CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Carig Campus
College of Engineering

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS

ChE 211

UNIT II:
PROCESS UNITS AND DEGREES OF FREEDOM
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
1. Describe by schematic diagram and discuss the different functions of the different unit
operations frequently used for transports processes, with or without chemical reactions.
2. Draw the process flow diagrams of commonly used unit operations.

CONTENTS:
I. PROCESS UNITS AND BASIC FUNCTIONS

I. PROCESS UNITS AND BASIC FUNCTIONS

In this section, the most frequently used unit operations in chemical engineering processes are briefly
described. The explanations are focused on typical operations involving the transfer of mass through
physical or chemical routes

1. Divider/Splitter
- A splitter is used to divide the flow rate in a certain stream into two or more streams with different
flow rates.
Splitter Feed, A Splitter Exit 2, C

Splitter Exit 1, B
a. The total balance is A = B + C
b. Composition of streams A, B and C is the same for each.
c. There in only one independent material balance since all compositions are equal.

2. Mixer (Blender) Mixer Feed 2, B

Mixer Feed 1, F Mixer Product, E

a. There are two or more entering streams.
b. There is only one exit stream, a “mixed” stream.
c. The streams can be any phase, gas, liquid or solid.

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 CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus
College of Engineering

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS

ChE 211
3. Dryer (Direct Heating)
- Drying is a mass transfer process resulting in the removal of moisture by evaporation from a solid,
semisolid, or liquid to produce a solid state. To achieve this operation, the dryer is supplied with
a source of heat. Vapor is produced in the process.
Solvent, S

Dryer Feed, D Dried Product, E

a. Solvent stream leaves as a pure vapor and is solids free.

b. Exit dried solids are in the solid phase.
c. Dried solids may not be solvent free.
d. Feed can be solid, slurry or solution.

4. Filter
- Filtration is used either to remove impurities from a liquid or to isolate a solid from a fluid.
Filtration is commonly a mechanical or a physical operation that is used for the separation of
solids from fluids (liquids or gases) by interposing a medium through which only the fluid can
pass.
- Filtration can also be used to separate particles that are suspended in a fluid, where the latter
can be a liquid, a gas, or a supercritical fluid. Depending on the application, either one or both
of the components may be isolated.
-

Filtrate, E
Feed Solution (Exit Liquid)
or Slurry, D
Filter Cake, S
(Wet Solid)

a. Filtrate, the exit liquid, is solids free.

b. Filtrate is saturated with soluble component.
c. The filter cake leaves with some liquid attached.
d. Concentration of stream E and liquid attached to the filter cake is the same.

5. Evaporator
- Similar to drying, except both process streams are liquids. The process of evaporation is used in
the different branches of the industry for food or chemicals processes, in which the concentration
of the solutions is required.
Solvent, S

Evaporator
Feed, D Dried Product, E

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 CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus
College of Engineering

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS

ChE 211

A. Single-effect evaporator
Used when:
- The throughput is low.
- When a cheap supply of steam is available.
- When expensive materials of construction must be used as is the case with corrosive feedstock
and when the vapor is so contaminated so that it cannot be reused
Single effect units may be operated in batch, semi-batch or continuous batch modes or
continuously.
- In a single effect evaporator, the condensate product and the solution in the evaporator
have the same composition and temperature T1 (Boiling point of solution).
- The temperature of vapor is also T1 since it is in equilibrium with boiling solution.
- The pressure is P1, which is the vapor pressure of the solution at T1.
- The solution in evaporator is assumed to be completely mixed.
- Vapour, V
yv, T1, HV

Feed, F
xF, TF, hF

Steam, S Condensate, S
PS, TS, HS PS, TS, hS

Concentrate, L
XL, T1, hL
B. Multi-effect evaporator
- Theoretically, multiple-effect evaporators allow decreased consumption of energy for a
concentration almost proportionally equal to the number of effects (evaporators). However,
being expensive, evaporators require the reduction in the number of effects, in order to be
cost-effective. The optimal number of effects is generally determined via calculations.

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 CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus
College of Engineering

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS

ChE 211
6. Distillation
- Distillation is a method of separating chemical substances based on differences in their
volatilities. Distillation usually forms part of a larger chemical process. In the distillation column,
more volatile components are in the distillate, while less volatile components are in the
bottoms. Separation is accomplished by boiling. However, perfect separation is not possible
- Each tray accomplishes a fraction of the separation task by transferring the more volatile species
to the gas phase and the less volatile species to the liquid phase. Material and energy balances
can be performed on an individual tray, the column, bottom reboiler, or top condenser, or the
entire system.

a. The more volatile components are in the distillate.

b. The less volatile components are in the bottoms.
c. Separation is accomplished by boiling.
d. Perfect separation is not possible.

7. Dehumidifier
- It is a device that reduces the level of humidity in air or a gas stream
-

Exit Gas, E
Feed Gas, D
(Moist Gas)
Condensate
Liquid, S
a. Feed stream contains a condensable component and a non-condensable component.
b. Condensate is a liquid with the condensable component only.
c. The “dry gas” exit stream is saturated with the condensable component at the T and P of the
process.

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 CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus
College of Engineering

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS

ChE 211
8. Humidifier
- A humidifier is a device that increases the amount of moisture in a stream of air. It operates by
allowing water to evaporate from a pan or a wetted surface, or by circulating air through an air-
washer compartment that contains moisture.
Exit Gas, E
Feed Gas, D (Wetter Gas)
Volatile Feed
Liquid, S
a. The feed gas is not saturated.
b. The liquid is evaporated in the process unit.
c. The vapor exit product may or may not be saturated.

9. Gas dryer

Exit Gas, E Feed Gas, G

Dryer Feed, F Dry Product, P

a. Solvent is transferred from liquid phase to gas phase.
b. Unit can be split into two units for analysis- a direct dryer (as in 3) and a mixer of the feed gas and
the solvent mover to the gas phase.

10. Leaching and Extraction

Extract Liquid Out, E Heavy Solvent Feed, G

Light Solvent Feed, F Raffinate Liquid Out, R

a. The two liquid solvents must be immiscible.

b. They must have different S.G.
c. At least one component is transferred from one solvent to the other by difference in solubility.
d. The process is often called liquid-liquid extraction.
e. If one of the feed streams is a solid, the process is called Leaching or liquid-solid extraction.

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 CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus
College of Engineering

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS

ChE 211
11. Absorption (Gas Absorption) (desorption)
- In gas absorption, a soluble component is absorbed by contact with a liquid phase in which the
component is soluble. This system is used for absorbing impurities from a gas stream of certain
components such as hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, and ammonia, using a suitable solvent.

Clean Exit Gas, E Feed Absorbing Liquid, G

Dirty Gas Feed, F Exit Liquid, P

a. Purpose of unit is to have the liquid absorb a component from the feed gas. An absorber is often
called a scrubber.
b. The liquid stream flows down through the tower by gravity.
c. The gas stream is pumped upwards through the tower.
d. No carrier gas is transferred to the liquid.
e. Generally, no liquid solvent is transferred to the gas stream (check this assumption).
f. Desorption is the same process as gas absorption except that the component transferred leaves the
liquid phase and enters the gas phase. A desorber is sometimes called a stripper.

12. Partial Condenser

Vapor Product, V

Vapor Feed, F

Condensed
Liquid, L
a. The feed stream contains only condensable vapor components.
b. The exit streams, L and V, are in equilibrium.
c. Condensation is caused by cooling and/or increasing pressure.

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 CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus
College of Engineering

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS

ChE 211
Flash Vaporizer, Flash Distillation
Vapor Product, V

Liquid Feed, F

Liquid
Product, L
a. Same flow sheet as a partial condenser except the feed is a liquid.
b. Vaporization is caused by reducing the pressure and/or heating.
c. The Vapor and liquid streams are in equilibrium.

13. Crystallizer
- Crystallizers are used in industry to achieve liquid–solid separation. The process for a crystallizer
involves a crystallizer–filter combination so as to separate solid crystals from a solution. Solid
crystals are formed in the unit by a change in temperature. Crystallization is capable of generating
high purity products with a relatively low energy input
Crystals, C

Crystallizer
Feed, F
Slurry
Product, E

a. Solid crystals are formed in the unit by a change in temperature.

b. The flow sheet for a crystallizer is often shown as a combination crystallizer-filter.

14. REACTOR (Chemical Reactor, combustor, furnace, reformer)

Gas Products, G
Reactant 1 Feed, A

Reactant 2 Feed, B Liquid Products, L

Recycle Feed, R Solid Products, S

a. The diagram shown is for a typical reactor that has two reactant feed streams and a recycle stream.
b. If a single reaction takes place, put the conversion in the box.
c. A reactor is often named by the reaction taking place.
d. A reactor is sometimes preceded by a fictitious mixer if the combined reactor feed is specified or
must be determined.

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 CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus
College of Engineering

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS

ChE 211
e. Multiple exit streams are shown to remind you to watch for exit streams that separate because of
their different phases.

Process Flow Diagram

A PFD is a diagram commonly used in chemical and process engineering to describe the general flow
of plant processes and equipment. PFD displays the relationship between major equipment of a plant
facility and does not show minor details such as piping and control designations.

Labeling a PFD
PFD identifies all processes at a facility. Each piece of equipment is labeled with a name and a
number assigned by the engineer or client and must be shown on the PFD. Major flow streams are
represented by arrow lines directed from left to right in a diagram. Each stream line should have a
specification indication as a minimum unit number and line number.

Example 2.1
An amount of 100 kg/h of a mixture of 50%
benzene and 50% toluene is separated in a
distillation column. The distillate contains 90%
benzene and the bottom stream composition is
95% toluene (compositions are in weight
percent). Draw and label the process
flowchart, and specify vapor and liquid
streams.

Example 2.2

A process for making a single product involves reacting

liquids in a continuously agitated reactor and distilling the
resulting mixture. Unused reactants are recovered as
overhead and are recycled. The product is obtained in
sufficiently pure form as bottoms from the distillation
tower. Prepare a qualitative flowsheet for the process,
showing all pieces of equipment.

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 CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus
College of Engineering

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS

ChE 211
Example 2.3
Prepare the simplest principal type of flowsheet for the following process and indicate the flowrates of
the principal chemical components:
A refinery stream containing paraffins and a mixture of aromatics (benzene, toluene, xylene, and
heavier aromatics) is extracted with a liquid solvent to recover the aromatics. The solvent and
aromatics are separated by distillation, with the solvent recycled to the extraction column. The
aromatics are separated in three columns, recovering benzene, toluene, and mixed xylenes, in that
order. The feed stream consists of the following:
Paraffins 300,000 kg/h Benzene 100,000 kg/h
Toluene 180,000 kg/h Xylene 70,000 kg/h
Heavy aromatics 40,000 kg/h
A 3-to-1 ratio of solvent to aromatics is used.

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 CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus
College of Engineering

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS

ChE 211
Self-Learning Assessment 3: → QUIZ
Consider the following recipe for pizza dough:
• Mix 4 packages of Baker’s yeast with ¼ cup of milk and ½ cup of warm water. Gently warm and
stir for 15 minutes.
• Prepare two cups of “scalded milk,” that is, milk that has been heated to a boil for about 1 minute;
add 1 tablespoon of molasses and 1 tablespoon of salt to the milk after scalding.
• Make the dough by combining the yeast mixture and the scalded milk mixture with 6 cups of flour.
• Gently knead the dough for about 5 minutes. Let the dough rise in warm, moist air for 15 minutes.
The risen dough should be about double its initial size. There should be sufficient dough to make
4 pizzas.
• Roll one quarter of the dough into a flat circle, 15 inches in diameter. Lightly coat dough with
olive oil. Bake the dough at 5350F for 5 to 6 minutes.
Design a process to continuously produce prebaked pizza dough a for a major grocery chain. Your flow
sheet should have labels on all units and qualitative compositions of all streams.

References
1. Felder, R.M. and R.W. Rousseau (2005). Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes (3rd
Edition). New York: Wiley
2. Ghasem, Nayef and Redhouane Henda (2015). Principles of Chemical Engineering Processes –
Material and Energy Balances (2nd Edition), CRC Press
3. Himmelblau, D.M. and James B. Riggs (2005). Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical
Engineering (7th Edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall
4. Reklaitis, G.V. (1983), Introduction to Material and Energy Balances. New York: John Wiley &
Sons

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