ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

Assignment No : 1
Semester : 1st Autumn 2022
Program : B.ED
Subject Name : Research Methods in Education
Code No : 8604
Submitted To : Mam Shabana Manzoor
Submitted By : Jamal Khan
Student ID : 0000393655
Submission Date : 12 Feb 2023

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Q1. Discuss different methods used as a tool of acquiring knowledge. Compare the various
Steps in scientific method with steps in research process?
Ans.
Scientific method: The Scientific method is a process with the help of which scientists try
to investigate, verify, or construct an accurate and reliable version of any natural phenomena.
They are done by creating an objective framework for the purpose of scientific inquiry results
scientifically to come to a conclusion that either supports or contradicts the observation made at
the beginning.
Scientific Method Steps:
The aim of all scientific methods is the same, that is, to analyze the observation made at
Beginning. Still, various steps are adopted per the requirement of any given observation.
However, there is a generally accepted sequence of steps in scientific methods.

1. Observation and formulation of a question: This is the first step of a scientific method,
to start one, an observation has to be made into any observable aspect or phenomena
of the universe, and a question needs to be asked about that aspect. For example, you
can ask, “Why is the sky black at night? Or “Why is air invisible?”
2. Data Collection and Hypothesis: The next step involved in the scientific method is to
collect all related data and formulate a hypothesis based on the observation. The
hypothesis could be the cause of the phenomena, its effect, or its relation to any other
phenomena.

3. Testing the hypothesis: After the hypothesis is made, it needs to be tested scientifically.
Scientists do this by conducting experiments. The aim of these experiments is to
determine whether the hypothesis agrees with or contradicts the observations made in
the real world. The confidence in the hypothesis increases or decreases based on the
result of the experiments.

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 4. Analysis and Conclusion: This step involves the use of proper mathematical and other
scientific procedures to determine the results of the experiment. Based on the analysis,
the future course of action can be determined. If the data found in the analysis is
consistent with the hypothesis, it is accepted. If not, then it is rejected or modified and
analyzed again.

It must be remembered that a hypothesis cannot be proved or disproved by doing one

experiment. It needs to be done repeatedly until there are no discrepancies in the data and the
result. When there are no discrepancies and the hypothesis is proved, it is accepted as a ‘theory’.

Scientific Method Examples following is an example of the scientific method:

Growing bean plants:

1. What is the purpose: The main purpose of this experiment is to know where the bean
plant should be kept inside or outside to check the growth rate and also set the time
frame as four weeks.
2. Construction of hypothesis: The hypothesis used is that the bean plant can grow
anywhere if the scientific methods are used.
3. Executing the hypothesis and collecting the data: Four bean plants are planted in
identical pots using the same soil. Two are placed inside, and the other two are placed
outside. Parameters like the amount of exposure to sunlight, and amount of water all are
the same. After the completion of four weeks, all four plant sizes are measured.
4. Analyze the data: While analyzing the data, the average height of plants should be taken
into account from both places to determine which environment is more suitable for
growing the bean plants.
5. Conclusion: The conclusion is drawn after analyzing the data.
6. Results: Results can be reported in the form of a tabular form.

Scientists use a dynamic, open-ended process to investigate questions. Here are the five steps.
 Define a Question to Investigate: As scientists conduct their research, they make
observations and collect data. The observations and data often lead them to ask why
something is the way it is. Scientists pursue answers to these questions in order to
continue with their research. Once scientists have a good question to investigate, they
begin to think of ways to answer it.
 Make Predictions: Based on their research and observations, scientists will often come
up with a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a possible answer to a question. It is based on: their
own observations, existing theories, and information they gather from other sources.
Scientists use their hypothesis to make a prediction, a testable statement that describes
what they think the outcome of an investigation will be.

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  Gather Data: Evidence is needed to test the prediction. There are several strategies for
collecting evidence, or data. Scientists can gather their data by observing the natural
world, performing an experiment in a laboratory, or by running a model. Scientists decide
what strategy to use, often combining strategies. Then they plan a procedure and gather
their data. They make sure the procedure can be repeated, so that other scientists can
evaluate their findings.
 Analyze the Data: Scientists organize their data in tables, graphs, or diagrams. If possible,
they include relevant data from other sources. They look for patterns that show
connections between important variables in the hypothesis they are testing.
 Draw Conclusions: Based on whether or not their prediction came true, scientists can
then decide whether the evidence clearly supports or does not support the hypothesis.
If the results are not clear, they must rethink their procedure. If the results are clear,
scientists write up their findings and results to share with others. The conclusions they
draw usually lead to new questions to pursue.

Q.2. Describe different types of research categorized on the basis of methods used and the
purpose of research?
Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or problem using
scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Bobbie, “research is a
systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It
involves inductive and deductive methods.” Inductive methods analyze an observed event, while
deductive methods verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with
qualitative research, and deductive methods are more commonly associated with quantitative
analysis.

Research is conducted with a purpose to:

 Identify potential and new customers

 Understand existing customers
 Set pragmatic goals
 Develop productive market strategies
 Address business challenges
 Put together a business expansion plan
 Identify new business opportunities.

What are the characteristics of research?

1. Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data. Researchers

need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing
conclusions.

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 2. The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive
methods.
3. Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in natural settings.
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies
associated with it.
5. It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more
research opportunities.
6. It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The information must be
accurate and correct. For example, laboratories provide a controlled environment to
collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of
instruments or tools, and the experiment’s final result.

What is the purpose of research?

There are three main purposes:
1. Exploratory: As the name suggests, researchers conduct exploratory studies to explore
a group of questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a conclusion to the
perceived problem. It is undertaken to handle new problem areas that haven’t been
explored before. This exploratory process lays the foundation for more conclusive data
collection and analysis.
2. Descriptive: It focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through a process of
data collection. Descriptive research describe the behavior of a sample population.
Only one variable is required to conduct the study. The three primary purposes of
descriptive studies are describing, explaining, and validating the findings. For example,
a study conducted to know if top-level management leaders in the 21st century possess
the moral right to receive a considerable sum of money from the company profit.
3. Explanatory: Causal or explanatory research is conducted to understand the impact of
specific changes in existing standard procedures. Running experiments is the most
popular form. For example, a study that is conducted to understand the effect of
rebranding on customer loyalty.

It begins by asking the right questions and choosing an appropriate method to investigate the
problem. After collecting answers to your questions, you can analyze the findings or observations
to draw reasonable conclusions.
When it comes to customers and market studies, the more thorough your questions, the better
the analysis. You get essential insights into brand perception and product needs by thoroughly
collecting customer data through surveys and questionnaires. You can use this data to make
smart decisions about your marketing strategies to position your business effectively.
To make sense of your study and get insights faster, it helps to use a research repository as a
single source of truth in your organization and manage your research data in one centralized
repository.

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There are two types of research method.

 Qualitative Method
 Quantitative Method

Qualitative Method: Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data
(e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to
gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which involves collecting and
analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as
anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

Qualitative research question examples

 How does social media shape body image in teenagers?

 How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
 What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
 How is anxiety experienced around the world?
 How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Quantitative Method: Quantitative research is a systematic investigation of phenomena by

gathering quantifiable data and performing statistical, mathematical, or computational
techniques. Quantitative research collects information from existing and potential customers
using sampling methods and sending out online surveys, online polls, and questionnaires, for
example.

The results of which can be depicted in the form of numerical. After careful understanding of
these numbers to predict the future of a product or service and make changes accordingly.

An example of quantitative research is the survey conducted to understand the amount of time
a doctor takes to tend to a patient when the patient walks into the hospital. A patient
satisfaction survey template can be administered to ask questions like how much time a doctor
takes to see a patient, how often a patient walks into a hospital, and other such questions

Quantitative outcome research is mostly conducted in the social sciences using the statistical
methods used above to collect quantitative data from the research study. In this research
method, researchers and statisticians deploy mathematical frameworks and theories that
pertain to the quantity under question.

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Quantitative research templates are objective, elaborate, and many times, even investigational.
The results achieved from this research method are logical, statistical, and unbiased. Data
collection happened using a structured method and was conducted on larger samples that
represent the entire population.

It is essential to ensure that your data is:

 Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.
 Accurate – free of errors and including required details.
 Reliable – other people who investigate in the same way can produce similar results.
 Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.
 Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business decisions.
 Identify the main trends and issues, opportunities, and problems you observe. Write a
sentence describing each one.
 Keep track of the frequency with which each of the main findings appears.
 Make a list of your findings from the most common to the least common.
 Evaluate a list of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats identified in a
SWOT analysis.
 Prepare conclusions and recommendations about your study.
 Act on your strategies
 Look for gaps in the information, and consider doing additional inquiry if necessary
 Plan to review the results and consider efficient methods to analyze and interpret results.

Q.3 discuss the concept of educational research. Also examine the need and importance of
research in education?

Ans. Educational Research:

Educational research is a type of systematic investigation that applies empirical methods to
solving challenges in education. It adopts rigorous and well-defined scientific processes in order
to gather and analyze data for problem-solving and knowledge advancement.
J. W. Best defines educational research as that activity that is directed towards the development
of a science of behavior in educational situations. The ultimate aim of such a science is to provide
knowledge that will permit the educator to achieve his goals through the most effective methods.
The primary purpose of educational research is to expand the existing body of knowledge by
providing solutions to different problems in pedagogy while improving teaching and learning
practices. Educational researchers also seek answers to questions bothering on learner
motivation, development, and classroom management.

Characteristics of Education Research:

While educational research can take numerous forms and approaches, several characteristics
define its process and approach. Some of them are listed below:
1. It sets out to solve a specific problem.

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 2. Educational research adopts primary and secondary research methods in its data
collection process. This means that in educational research, the investigator relies on first-
hand sources of information and secondary data to arrive at a suitable conclusion.
3. Educational research relies on empirical evidence. This results from its largely scientific
approach.
4. Educational research is objective and accurate because it measures verifiable
information.
5. In educational research, the researcher adopts specific methodologies, detailed
procedures, and analysis to arrive at the most objective responses
6. Educational research findings are useful in the development of principles and theories
that provide better insights into pressing issues.
7. This research approach combines structured, semi-structured, and unstructured
questions to gather verifiable data from respondents.
8. Many educational research findings are documented for peer review before their
presentation.
9. Educational research is interdisciplinary in nature because it draws from different fields
and studies complex factual relations.

Types of Educational Research

Educational research can be broadly categorized into 3 types which are descriptive research,
correlational research, and experimental research. Each of these has distinct and overlapping
features.

Descriptive Educational Research:

In this type of educational research, the researcher merely seeks to collect data with regards to
the status quo or present situation of things. The core of descriptive research lies in defining the
state and characteristics of the research subject being understudied.
Because of its emphasis on the “what” of the situation, descriptive research can be termed an
observational research method. In descriptive educational research, the researcher makes use of
quantitative research methods including surveys and questionnaires to gather the required data.
Typically, descriptive educational research is the first step in solving a specific problem. Here are
a few examples of descriptive research:
 A reading program to help you understand student literacy levels.
 A study of students’ classroom performance.
 Research to gather data on students’ interests and preferences.
From these examples, you would notice that the researcher does not need to create a simulation
of the natural environment of the research subjects; rather, he or she observes them as they
engage in their routines. Also, the researcher is not concerned with creating a causal relationship
between the research variables.

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Correlational Educational Research:
This is a type of educational research that seeks insights into the statistical relationship between
two research variables. In correlational research, the researcher studies two variables intending
to establish a connection between them.
Correlational research: can be positive, negative, or non-existent. Positive correlation occurs
when an increase in variable A leads to an increase in variable B, while negative correlation occurs
when an increase in variable A results in a decrease in variable B.
When a change in any of the variables does not trigger a succeeding change in the other, then
the correlation is non-existent. Also, in correlational educational research, the research does not
need to alter the natural environment of the variables; that is, there is no need for external
conditioning.
Examples of educational correlational research include:
 Research to discover the relationship between students’ behaviors and classroom
performance.
 A study into the relationship between students’ social skills and their learning behaviors.

Experimental Educational Research:

Experimental educational research is a research approach that seeks to establish the causal
relationship between two variables in the research environment. It adopts quantitative research
methods in order to determine the cause and effect in terms of the research variables being
studied.
Experimental educational research typically involves two groups – the control group and the
experimental group. The researcher introduces some changes to the experimental group such as
a change in environment or a catalyst, while the control group is left in its natural state.
The introduction of these catalysts allows the researcher to determine the causative factor(s) in
the experiment. At the core of experimental educational research lies the formulation of a
hypothesis and so, the overall research design relies on statistical analysis to approve or disprove
this hypothesis.
Examples of Experimental Educational Research:
 A study to determine the best teaching and learning methods in a school.
 A study to understand how extracurricular activities affect the learning process.

Based on functionality, educational research can be classified into fundamental research, applied
research, and action research. The primary purpose of fundamental research is to provide
insights into the research variables; that is, to gain more knowledge. Fundamental research does
not solve any specific problems.
Just as the name suggests, applied research is a research approach that seeks to solve specific
problems. Findings from applied research are useful in solving practical challenges in the
educational sector such as improving teaching methods, modifying learning curricula, and
simplifying pedagogy.
Action research is tailored to solve immediate problems that are specific to a context such as
educational challenges in a local primary school. The goal of action research is to proffer

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Solutions that work in this context and to solve general or universal challenges in the educational
sector.
Importance of Educational Research:
 Educational research plays a crucial role in knowledge advancement across different
fields of study.
 It provides answers to practical educational challenges using scientific methods.
 Findings from educational research; especially applied research, are instrumental in
policy reformulation.
 For the researcher and other parties involved in this research approach, educational
research improves learning, knowledge, skills, and understanding.
 Educational research improves teaching and learning methods by empowering you with
data to help you teach and lead more strategically and effectively.
 Educational research helps students apply their knowledge to practical situations.

Educational Research Methods:

1. Surveys/Questionnaires: A survey is a research method that is used to collect data from
a predetermined audience about a specific research context. It usually consists of a set of
standardized questions that help you to gain insights into the experiences, thoughts, and
behaviors of the audience. Surveys can be administered physically using paper forms,
face-to-face conversations, telephone conversations, or online forms. Online forms are
easier to administer because they help you to collect accurate data and to also reach a
larger sample size. Creating your online survey on data-gathering platforms like Form plus
allows you to. Also analyze survey respondent’s data easily. In order to gather accurate
data via your survey, you must first identify the research context and the research
subjects that would make up your data sample size. Next, you need to choose an online
survey tool like Form plus to help you create and administer your survey with little or no
hassles.
2. Interviews: An interview is a qualitative data collection method that helps you to gather
information from respondents by asking questions in a conversation. It is typically a face-
to-face conversation with the research subjects in order to gather insights that will prove
useful to the specific research context. Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or
unstructured. A structured interview is a type of interview that follows a premeditated
sequence; that is, it makes use of a set of standardized questions to gather information
from the research subjects. An unstructured interview is a type of interview that is fluid;
that is, it is non-directive. During a structured interview, the researcher does not make
use of a set of predetermined questions rather, he or she spontaneously asks questions
to gather relevant data from the respondents. A semi-structured interview is the mid-
point between structured and unstructured interviews. Here, the researcher makes use
of a set of standardized questions yet, he or she still makes inquiries outside these
premeditated questions as dedicated by the flow of the conversations in the research
context. Data from Interviews can be collected using audio recorders, digital cameras,
surveys, and questionnaires.

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 3. Observation: Observation is a method of data collection that entails systematically
selecting, watching, listening, reading, touching, and recording behaviors and
characteristics of living beings, objects, or phenomena. In the classroom, teachers can
adopt this method to understand students’ behaviors in different contexts.

Observation can be qualitative or quantitative in approach. In quantitative observation, the

researcher aims at collecting statistical information from respondents and in qualitative
information, the researcher aims at collecting qualitative data from respondents.

Q.4. What is an experiment and how you will conduct an experimental research? What will
be the threats to internal and external validity and how you will minimize these threats?

Ans. Internal validity is a measure of how well a study is conducted (its structure) and how
accurately its results reflect the studied group.
External validity relates to how applicable the findings are in the real world. These two concepts
help researchers gauge if the results of a research study are trustworthy and meaningful.
Internal Validity:
 Conclusions are warranted
 Controls extraneous variables
 Eliminates alternative explanations
 Focus on accuracy and strong research methods
External Validity:
 Findings can be generalized
 Outcomes apply to practical situations
 Results apply to the world at large
 Results can be translated into another context What Is Internal Validity in Research?

Internal validity is the extent to which a research study establishes a trustworthy cause-and effect
relationship. This type of validity depends largely on the study's procedures and how rigorously
it is performed.
Internal validity is important because once established, it makes it possible to eliminate
alternative explanations for a finding. If you implement a smoking cessation program, for
instance, internal validity ensures that any improvement in the subjects is due to the treatment
administered and not something else.
Internal validity is not a "yes or no" concept. Instead, we consider how confident we can be with
study findings based on whether the research avoids traps that may make those findings
questionable. The less chance there is for "confounding," the higher the internal validity and the
more confident we can be.
In short, you can only be confident that a study is internally valid if you can rule out alternative
explanations for the findings. Three criteria are required to assume cause and effect in a research
study:

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 • The cause preceded the effect in terms of time.
• The cause and effect vary together.
• There are no other likely explanations for the relationship observed.

Factors That Improve Internal Validity:

To ensure the internal validity of a study, you want to consider aspects of the research design
that will increase the likelihood that you can reject alternative hypotheses. Many factors can
improve internal validity in research, including:
• Blinding: Participants—and sometimes researchers—are unaware of what intervention
they are receiving (such as using a placebo on some subjects in a medication study) to
avoid having this knowledge bias their perceptions and behaviors, thus impacting the
study's outcome
• Experimental manipulation: Manipulating an independent variable in a study (for
instance, giving smokers a cessation program) instead of just observing an association
without conducting any intervention (examining the relationship between exercise and
smoking behavior)
• Random selection: Choosing participants at random or in a manner in which they are
representative of the population that you wish to study
• Randomization or random assignment: Randomly assigning participants to treatment
and control groups, ensuring that there is no systematic bias between the research groups
• Strict study protocol: Following specific procedures during the study so as not to
introduce any unintended effects; for example, doing things differently with one group of
study participants than you do with another group

Internal Validity Threats: Just as there are many ways to ensure internal validity, there is also a
list of potential threats that should be considered when planning a study.2
• Attrition: Participants dropping out or leaving a study, which means that the results are
based on a biased sample of only the people who did not choose to leave (and possibly
who all have something in common, such as higher motivation)
• Confounding: A situation in which changes in an outcome variable can be thought to have
resulted from some type of outside variable not measured or manipulated in the study
• Diffusion: This refers to the results of one group transferring to another through the
groups interacting and talking with or observing one another; this can also lead to another
issue called resentful demoralization, in which a control group tries less hard because
they feel resentful over the group that they are in
• Experimenter bias: An experimenter behaving in a different way with different groups in
a study, which can impact the results (and is eliminated through blinding)
• Historical events: May influence the outcome of studies that occur over a period of time,
such as a change in the political leader or a natural disaster that occurs, influencing how
study participants feel and act

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 • Instrumentation: This involves "priming" participants in a study in certain ways with the
measures used, causing them to react in a way that is different than they would have
otherwise reacted
• Maturation: The impact of time as a variable in a study; for example, if a study takes place
over a period of time in which it is possible that participants naturally change in some way
(i.e., they grew older or became tired), it may be impossible to rule out whether effects
seen in the study were simply due to the impact of time
• Statistical regression: The natural effect of participants at extreme ends of a measure
falling in a certain direction due to the passage of time rather than being a direct effect
of an intervention
• Testing: Repeatedly testing participants using the same measures influences outcomes;
for example, if you give someone the same test three times, it is likely that they will do
better as they learn the test or become used to the testing process, causing them to
answer differently.

What Is External Validity in Research?

External validity refers to how well the outcome of a research study can be expected to apply to
other settings. This is important because, if external validity is established, it means that the
findings can be generalizable to similar individuals or populations.
Population validity and ecological validity are two types of external validity. Population validity
refers to whether you can generalize the research outcomes to other populations or groups.
Ecological validity refers to whether a study's findings can be generalized to additional situations
or settings.
Another term called transferability refers to whether results transfer to situations with similar
characteristics. Transferability relates to external validity and refers to a qualitative research
design.
Factors That Improve External Validity:
If you want to improve the external validity of your study, there are many ways to achieve this
goal. Factors that can enhance external validity include:
• Field experiments: Conducting a study outside the laboratory, in a natural setting
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria: Setting criteria as to who can be involved in the research,
ensuring that the population being studied is clearly defined
• Psychological realism: Making sure participants experience the events of the study as
being real by telling them a "cover story," or a different story about the aim of the study
so they don't behave differently than they would in real life based on knowing what to
expect or knowing the study's goal
• Replication: Conducting the study again with different samples or in different settings to
see if you get the same results; when many studies have been conducted on the same

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 topic, a meta-analysis can also be used to determine if the effect of an independent
variable can be replicated, therefore making it more reliable
• Reprocessing or calibration: Using statistical methods to adjust for external validity
issues, such as reweighting groups if a study had uneven groups for a particular
characteristic (such as age)

External Validity Threats:

External validity is threatened when a study does not take into account the interaction of
variables in the real world.2 Threats to external validity include:
 Pre- and post-test effects: When the pre- or post-test is in some way related to the effect
seen in the study, such that the cause-and-effect relationship disappears without these
added tests
 Sample features: When some feature of the sample used was responsible for the effect
(or partially responsible), leading to limited generalizability of the findings
 Selection bias: Also considered a threat to internal validity, selection bias describes
differences between groups in a study that may relate to the independent variable— like
motivation or willingness to take part in the study, or specific demographics of individuals
being more likely to take part in an online survey.
 Situational factors: Factors such as the time of day of the study, its location, noise,
researcher characteristics, and the number of measures used may affect the
generalizability of findings while rigorous research methods can ensure internal validity,
external validity may be limited by these methods.

Internal Validity vs. External Validity:

Internal validity and external validity are two research concepts that share a few similarities while
also having several differences.
Similarities
One of the similarities between internal validity and external validity is that both factors should
be considered when designing a study. This is because both have implications in terms of whether
the results of a study have meaning. Both internal validity and external validity are not "either/or"
concepts. Therefore, you always need to decide to what degree a study performs in terms of
each type of validity. Each of these concepts is also typically reported in research articles
published in scholarly journals. This is so that other researchers can evaluate the study and make
decisions about whether the results are useful and valid.
Differences:
The essential difference between internal validity and external validity is that internal validity
refers to the structure of a study (and its variables) while external validity refers to the
universality of the results. But there are further differences between the two as well. For
instance, internal validity focuses on showing a difference that is due to the independent variable
alone. Conversely, external validity results can be translated to the world at large. Internal validity

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and external validity aren't mutually exclusive. You can have a study with good internal validity
but be overall irrelevant to the real world. You could also conduct a field study that is highly
relevant to the real world but doesn't have trustworthy results in terms of knowing what
variables caused the outcomes.

Examples of Validity:
Perhaps the best way to understand internal validity and external validity is with examples.
Internal Validity Example:
An example of a study with good internal validity would be if a researcher hypothesizes that using
a particular mindfulness app will reduce negative mood. To test this hypothesis, the researcher
randomly assigns a sample of participants to one of two groups: those who will use the app over
a defined period and those who engage in a control task.
The researcher ensures that there is no systematic bias in how participants are assigned to the
groups. They do this by blinding the research assistants so they don't know which groups the
subjects are in during the experiment.
A strict study protocol is also used to outline the procedures of the study. Potential confounding
variables are measured along with mood, such as the participants' socioeconomic status, gender,
age, and other factors. If participants drop out of the study, their characteristics are examined to
make sure there is no systematic bias in terms of who stays in.
External Validity Example:
An example of a study with good external validity would be if, in the above example, the
participants used the mindfulness app at home rather than in the laboratory. This shows that
results appear in a real-world setting.
To further ensure external validity, the researcher clearly defines the population of interest and
chooses a representative sample. They might also replicate the study's results using different
technological devices.

Q.5 Define descriptive research what are its major forms? Strengthen your answer with the
example of Case Studies, Causal Comparative studies and correlation studies?
An important goal of the research scientist is the publication of the results of a completed study.
Scientific journals do not allow for literary embellishments and expressions, often seen in other
journals, as the purpose is to communicate the scientific findings as clear as possible, in a highly
stylized, distinctive fashion. This often makes it difficult for the applied professional to grasp all
that the article has to offer. The purpose of this article is to help bridge much of that
communication breach in scientific writing.
In almost every research article you read you will see a definite methodology develop that will
help you understand the study. Fortunately, most research journals begin each article with an
Abstract that summarizes the study for you. In the Introduction the researchers will define their
problem or question that was studied, briefly review related research, and perhaps even
hypothesize (make a tentative assumption) possible outcomes of their study. Important to the

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authenticity and reliability of any scientific finding is how it is studied. This is referred to as the
Methods and Procedures section in which the researchers will painstakingly explain how they
studied their problem: who the subjects were, how and why they were selected, how many
subjects were there, how they were tested, what type of equipment was used, what type of
research and statistical design was employed, and how they controlled for all extraneous factors
that might affect the study results. Of great interest to all readers are the findings. These are
presented in a most direct manner in the Results section. This section is invariably the most
difficult to understand because it is a straight forward recounting of the statistical results. The
Discussion and Conclusions section explains, discusses and concludes the meaning of the study
findings and often parallels these findings to similar studies for comparison. Some journals now
have a Practical Applications section which synthesizes the applied usefulness to be gained from
the study. If not apparently defined in the article, usually the practical application will be
addressed in the last couple of paragraphs by the researchers. The challenge to the reader is to
evaluate the methodology of the researchers in order to best ascertain the credibility of the
study. Fortunately, most primary research journals (a journal where research is first disclosed)
have a very strict peer-review process where two or more specialists in the field of study related
to the article critically review the article and recommend whether the article should be accepted
or rejected for publication. The next sections of this article will delineate the different types of
research and define common terminology presented in studies.

Classification of Research:
Research can be differentiated into five categories. The following explanations provide a brief
overview of each group so that you can determine the type of research you are reading.
Historical Research:
Historical research involves understanding, studying, and explaining past events. Its purpose is
to arrive at some conclusions concerning past occurrences that may help to anticipate or explain
present or future events. Understanding past research from high-impact aerobics injuries has
helped our industry design step and slide programs that offer safer means of achieving similar
goals.
Descriptive Research:
Descriptive research often involves collecting information through data review, surveys,
interviews, or observation. This type of research best describes the way things are. A review
paper of previously reported research is descriptive research. The music and exercise article in
this edition of IDEA Today is an example of this type of research. Often new ideas and theories
are discovered and presented from this descriptive process.
Correlational Research:
Correlational research attempts to determine how related two or more variables are. This degree
of relation is expressed as a correlation coefficient. For example, a researcher may way to wish
to determine the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and self-esteem in college

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females. What is the relationship between colleges female’s cardiorespiratory fitness and their
level of self-esteem? If the variables are highly related, a correlation coefficient near + 1.00 will
be obtained meaning the variables are positively related. If the two variables are not related, a
correlation coefficient near will be obtained. If the correlation coefficient is near -1.00, the
variables are inversely related.

Causal-Comparative Research:
Causal-comparative research attempts to identify a cause-effect relationship between two or
more groups.
Causal-comparative studies involve comparison in contrast to correlation research which looks
at relationship. For instance, a researcher may wish to compare the body composition of persons
who have only trained with free weights versus persons who have only trained with exercise
machines. In this case the researcher is not manipulating any variables, only investigating the
effect of free weights versus exercise machines on body composition. Obviously, since other
factors such as diet, training program, aerobic conditioning could affect body composition, casual
comparative research must be reviewed scrupulously to see how these other factors were
controlled.
Experimental Research:
Experimental research is guided by a hypotheses (or several hypothesis) that states an expected
relationship between two or more variables. An experiment is conducted to support or
disconfirm this experimental hypothesis. For instance, much of this author's research has been
involved with the physiological effects of step training with and without hand weights. With this
type of experimental research, I have randomly selected the group of subjects, decided the
exercise program (step training with hand weights, step training without hand weights, and a
control group which remained physically active but did no step training), tried to control all
relevant factors (e.g. no other aerobic programs, no change in diet, no additional resistance
training, etc.), and then measured the effect of the step training with and without hand weights
on a number of variables (such as cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength, body composition,
blood lipids and lipoproteins, etc.). Experimental research, although very demanding of time and
resources, often produces the soundest evidence concerning hypothesized cause effect
relationships.
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