SKELETAL SYSTEM perichondrium

Histo/physio  double-layered connective tissue sheath covers

most cartilage
BODY SUPPORT Articular cartilage
 Rigid  cover ends of bones where they come together
 Strong bone > bearing weight to form joints
Cartilage - firm, flexible (nose, ext. ears, thoracic cage, - NO PERICHONDRIUM, BLOOD VESSELS, OR NERVES
trachea)
Ligaments - fibrous conn. Tissue, hold bones together 2 different ways of cartilage growth
ORGAN PROTECTION 1. Appositional growth
 Hard  chondroblasts in the perichondrium lay down
 skull encloses protect brain new matrix
 vertebrae surround spinal cord add new chondrocytes to the outside of the tissue
 rib cage protect heart, lungs, organs of thorax 2. Interstitial growth
 chondrocytes within the tissue divide
BODY MOVEMENT  add more matrix between the cells
 2 or more come together = movement
Ligaments - prevent excessive movement BONE ANATOMY
BONE SHAPES
MINERAL STORAGE 1. Long bones - long than wide
 B. vessel mineral ↓, minerals = release from  Bones of upper and lower limbs
bone > blood  Femur (thigh bone)
 Calcium / Phosphorus 2. Short bones are about as broad as they are long
Fat (adipose tissue)  Bones of the wrist (carpals) and ankle (tarsals)
 stored within bone cavities 3. Flat bones
 used by other tissues as a source of energy  relatively thin, flattened shape
 usually curved
BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION  skull bones, the ribs, the breastbone (sternum),
 Red b. marrow - produce blood cells / platelets and the shoulder blades (scapulae)
 Cells/cavities filled with bone marrow that gives  Parietal bone fr. root of skull
rise to blood cells / platelets Irregular bones
 vertebrae and facial bones
 Sphenoid bone fr. skull
SKELETAL SYSTEM
four components: STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE
1. Bones has three major components:
2. Cartilage 1. diaphysis (shaft)
3. Tendons  Compact bone
4. Ligaments Medullary cavity > large space
Red marrow > blood cell formation
CARTILAGE (hyaline, Fibrocartilage, Elastic) yellow marrow > mostly adipose tissue
Hyaline
 produce a matrix surrounding the cells children
 CHONDROBLASTS > produce new cartilage  spaces within bones > red marrow
matrix  As mature, yellow marrow replaces the red
 CHONDROCYTE > matrix surrounds marrow in their skull and limbs.
chondroblast adults
 LACUNA > space within the matrix  bones skull and limbs > yellow marrow ( except
 matrix contains collagen-provides strength for the proximal epiphyses)
 Proteoglycans > makes cartilage resilient by  The rest of the skeleton contains red marrow.
trapping water
  such as the medullary cavity of the diaphysis
and the smaller cavities in cancellous and
compact bone
 a single layer of cells, includes osteoblasts,
osteoclasts, and osteochondral progenitor cells

Structure of Flat, Short, and Irregular Bones

1. Flat bones - no diaphyses or epiphyses
 contain cancellous bone sandwiched between
two layers compact bone
2. Short and irregular bones
 similar to the epiphyses of long bones
 have compact bone surfaces that surround a
cancellous bone
 not elongated and have no diaphysis
Some of the flat and irregular bones of the skull have
air-filled spaces called SINUSES which are lined by
mucous membranes

BONE HISTOLOGY
1. extracellular bone matrix
 characteristics of bone
2. epiphysis (end of bone)
2. bone cells
 cancellous or spongy bone
 produce the bone matrix
 become entrapped within it
3. epiphyseal plate  break it down so that new matrix can replace
EPIPHYSEAL OR GROWTH
the old matrix.
 PLATE is hyaline cartilage located between the
epiphysis and diaphysis.
BONE MATRIX
 bone stop grow length, the epiphyseal plate
Bone matrix
becomes ossified > EPIPHYSEAL LINE
35% org - collagen, proteoglycans
The periosteum is a connective tissue membrane
65% inorg - calcium phosphate ( hydroxyapatite )
 covers outer surface of a bone

Collagens & mineral

1. outer fibrous layer  major funct. of bones
 dense, irregular collagenous connective tissue
 contains blood vessels and nerves
1. OSTEOBLASTS
2. inner layer
 Extensive endo. Reti
 single layer of bone cells
 Numerous ribo
 includes osteoblasts, osteoclasts, osteochondral
 Produce collagen & proteoglycans
progenitor cell
Ossification or osteogenesis
PERFORATING OR SHARPEY’S FIBERS  formation of bone by osteoblasts
 bundles of collagen fibers
 osteoblasts extracellular bony matrix surrounds
 penetrate the periosteum into outer part of
the cells and their processes
bone
 strengthen the attachment of the tendons or
2. OSTEOCYTES
ligaments to the bone  an osteoblast surrounded by bone matrix
 also called a mature bone cell
ENDOSTEUM  lacunae - spaces occupied by the osteocyte cell
 is a connective tissue membrane
bodies
 line internal surfaces of all cavities
 canaliculi - spaces occupied by the osteocyte
cell processes
 3. OSTEOCLASTS Centers of ossification
 resorption, or breakdown, of bone.  in the membrane where ossification begins
 contacts bone matrix  have the oldest bone
ruffled border Fontanels, or soft spots
 forms many projections  Youngest bone
 larger membrane-covered spaces between the
CANCELLOUS BONE - less bone matrix and more space developing skull bones
 TRABECULAE > interconnecting rods or plates  not yet been ossified
of bone  The bones eventually grow together, and all the
 porous appearance fontanels have usually closed by the time an
 Most trabeculae are thin (50–400 μm) infant is 2 years of age.
 consist of several lamellae with osteocytes
located between the lamellae
 NO blood vessels penetrate the trabeculae
 obtain nutrients through their canaliculi ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION
 begins at the end of fourth week of
COMPACT BONE - more bone matrix and less space development
 denser and has few spaces than cancellous  some of this cartilage starts at eighth week of
bone development
 Blood vessels enter the substance of the bone  Bones of the base of skull
Itself  part of the mandible
 Vessels that run parallel to the long axis of the  epiphyses of the clavicles
bone are contained within central, or haversian  most of the remaining skeletal system
canals DURING E.O.
 Concentric lamellae are circular layers of bone 1. cartilage cells (chondrocytes) increase in number,
matrix that surround a common center, the enlarge and die
central canal 2. cartilage matrix becomes calcified
3. center part of diaphysis, bone 1st begins to appear, is
osteon or haversian system called PRIMARY OSSIFICATION CENTER. POC
 single central canal 4. A medullary cavity forms in the center of the
 its contents diaphysis as osteoclasts remove bone and calcified
 associated concentric lamellae and osteocytes cartilage, which are replaced by bone marrow.
 outer surfaces formed by circumferential Later ,SECONDARY OSSIFICATION CENTERS FORM IN
Lamella - flat plates that extend around the THE EPIPHYSIS
bone
 Blood vessels from the periosteum or medullary BONE GROWTH
cavity enter the bone through perforating, or  Bones increase in size only by appositional
Volkmann’s canals, which run perpendicular to growth
the long axis of the bone  the formation of new bone on the surface of
older bone or cartilage
BONE DEVELOPMENT
• During fetal development, bone formation occurs in GROWTH IN BONE LENGTH
two patterns:  Long bones and bony projections increase in
1. intramembranous ossification – in connective tissue length because of growth at the epiphyseal
membranes plate
2. endochondral ossification- in cartilage Growth at the epiphyseal plate
 formation of new cartilage by interstitial
INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION cartilage growth
 begins at eighth week of development  followed by appositional bone growth on the
 completed by approximately 2 years of age surface of the cartilage
[ skull bones, part of the mandible (lower jaw), and the
diaphyses of the clavicles (collarbones) ]
FOUR ZONES OF EPIPHYSEAL PLATE  Process is similar to that occurring in the
1. ZONE OF RESTING CARTILAGE epiphyseal plate, except that the chondrocyte
 nearest the epiphysis columns are not as obvious.
 randomly arranged chondrocytes that do not
divide rapidly. BONE WIDTH
2. ZONE OF PROLIFERATION  Long after longitudinal bone growth has
 produce chondrocytes in new cartilage stopped
 through interstitial cartilage growth.  continue to grow in thickness and width
3. In the ZONE OF HYPERTROPHY  continuously being reshaped
 chondrocytes produced in the zone of  grow in width to support weight
proliferation mature and enlarge.
4. ZONE OF CALCIFICATION
 Thin Factors Affecting Bone Growth
 hypertrophied chondrocytes die 1. Nutrition
 blood vessels from the diaphysis grow into the  Vitamin D for normal absorption of calcium
area. from the intestines
 body can either synthesize or ingest vitamin D.
 synthesis increases when the skin is exposed to
sunlight.
RICKETS
 Insufficient vitamin D in children
 resulting from reduced mineralization of the
bone matrix.
 bowed bones and inflamed joints
VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY
 body’s inability to absorb fats in which vitamin
D is soluble • - adults who suffer from digestive
disorders
“ADULT RICKETS,” OR OSTEOMALACIA
 softening of the bones as a result of calcium
depletion
Vitamin C
 collagen synthesis by osteoblasts.
SCURVY
 Vit C deficiency in children
 ulceration and hemorrhage
 Wound healing, which requires collagen
CLOSURE OF THE EPIPHYSEAL PLATE synthesis
 bones achieve normal adult size, growth in  In extreme cases the teeth can fall out because
bone length ceases because the epiphyseal the ligaments that hold them in place break
plate is ossified and becomes the epiphyseal down
line.
 12 and 25 , depending on the bone and the HORMONES
individual 1. GROWTH HORMONE
 from anterior pituitary increases general tissue
growth
2. THYROID HORMONE
GROWTH AT ARTICULAR CARTILAGE  normal growth of all tissues, including cartilage
 Epiphyses increase size because of growth at  decrease in this result in decreased size of the
the articular cartilage. individual
 increases the size of bones that do not have an
epiphysis, such as short bones. 1. SEX HORMONES
 Estrogen (female sex hormones)
  Testosterone (male sex hormone)
 stimulate bone growth, which accounts for the DECALCIFICATION:
burst of growth at the time of puberty 1. Osteomalacia
 softening of bones
BONE REMODELING •  from calcium depletion from bones.
 osteoclasts remove old bone and osteoblasts 2. Osteoporosis,
deposit new bone  major disorder of decalcification
 A combined action of osteoblasts (bone forming
cells) and osteoclasts (bone destroying cells) BONE FRACTURES
 Osteoblasts deposit bone on the external bone  break in a bone
surface  Types of bone fractures
 Osteoclasts break down bone from the inside  Bone fractures are treated by reduction and
 leaves behind portions of older bone called immobilization
interstitial lamellae  Realignment of the bone
Closed (simple) fracture – break that does not
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT DISORDERS penetrate the skin
GIAGNTISM Open (compound) fracture – penetrates through the
 abnormally increased height that usually results skin
from excessive cartilage and bone formation at
the epiphyseal plates of long bones BONE REPAIR
 some individuals with larger structure can result 1. Hematoma formation (clot formation) following a
from genetic factors rather than from abnormal fracture.
levels of growth hormone. 2. Callus formation. The internal callus replaces the
1. PITUITARY GIANTISM, hematoma. The external callus provides support.
 common type of giantism 3. Callus ossification. Woven, cancellous bone replaces
 excess secretion of pituitary growth hormone. the cartilage of the internal and external callus.
2. ACROMEGALY 4. Remodeling of bone replaces the woven bone of the
 excess pituitary growth hormone secretion callus and the dead bone adjacent to the fracture site
with compact bone. Healing is complete.
DWARFISM
abnormally short, is the opposite of giantism DISLOCATION OF JOINT
1. Pituitary Displacement of bones at the joint
 low levels of pituitary growth hormone;  Often caused by impact trauma to that joint
proportioned body structure  Can be more damaging and painful than a
2. Achondroplastic dwarfism fracture
 disproportionately short long bones Damage to the joint capsule and surrounding ligaments
and tendons
 longer to heal than bone tissue.
OSTEOGENESIS IMPERFECTA
 very brittle bones that are easily fractured CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS
 Insufficient collagen develops 1. blood calcium levels decease, osteoclast activity
increase
OSTEOMYELITIS RESULT : More calcium is released by osteoclasts from
 bone inflammation bone into the Blood and blood calcium levels increase
 from bacterial infection.
 can lead to complete destruction of the bone. 2. if blood calcium levels inc osteoclast activity dec
Staphylococcus aureus RESULT: Less calcium is released by osteoclasts from
 common cause of osteomyelitis bone into the blood than is taken from the blood by
osteoblasts to produce new bone. As a result, a net
TUMORS movement of calcium occurs from the blood to bone,
 benign or malignant and blood calcium levels decrease.
Malignant bone tumors
 metastasize to other parts of the body
TWO HORMONES MAINTAINING THE CALCIUM BONE CELLS
HOMEOSTASIS  Osteoblasts
 Osteocytes
PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH)  Osteoclasts
• Secreted from the parathyroid gland
• stimulated when blood Ca are too low
• Stimulates increased bone breakdown OSSIFICATION / OSTEOGENESIS
• indirectly stimulating osteoclast activity Formation of new bone
• PTH also increase Calcium uptake from urine in the
kidney
• Stimulates the kidney to form active vit D which
increases Ca absorption in the small intestines

2. CALCITONIN
• Secreted from the thyroid gland when blood Ca levels
are too high
• Decrease osteoclast activity thus decrease blood
calcium levels
• Increasing blood Calcium level stimulate Calcitonin
secretion

EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

1. With aging, bone matrix is lost and the matrix
becomes more brittle.
2. Cancellous bone loss results from a thinning and a
loss of trabeculae. Compact bone loss mainly occurs
from the inner surface of bones and involves less
osteon formation.
3. Loss of bone increases the risk of fractures and
causes deformity, loss of height, pain, stiffness, and loss
of teeth.

Cell break old matrix, new matrix replace

Fibrous protein COLLAGEN
 flexibility but resist pulling compression
PROTEOGLYCANS
 water-trapping proteins
 Help cartilage be smooth & resilient

Mineral reduced = flexible

Collagen reduced = brittle (weak)

BRITTLE BONE DISEASE BBD

 Osteogenesis
 Imperfect bone form
 Rare, by faulty gene
 Pool qua collagen
 Decrease flexi
 Result > fragile