an input
field as a random distribution of energy over the time window. Figure 8 shows the
spectral (a) and temporal (b) distributions of the output field intensity, with a time grid
equal to 100 ps and a wavelength grid equal to 150 nm. The number of grid points was set
as 213 , leading to temporal and spectral resolutions equal to 12 fs and 18 GHz, respectively.
 Coupler
Internal loss 0.005
WDM Filter bandwidth, nm 30
Saturation power, W 1000
NPE
Modulation depth 0.1
Photonics 2024, 11, 387 9 of 14

Numerical results were recorded after 1000 cavity round trips starting with an input
field as a random distribution of energy over the time window. Figure 8 shows the spectral
Table 2. Parameters of resonator components.
(a) and temporal (b) distributions of the output field intensity, with a time grid equal to
100 ps and Element
a wavelength grid equal to 150 nm. The number of grid points
Parameter was set as 2 ,
Value
leading to temporal and spectral resolutions equal to 12 fs and 18 GHz, respectively.
Modulation depth 0.3
Looking at the obtained results,Saturation
C:BNNTs
one maypower,
observe
W the formation of a two-pulse
3 mode,
which evolves into a single-pulse mode time, ps after ~ 300 round0.25
and stabilizes
Recovery trips at a center
wavelength equal to 1530 nm corresponding to the
Coupling ratio
gain of EDF as an active
20/80
medium. The
Coupler
shift of pulse positions within a time window (Figure 8b, x-axis) is determined
Internal loss 0.005 by the time
it takes for the pulse to travel around the resonator, i.e., the length of the cavity. The aver-
WDM Filter bandwidth, nm 30
age output power of the stable pulses (Figure 8c) was calculated by 𝑃 = 𝑓 |𝐴(𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡,
Saturation power, W 1000
and it was equal to 3.2 mW for 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑝 =
NPE 8.5 MHz.depth
Modulation 0.1

Photonics 2024, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 8. (a) Spectral and temporal (b) distribution of the output field intensity. (c) Evolution of the
Figure 8. (a) Spectral and temporal (b) distribution of the output field intensity. (c) Evolution of the
average output optical power as a function of the position in the cavity and the manifestation of
average output optical power as a function of the position in the cavity and the manifestation of
modulation instability (inset).
modulation instability (inset).
The output peak power in the numerical model is close to the saturation power of
Looking at the obtained results, one may observe the formation of a two-pulse mode,
C:BNNTs. Therefore, the nanotubes induce modulation instability in the NLSE solution.
which evolves into a single-pulse mode and stabilizes after ∼300 round trips at a center
This instability
wavelength equal results in the
to 1530 nmappearance of wings
corresponding to theon theofoptical
gain EDF asspectrum
an activebelow the The
medium. −40
dBm level (spikes in Figure 8a) and fluctuations in the output power within 0.2% of the
average level (Figure 8c). The period of instability emergence in the simulation results is
38 round trips.
Moreover, in the evolution of the chirp parameter with respect to the propagation
length of the laser components, shown in Figure 9a, chirp can be detected by the rate of
change in the instantaneous frequency pulse evolution (which essentially represents the
Photonics 2024, 11, 387 10 of 14
(c)
Figure 8. (a) Spectral and temporal (b) distribution of the output field intensity. (c) Evolution of the
shift of output
average pulse positions within
optical power as aa function
time window
of the (Figure
position 8b, x-axis)
in the is and
cavity determined by the time
the manifestation of
it takes for instability
modulation the pulse (inset).
to travel around the resonator, i.e., the length of the cavity. The average
output power of the stable pulses (Figure 8c) was calculated by P = f rep | A(t)|2 dt, and it
R

was The
equaloutput
to 3.2 peak
mW forpower in 8.5
f rep = theMHz.
numerical model is close to the saturation power of
C:BNNTs.The output peak power in the induce
Therefore, the nanotubes numericalmodulation
model isinstability in saturation
close to the the NLSE solution.
power of
This instability results in the appearance of wings on the optical
C:BNNTs. Therefore, the nanotubes induce modulation instability in the NLSE spectrum belowsolution.
the −40
dBm
This level (spikesresults
instability in Figure
in the 8a)appearance
and fluctuations in the
of wings onoutput powerspectrum
the optical within 0.2%
belowof the
the
average
−40 dBm level (Figure
level (spikes8c).
inThe period
Figure of instability
8a) and emergence
fluctuations in thepower
in the output simulation
withinresults
0.2% is
of
38
theround trips.
average level (Figure 8c). The period of instability emergence in the simulation results
is 38Moreover,
round trips. in the evolution of the chirp parameter with respect to the propagation
lengthMoreover,
of the laser in components,
the evolutionshown of the in Figure
chirp 9a, chirpwith
parameter can respect
be detected
to thebypropagation
the rate of
change
length ofin the laser
instantaneous
components, frequency
shownpulse evolution
in Figure (which
9a, chirp can essentially
be detectedrepresents
by the ratethe
of
change inderivate
temporal the instantaneous frequency
of the oscillation pulse
phase). Theevolution
time grid(which
is equalessentially
to 60 ps torepresents the
cover all the
temporal
changes derivate ofthe
throughout thesimulation
oscillationprocess.
phase). The time grid is equal to 60 ps to cover all the
changes throughout the simulation process.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure9.9.(a)(a)
Time-dependent instantaneous
Time-dependent instantaneousfrequency as aasfunction
frequency of the
a function of position in the
the position incavity. (b)
the cavity.
The temporal distribution of pulses (solid lines) and time-dependent instantaneous frequency (dot-
(b) The temporal distribution of pulses (solid lines) and time-dependent instantaneous frequency
ted lines) .
(dotted lines).

This
Thisevolution
evolutionindicates
indicatesthat
thatthe
thepulse
pulseleaves
leavesthe
thecavity
cavityof
ofthe
theresonator
resonatorwith
withpositive
positive
sign
signnet
netchirp.
chirp.Also,
Also,it it
could bebe
could noted that
noted thethe
that chirp keeps
chirp its positive
keeps value
its positive along
value withwith
along the
propagation in all
the propagation in cavity components,
all cavity components,which
whichensures that
ensures the
that thegeneration
generationregime
regimeisisaa
similariton regime [39]. Now, along one round trip of the cavity, chirp has been represented
at three points within the propagation length in order to investigate the effect of chirp on
the duration of the pulse (Figure 9b). It could be noted that the positive chirp becomes
much stronger in the EDF, causing an increase in pulse duration (yellow line in Figure 9b).
However, within the propagation in the SMF-28 compressor after the laser cavity, the chirp
reaches its minimum value and the rate of change in instantaneous frequency corresponding
to the same time domain of the pulse is much less than its value in the cavity (red line in
Figure 9b). These results show the ability to compensate for the positive pulse chirp in
order to obtain a minimum pulse duration, which was obtained with the minimum positive
value of the chirp—in other words, when the instantaneous frequency and the spectral
phase of the pulses were nearly equivalent to a constant value.
To obtain complete knowledge of the laser’s operation, the model introduced the
evolution of pulse duration and optical power as a function of the position in the laser
cavity, as shown in Figure 10. The pulse duration evolution indicates a decrease in τ
within a propagation in the SMF-28 fiber until it reaches a minimum value (330 fs) before
the pulse starts to propagate in highly positive sign chirp fibers. The maximum value of
τ ∼ 2.24 ps is at the end of propagation in normal dispersion fibers (under the maximum
 frequency and the spectral phase of the pulses were nearly equivalent to a constant value.
To obtain complete knowledge of the laser s operation, the model introduced the
evolution of pulse duration and optical power as a function of the position in the laser
cavity, as shown in Figure 10. The pulse duration evolution indicates a decrease in 𝜏
within a propagation in the SMF-28 fiber until it reaches a minimum value (330 fs) before
Photonics 2024, 11, 387 11 of 14
the pulse starts to propagate in highly positive sign chirp fibers. The maximum value of
𝜏~2.24 ps is at the end of propagation in normal dispersion fibers (under the maximum
value of positive chirp). The pulse compression factor, which is the ratio between the max-
value of positive chirp). The pulse compression factor, which is the ratio between the
imum and minimum pulse duration in the cavity, is approximately 7, which ensures the
maximum and minimum pulse duration in the cavity, is approximately 7, which ensures
main involvement of the dispersion map and chirp in the pulse shaping mechanism. The
the main involvement of the dispersion map and chirp in the pulse shaping mechanism.
demonstrated pulse duration evolution is identical to the similariton pulse duration evo-
The demonstrated pulse duration evolution is identical to the similariton pulse duration
lutions in [40,41] and reasonably agrees with the experimental results. The numerical re-
evolutions in [40,41] and reasonably agrees with the experimental results. The numerical
sults of the investigation indicate the possibility of using SMF-28 to compress pulses. The
results of the investigation indicate the possibility of using SMF-28 to compress pulses. The
SMF-28 fiber outside the cavity compresses the pulse duration from 𝜏 = ~1.3 ps at the
SMF-28 fiber outside the cavity compresses the pulse duration from τ = ∼1.3 ps at the
resonator output
resonator output to 302fsfsatatthe
to 302 thecompressor
compressorlength
lengthof
of~4.6
~4.6 m.
m. These
These results
results also
also correlate
correlate
with what
with what waswas obtained
obtained experimentally.
experimentally. Figure
Figure 10b
10b shows
shows the
the increase
increase in
in optical
optical power
power
along the propagation in the EDF due to the gain coefficient. Optical losses
along the propagation in the EDF due to the gain coefficient. Optical losses in all fibers in all fibers
(Table 1) and the optical components were considered. Finally, the optical pulse
(Table 1) and the optical components were considered. Finally, the optical pulse propagates propa-
gates
in the in
20%theport
20%ofport
the of the coupler.
coupler. Theoptical
The final final optical
powerpower
is ~3.2ismW.
~3.2 mW.

Photonics 2024, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14

(a)

(b)
Figure 10.
Figure 10. The
The evolution of pulse
evolution of pulse duration
duration (a)
(a) and
and the
the average
average optical
optical power
power (b)
(b) as
as aa function
function of
of the
the
position in the laser cavity.
position in the laser cavity.

5. Conclusions
In summary, we obtained a similariton regime generated by a 26.5 m long resonator
with a normal total net-cavity dispersion of β2 = +0.025 ps2, with a similariton-like spec-
trum with an FWHM of 31.5 nm, a pulse duration of ~294 fs after compression, and a
fundamental repetition rate of 8.5 MHz. The RF spectrum of the radiation corresponds to
Photonics 2024, 11, 387 12 of 14

5. Conclusions
In summary, we obtained a similariton regime generated by a 26.5 m long resonator
with a normal total net-cavity dispersion of β2 = +0.025 ps2 , with a similariton-like spectrum
with an FWHM of 31.5 nm, a pulse duration of ~294 fs after compression, and a fundamental
repetition rate of 8.5 MHz. The RF spectrum of the radiation corresponds to an SNR of 60 dB
at the fundamental repetition frequency. The standard deviation of the average output
optical power is about 1% RMS in 12 h of measurement, and the RIN does not exceed
<−120 dBc/Hz at the 30 Hz–1 MHz frequency range. For such a regime, we investigated
experimentally and numerically the evolution of spectrum and pulse duration in the fiber
with anomalous GVD. The dynamics of changes in pulse duration were uniform. We
have experimentally shown that a pulse with a duration of ~1.6 ps first compressed to
~294 fs with an ~5.1 m length of fiber and then stretched to ~3.2 ps, while according to
the numerical simulation, the pulse had an initial duration of ~1.3 ps and compressed
to 302 fs at a length of 4.6 m. The difference between the numerical and experimental
results is in a reasonable range and may be explained by the absence of some factors in
the model, such as high-order dispersion parameters with respect to the high peak power
pulse propagation in the laser resonator. The evolution of the optical spectrum showed
a periodic shift of the intensity maximum from the central wavelength of 1530 nm to the
region of 1540 nm because of the effect of four-wave mixing. Pulse dynamics inside the
cavity, studied within the model, fully correspond to the regime of similaritons. In this case,
the minimum pulse duration inside the resonator is located at the interface between fibers
with normal and anomalous dispersion and is 330 fs. Thus, we believe that the study sheds
light on the processes of the formation and evolution of similaritons both inside a laser
cavity and during propagation in a medium, and we anticipate that this investigation will
expand knowledge of the similariton generation mechanisms and provide a clear view of
the demonstration and parameter control of USP lasers with normal net-cavity dispersion
and a hybrid mode-locking process.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.Y.F., D.A.D. and L.K.D.; methodology, A.Y.F., I.O.O.,
A.I., D.A.D. and V.E.K.; software, A.I. and I.O.O.; validation, S.G.S. and D.A.D.; formal analysis, A.Y.F.
and A.I.; investigation, A.Y.F., A.I. and I.O.O.; data curation, A.Y.F., A.I. and I.O.O.; writing—original
draft preparation, A.Y.F. and A.I.; writing—review and editing, I.O.O., D.A.D., L.K.D. and V.E.K.;
visualization, A.Y.F. and A.I.; supervision, S.G.S.; project administration, S.G.S.; funding acquisition,
S.G.S. and V.E.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Russian Science Foundation (RSF), grant number 23-19-00700.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The original contributions presented in the study are included in the
article; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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