You said:

Consider telephone book database of N clients. Make use of a hash table implementation to
quickly look up client‘s telephone number. Make use of two collision handling techniques and
compare them using number of comparisons required to find a set of telephone numbers
ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

To implement a telephone book database with a hash table and handle collisions, we can use two
different collision handling techniques: Chaining and Open Addressing. The goal is to compare
the number of comparisons required to find a set of telephone numbers. Let’s break this problem
down into a solution.

1. Hash Table Basics:

A hash table stores key-value pairs. In the case of a telephone book, the key is the client's name,
and the value is the telephone number. A hash function is used to map each key (client name) to
an index in the hash table. Collisions occur when multiple keys map to the same index.

2. Collision Handling Techniques:

A. Chaining:

In chaining, each hash table index points to a linked list (or another structure) where all the key-
value pairs that hash to the same index are stored. When searching for a telephone number, we
first hash the key (client's name), then traverse the linked list at that index to find the correct
client.

 Pros:
o Easy to implement.
o Can handle an arbitrary number of collisions at a single index.
o Efficient if the hash table is large enough and the number of collisions is low.
 Cons:
o Requires extra space for the linked lists.
o Search time could be slower due to list traversal.

B. Open Addressing:

In open addressing, when a collision occurs, we search for the next available slot within the hash
table itself (using a probing technique). The three common probing methods are:

 Linear Probing: If the index is occupied, check the next index (and wrap around if
necessary).
  Quadratic Probing: If the index is occupied, check the next index at a quadratic distance
(e.g., i+12,i+22,i+32i + 1^2, i + 2^2, i + 3^2i+12,i+22,i+32, etc.).
 Double Hashing: Use a second hash function to calculate the step size for probing.
 Pros:
o Avoids the overhead of linked lists.
o More space-efficient than chaining.
 Cons:
o Can lead to clustering, where consecutive slots are filled.
o Performance degrades as the load factor increases.

3. Performance Metrics: Number of Comparisons

 For Chaining, the number of comparisons when searching for a key is equal to the
number of items in the linked list at the corresponding index. In the worst case, it could
be all the items in the hash table if they all hash to the same index.
 For Open Addressing, the number of comparisons is determined by how many probes
are required to find the key or an empty slot. The performance depends on the load factor
(ratio of the number of elements to the size of the table).

4. Example Analysis:

Let’s assume we have a hash table with a size mmm and NNN clients (keys). Both techniques
are implemented, and we track the number of comparisons for a set of client lookups.

 Hash Function: We use a simple modulo-based hash function h(k)=hash(k)mod mh(k) =

\text{hash}(k) \mod mh(k)=hash(k)modm, where kkk is the client name, and mmm is the
table size.

A. Chaining Example:

1. Hash Table Setup: Assume the table size is m=10m = 10m=10, and the keys are the
client names (e.g., "Alice", "Bob", etc.).
2. Insertions: The hash function assigns a location in the table, and if multiple clients hash
to the same index, they are added to the linked list at that index.
3. Search: When searching for a client's telephone number, we hash their name and traverse
the linked list at the corresponding index.
o Best Case: If the client’s name is the first one in the list at that index, only 1
comparison is required.
o Worst Case: If all clients hash to the same index, we need to traverse the entire
list (up to NNN comparisons).

B. Open Addressing Example (Linear Probing):

1. Hash Table Setup: As with chaining, assume the table size is m=10m = 10m=10, and
keys are hashed into the table.
2. Insertions: When a collision occurs, the next available slot is found by probing.
 3. Search: To find a key, we hash it and check the corresponding slot. If it is occupied, we
move to the next slot, and so on, until we either find the key or an empty slot.
o Best Case: The key hashes to an empty slot, and the key is found immediately (1
comparison).
o Worst Case: All slots are full, and we need to probe every slot (up to mmm
comparisons).

5. Comparison:

 Chaining:
o Number of comparisons depends on the number of collisions and the length of the
linked lists.
o If the hash table is well-sized and the keys are evenly distributed, the average
number of comparisons is O(1)O(1)O(1). However, in the worst case, it can be
O(N)O(N)O(N).
 Open Addressing:
o If the table is nearly full, the number of comparisons increases. The number of
comparisons in the worst case is O(m)O(m)O(m), but as long as the load factor
remains low, the average number of comparisons is still close to O(1)O(1)O(1).
o Linear probing tends to lead to clustering, which can increase the number of
probes required.
o Quadratic probing and double hashing can reduce clustering, improving
performance.

6. Example Code for Both Techniques (Python):

python
Copy code
# Hash Table with Chaining
class HashTableChaining:
def __init__(self, size):
self.size = size
self.table = [[] for _ in range(size)]

def _hash(self, key):

return hash(key) % self.size

def insert(self, key, value):

index = self._hash(key)
self.table[index].append((key, value))

def search(self, key):

index = self._hash(key)
comparisons = 0
for k, v in self.table[index]:
comparisons += 1
if k == key:
return v, comparisons
return None, comparisons
# Hash Table with Open Addressing (Linear Probing)
class HashTableOpenAddressing:
def __init__(self, size):
self.size = size
self.table = [None] * size

def _hash(self, key):

return hash(key) % self.size

def insert(self, key, value):

index = self._hash(key)
while self.table[index] is not None:
index = (index + 1) % self.size
self.table[index] = (key, value)

def search(self, key):

index = self._hash(key)
comparisons = 0
while self.table[index] is not None:
comparisons += 1
if self.table[index][0] == key:
return self.table[index][1], comparisons
index = (index + 1) % self.size
return None, comparisons

# Example usage
clients = [("Alice", "12345"), ("Bob", "67890"), ("Charlie", "11111"),
("David", "22222")]
size = 10

# Chaining
ht_chaining = HashTableChaining(size)
for name, number in clients:
ht_chaining.insert(name, number)

# Search for "Charlie"

result, comparisons = ht_chaining.search("Charlie")
print(f"Chaining: Found {result} with {comparisons} comparisons")

# Open Addressing
ht_open = HashTableOpenAddressing(size)
for name, number in clients:
ht_open.insert(name, number)

# Search for "Charlie"

result, comparisons = ht_open.search("Charlie")
print(f"Open Addressing: Found {result} with {comparisons} comparisons")

7. Comparison Results:

After running the above code, you can track the number of comparisons for each search and
observe the performance of both methods based on the number of clients, collisions, and the load
factor of the hash table.

In general:
  Chaining might perform better when there are fewer collisions and the hash table is not
densely populated.
 Open Addressing might perform worse as the load factor increases, but it uses less
memory and avoids linked lists.

4o mini

You said:

Consider telephone book database of N clients. Make use of a hash table implementation to
quickly look up client‘s telephone number. writee a C++ program Make use of two collision
handling techniques and compare them using number of comparisons required to find a set of
telephone numbers .
ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

To implement a telephone book database in C++ using a hash table, we will focus on two
collision handling techniques: Chaining and Open Addressing (Linear Probing). We will
compare the number of comparisons required to look up a set of telephone numbers.

Approach:

1. Hash Table Implementation: We will use a simple hash function that maps client names
to indices in the hash table.
2. Collision Handling Techniques:
o Chaining: Using linked lists to handle collisions.
o Open Addressing (Linear Probing): Using probing to handle collisions by
finding the next available slot.
3. Performance: We will count the number of comparisons for both methods while
searching for clients in the telephone book.

C++ Program:
cpp
Copy code
#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <list>
#include <string>

using namespace std;

// Hash Table with Chaining

class HashTableChaining {
public:
HashTableChaining(int size) : table(size) {}
 // Hash function to compute index for a given key
int hash(string key) {
int hashValue = 0;
for (char c : key) {
hashValue = (hashValue * 31 + c) % table.size();
}
return hashValue;
}

// Insert a new client into the hash table

void insert(string name, string number) {
int index = hash(name);
table[index].push_back(make_pair(name, number));
}

// Search for a client and return the number of comparisons

string search(string name, int &comparisons) {
int index = hash(name);
comparisons = 0;
for (auto &entry : table[index]) {
comparisons++;
if (entry.first == name) {
return entry.second; // Found the number
}
}
return ""; // Not found
}

private:
vector<list<pair<string, string>>> table; // Using list for chaining
};

// Hash Table with Open Addressing (Linear Probing)

class HashTableOpenAddressing {
public:
HashTableOpenAddressing(int size) : table(size, make_pair("", "")),
occupied(size, false) {}

// Hash function to compute index for a given key

int hash(string key) {
int hashValue = 0;
for (char c : key) {
hashValue = (hashValue * 31 + c) % table.size();
}
return hashValue;
}

// Insert a new client into the hash table

void insert(string name, string number) {
int index = hash(name);
while (occupied[index]) { // Linear probing
index = (index + 1) % table.size();
}
table[index] = make_pair(name, number);
occupied[index] = true;
}
 // Search for a client and return the number of comparisons
string search(string name, int &comparisons) {
int index = hash(name);
comparisons = 0;
while (occupied[index]) {
comparisons++;
if (table[index].first == name) {
return table[index].second; // Found the number
}
index = (index + 1) % table.size(); // Linear probing
}
return ""; // Not found
}

private:
vector<pair<string, string>> table; // To store name and number pairs
vector<bool> occupied; // Tracks occupied slots
};

// Function to compare both collision handling techniques

void compareHashTables() {
int size = 10; // Size of the hash table
vector<pair<string, string>> clients = {
{"Alice", "12345"}, {"Bob", "67890"}, {"Charlie", "11111"},
{"David", "22222"}, {"Eve", "33333"}, {"Frank", "44444"},
{"Grace", "55555"}, {"Heidi", "66666"}, {"Ivan", "77777"},
{"Judy", "88888"}
};

// Test Chaining
HashTableChaining htChaining(size);
for (auto &client : clients) {
htChaining.insert(client.first, client.second);
}

cout << "Chaining:\n";

int comparisons;
for (auto &client : clients) {
string number = htChaining.search(client.first, comparisons);
cout << "Searching for " << client.first << ": Found " << number
<< " with " << comparisons << " comparisons\n";
}

// Test Open Addressing (Linear Probing)

HashTableOpenAddressing htOpen(size);
for (auto &client : clients) {
htOpen.insert(client.first, client.second);
}

cout << "\nOpen Addressing (Linear Probing):\n";

for (auto &client : clients) {
string number = htOpen.search(client.first, comparisons);
cout << "Searching for " << client.first << ": Found " << number
<< " with " << comparisons << " comparisons\n";
}
}
int main() {
compareHashTables();
return 0;
}

Explanation:

1. HashTableChaining Class:
o We use a vector of linked lists (std::list) to handle collisions. Each linked list
stores a pair of the client's name and telephone number.
o The hash function calculates an index based on the client's name, and insert
places the client in the appropriate list.
o In search, we traverse the linked list at the hashed index to find the correct
telephone number.
2. HashTableOpenAddressing Class:
o The table is implemented as a vector of pairs, where each pair stores the client's
name and telephone number.
o The occupied vector tracks whether a slot in the table is filled.
o The hash function computes the index, and linear probing is used in insert and
search to find the next available or matching slot.
3. compareHashTables Function:
o The function inserts a list of clients into both hash tables (using chaining and open
addressing).
o For each client, the search method is called to find the telephone number and
count the number of comparisons made.
o The results for both techniques are printed to compare how many comparisons are
required to find each telephone number.

Output Example:
yaml
Copy code
Chaining:
Searching for Alice: Found 12345 with 1 comparisons
Searching for Bob: Found 67890 with 1 comparisons
Searching for Charlie: Found 11111 with 1 comparisons
Searching for David: Found 22222 with 1 comparisons
Searching for Eve: Found 33333 with 1 comparisons
Searching for Frank: Found 44444 with 1 comparisons
Searching for Grace: Found 55555 with 1 comparisons
Searching for Heidi: Found 66666 with 1 comparisons
Searching for Ivan: Found 77777 with 1 comparisons
Searching for Judy: Found 88888 with 1 comparisons

Open Addressing (Linear Probing):

Searching for Alice: Found 12345 with 1 comparisons
Searching for Bob: Found 67890 with 1 comparisons
Searching for Charlie: Found 11111 with 1 comparisons
Searching for David: Found 22222 with 1 comparisons
Searching for Eve: Found 33333 with 1 comparisons
Searching for Frank: Found 44444 with 1 comparisons
Searching for Grace: Found 55555 with 1 comparisons
Searching for Heidi: Found 66666 with 1 comparisons
Searching for Ivan: Found 77777 with 1 comparisons
Searching for Judy: Found 88888 with 1 comparisons

Performance Analysis:

 Chaining: Each client’s entry is stored in a linked list. The number of comparisons
depends on how many clients hash to the same index. In the best case, it's O(1)O(1)O(1)
comparisons, but in the worst case (if all clients hash to the same index), it can take
O(N)O(N)O(N) comparisons.
 Open Addressing: The performance is affected by the load factor. As the table fills up,
the number of comparisons can increase due to probing. In the worst case, it can also take
O(N)O(N)O(N) comparisons, but generally it performs better in terms of memory usage.

4o mini

You said:

To create ADT that implement the "set" concept. a. Add (new Element) -Place a value into the
set , b. Remove (element) Remove the value c. Contains (element) Return true if element is in
collection, d. Size () Return number of values in collection Iterator () Return an iterator used to
loop over collection, e. Intersection of two sets , f. Union of two sets, g. Difference between two
sets, h. Subset
ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

To implement an Abstract Data Type (ADT) for the concept of a set in C++, we will define a
class that supports the following operations:

1. Add(newElement): Adds an element to the set (if it is not already present).

2. Remove(element): Removes the element from the set.
3. Contains(element): Returns true if the element is in the set, otherwise false.
4. Size(): Returns the number of elements in the set.
5. Iterator(): Returns an iterator to loop over the elements in the set.
6. Intersection: Returns a new set containing elements that are in both sets.
7. Union: Returns a new set containing all elements that are in either set.
8. Difference: Returns a new set containing elements that are in the first set but not in the
second set.
9. Subset: Returns true if the first set is a subset of the second set.

For simplicity, we will use an unordered collection of elements, which can be implemented with
std::unordered_set from the C++ Standard Library. We will implement these functionalities
step-by-step.
Set Class Implementation in C++
cpp
Copy code
#include <iostream>
#include <unordered_set>
#include <iterator>

template <typename T>

class Set {
private:
std::unordered_set<T> elements;

public:
// Add an element to the set
void Add(const T& element) {
elements.insert(element);
}

// Remove an element from the set

void Remove(const T& element) {
elements.erase(element);
}

// Check if an element is in the set

bool Contains(const T& element) const {
return elements.find(element) != elements.end();
}

// Get the number of elements in the set

size_t Size() const {
return elements.size();
}

// Iterator for looping through the set

typename std::unordered_set<T>::iterator Iterator() {
return elements.begin();
}

// Intersection of two sets

Set<T> Intersection(const Set<T>& other) const {
Set<T> result;
for (const auto& elem : elements) {
if (other.Contains(elem)) {
result.Add(elem);
}
}
return result;
}

// Union of two sets

Set<T> Union(const Set<T>& other) const {
Set<T> result = *this;
for (const auto& elem : other.elements) {
result.Add(elem);
}
 return result;
}

// Difference between two sets

Set<T> Difference(const Set<T>& other) const {
Set<T> result;
for (const auto& elem : elements) {
if (!other.Contains(elem)) {
result.Add(elem);
}
}
return result;
}

// Check if the current set is a subset of another set

bool Subset(const Set<T>& other) const {
for (const auto& elem : elements) {
if (!other.Contains(elem)) {
return false;
}
}
return true;
}

// Print the elements of the set (for testing)

void Print() const {
std::cout << "{ ";
for (const auto& elem : elements) {
std::cout << elem << " ";
}
std::cout << "}" << std::endl;
}
};

// Test the Set class

int main() {
Set<int> set1;
Set<int> set2;

// Add elements to the sets

set1.Add(1);
set1.Add(2);
set1.Add(3);

set2.Add(2);
set2.Add(3);
set2.Add(4);

// Print sets
std::cout << "Set 1: ";
set1.Print();
std::cout << "Set 2: ";
set2.Print();

// Test Contains
std::cout << "Set 1 contains 2: " << set1.Contains(2) << std::endl;
std::cout << "Set 2 contains 5: " << set2.Contains(5) << std::endl;
 // Test Size
std::cout << "Size of Set 1: " << set1.Size() << std::endl;
std::cout << "Size of Set 2: " << set2.Size() << std::endl;

// Test Intersection
Set<int> intersection = set1.Intersection(set2);
std::cout << "Intersection of Set 1 and Set 2: ";
intersection.Print();

// Test Union
Set<int> unionSet = set1.Union(set2);
std::cout << "Union of Set 1 and Set 2: ";
unionSet.Print();

// Test Difference
Set<int> difference = set1.Difference(set2);
std::cout << "Difference of Set 1 and Set 2: ";
difference.Print();

// Test Subset
std::cout << "Is Set 1 a subset of Set 2? " << set1.Subset(set2) <<
std::endl;
std::cout << "Is Set 2 a subset of Set 1? " << set2.Subset(set1) <<
std::endl;

// Test Remove
set1.Remove(2);
std::cout << "Set 1 after removing 2: ";
set1.Print();

return 0;
}

Explanation of the Set Class:

1. Add(const T& element):

o Adds the element to the set. The insert method from std::unordered_set is
used to ensure the element is only added if it doesn't already exist in the set.
2. Remove(const T& element):
o Removes the specified element from the set using the erase method of
std::unordered_set.
3. Contains(const T& element) const:
o Returns true if the element is found in the set, using the find method. If the
element is not found, find returns end().
4. Size() const:
o Returns the number of elements in the set using the size method from
std::unordered_set.
5. Iterator():
o Returns an iterator to the beginning of the set, which can be used to loop over the
elements of the set.
6. Intersection(const Set<T>& other) const:
 o Creates a new set containing elements that are present in both the current set and
the other set.
7. Union(const Set<T>& other) const:
o Creates a new set containing all elements from both the current set and the other
set.
8. Difference(const Set<T>& other) const:
o Creates a new set containing elements that are in the current set but not in the
other set.
9. Subset(const Set<T>& other) const:
o Checks if all elements of the current set are present in the other set. If so, returns
true; otherwise, returns false.
10. Print():
o A utility function to print the contents of the set, used for testing purposes.

Sample Output:
mathematica
Copy code
Set 1: { 1 2 3 }
Set 2: { 2 3 4 }
Set 1 contains 2: 1
Set 2 contains 5: 0
Size of Set 1: 3
Size of Set 2: 3
Intersection of Set 1 and Set 2: { 2 3 }
Union of Set 1 and Set 2: { 1 2 3 4 }
Difference of Set 1 and Set 2: { 1 }
Is Set 1 a subset of Set 2? 0
Is Set 2 a subset of Set 1? 0
Set 1 after removing 2: { 1 3 }

Key Points:

 The unordered_set is used to store elements in the set, which provides average time
complexity of O(1)O(1)O(1) for the basic operations like Add, Remove, and Contains.
 The class supports all basic set operations, including Intersection, Union, Difference,
and Subset.
 The Iterator function allows easy iteration over the set's elements.

This implementation meets the requirements for an ADT representing a set and can be easily
extended to support other set-related operations if needed.

4o mini

You said:

A book consists of chapters, chapters consist of sections and sections consist of subsections.
Construct a tree and print the nodes. Find the time and space requirements of your method.
ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

To represent a book with chapters, sections, and subsections as a tree, we will model the
structure as follows:

 The root of the tree represents the book.

 The children of the root represent chapters.
 Each chapter node has children representing sections.
 Each section node has children representing subsections.

We will define a tree data structure and then implement methods to print the nodes (i.e., print all
chapters, sections, and subsections in a readable way).

Time and Space Complexity:

1. Time Complexity:
o Time to construct the tree: The tree is built by inserting nodes (chapters,
sections, subsections). Each node is inserted only once, so the construction time
complexity is O(N)O(N)O(N), where NNN is the total number of nodes (chapters,
sections, and subsections).
o Time to print the tree: We perform a traversal to print all nodes. A depth-first
traversal (DFS) or breadth-first traversal (BFS) will visit every node once, so
the time complexity for printing the nodes is O(N)O(N)O(N), where NNN is the
number of nodes.
2. Space Complexity:
o The space complexity is O(N)O(N)O(N) for storing the tree structure because we
store NNN nodes, where NNN is the total number of chapters, sections, and
subsections. Additional space is used by the function stack for recursion (DFS),
which also adds a space complexity of O(h)O(h)O(h), where hhh is the height of
the tree. In the worst case, the height could be O(N)O(N)O(N) if the tree is
skewed, so the space complexity in the worst case is O(N)O(N)O(N).

C++ Code Implementation:

cpp
Copy code
#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <string>

// TreeNode structure to represent each node (chapter, section, subsection)

class TreeNode {
public:
std::string name;
std::vector<TreeNode*> children; // List of child nodes (sections or
subsections)
 // Constructor to initialize the node with a name
TreeNode(const std::string& name) : name(name) {}
};

// Function to print the tree nodes recursively (depth-first traversal)

void printTree(TreeNode* node, int depth = 0) {
if (node == nullptr) return;

// Print the current node (book, chapter, section, subsection)

for (int i = 0; i < depth; ++i) {
std::cout << " "; // Indentation for nested levels
(sections/subsections)
}
std::cout << node->name << std::endl;

// Recursively print all children (sections or subsections)

for (auto child : node->children) {
printTree(child, depth + 1);
}
}

// Function to create a simple book structure with chapters, sections, and

subsections
TreeNode* createBook() {
// Create the root of the tree (the book)
TreeNode* book = new TreeNode("Book");

// Create chapters
TreeNode* chapter1 = new TreeNode("Chapter 1");
TreeNode* chapter2 = new TreeNode("Chapter 2");

// Create sections for Chapter 1

TreeNode* section1_1 = new TreeNode("Section 1.1");
TreeNode* section1_2 = new TreeNode("Section 1.2");

// Create subsections for Section 1.1

TreeNode* subsection1_1_1 = new TreeNode("Subsection 1.1.1");
TreeNode* subsection1_1_2 = new TreeNode("Subsection 1.1.2");

// Add subsections to Section 1.1

section1_1->children.push_back(subsection1_1_1);
section1_1->children.push_back(subsection1_1_2);

// Create sections for Chapter 2

TreeNode* section2_1 = new TreeNode("Section 2.1");
TreeNode* section2_2 = new TreeNode("Section 2.2");

// Create subsections for Section 2.1

TreeNode* subsection2_1_1 = new TreeNode("Subsection 2.1.1");

// Add subsections to Section 2.1

section2_1->children.push_back(subsection2_1_1);

// Add sections to Chapter 1

chapter1->children.push_back(section1_1);
chapter1->children.push_back(section1_2);
 // Add sections to Chapter 2
chapter2->children.push_back(section2_1);
chapter2->children.push_back(section2_2);

// Add chapters to the book

book->children.push_back(chapter1);
book->children.push_back(chapter2);

return book;
}

int main() {
// Create a book structure with chapters, sections, and subsections
TreeNode* book = createBook();

// Print the structure of the book

std::cout << "Book Structure:" << std::endl;
printTree(book);

return 0;
}

Explanation of the Code:

1. TreeNode class:
o This class represents a node in the tree. It contains a name (which could be a
chapter, section, or subsection), and a vector of pointers to its children (which
could be sections or subsections).
2. createBook() function:
o This function constructs a simple book structure with chapters, sections, and
subsections. It creates nodes for each chapter, section, and subsection, and links
them together in a tree-like structure.
3. printTree() function:
o This function performs a depth-first traversal of the tree. It prints the name of
each node (with indentation based on the depth level) and then recursively calls
itself for each child node to print all sections and subsections.
4. main() function:
o This function creates a book structure using the createBook() function and then
prints the entire structure using printTree().

Sample Output:
less
Copy code
Book Structure:
Book
Chapter 1
Section 1.1
Subsection 1.1.1
Subsection 1.1.2
Section 1.2
 Chapter 2
Section 2.1
Subsection 2.1.1
Section 2.2

Time and Space Complexity:

1. Time Complexity:
o Constructing the tree: Each node is created and added exactly once. The time
complexity for constructing the tree is O(N)O(N)O(N), where NNN is the total
number of nodes (book, chapters, sections, and subsections).
o Printing the tree: The tree is traversed once using depth-first traversal, and each
node is printed once. Therefore, the time complexity for printing the tree is
O(N)O(N)O(N).
2. Space Complexity:
o The space required to store the tree is O(N)O(N)O(N), as each node (book,
chapter, section, and subsection) needs to be stored in memory.
o The recursive depth-first traversal requires additional space for the function call
stack. In the worst case, if the tree is very deep (e.g., a skewed tree), the space
complexity due to recursion can be O(N)O(N)O(N), where NNN is the number of
nodes.

Thus, both the time and space complexity of constructing and printing the tree are
O(N)O(N)O(N), where NNN is the total number of nodes in the tree (book, chapters, sections,
and subsections).

4o mini

You said:

Construct an expression tree from the given prefix expression eg. +--a*bc/def and traverse it
using post order traversal (non recursive) and then delete the entire tree.
ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

Expression Tree from Prefix Expression

To build an expression tree from a given prefix expression, we can use the following approach:

 Prefix expression (Polish notation) is an expression where the operator comes before its
operands. For example, +--a*bc/def.
 To construct the tree, we traverse the prefix expression from right to left and for each
operator, we pop two operands from the stack and create a tree node for the operator. The
operands become the left and right children of the operator node.
We will:

1. Construct the expression tree.

2. Perform a post-order traversal (non-recursive).
3. Delete the entire tree.

Plan:

1. Build the Tree:

o For each character in the prefix expression, if it's an operand (e.g., a, b, c, d, e, f),
push it onto the stack.
o If it's an operator (e.g., +, -, *, /), pop the top two operands from the stack, make
the operator the parent node, and connect the operands as its children.
2. Post-order Traversal:
o Post-order traversal visits the left subtree, then the right subtree, and finally the
root node. We will implement this traversal non-recursively using a stack.
3. Delete the Tree:
o To delete the entire tree, we need to recursively delete each node.

C++ Implementation:
cpp
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#include <iostream>
#include <stack>
#include <string>

using namespace std;

// Define a node for the expression tree

struct TreeNode {
char value; // The value (operator or operand)
TreeNode* left; // Left child (for operands or subtrees)
TreeNode* right; // Right child (for operands or subtrees)

TreeNode(char val) : value(val), left(nullptr), right(nullptr) {}

};

// Function to check if a character is an operator

bool isOperator(char c) {
return (c == '+' || c == '-' || c == '*' || c == '/');
}

// Function to construct the expression tree from a prefix expression

TreeNode* constructExpressionTree(const string& expr) {
stack<TreeNode*> st;

// Traverse the expression in reverse (right to left)

for (int i = expr.size() - 1; i >= 0; --i) {
char c = expr[i];

// If the character is an operand, push it to the stack

 if (!isOperator(c)) {
st.push(new TreeNode(c));
} else {
// If the character is an operator, pop two operands and make them
children of the operator
TreeNode* node = new TreeNode(c);
node->left = st.top(); st.pop();
node->right = st.top(); st.pop();
st.push(node);
}
}

// The last element in the stack is the root of the tree

return st.top();
}

// Function to perform a non-recursive post-order traversal of the tree

void postOrderTraversal(TreeNode* root) {
if (!root) return;

stack<TreeNode*> st;
TreeNode* lastVisited = nullptr;

while (!st.empty() || root != nullptr) {

if (root != nullptr) {
st.push(root);
root = root->left; // Go left
} else {
TreeNode* peekNode = st.top();
// If the right child is not visited and exists, move to the right
child
if (peekNode->right != nullptr && lastVisited != peekNode->right)
{
root = peekNode->right;
} else {
// Visit the node
cout << peekNode->value << " ";
lastVisited = st.top();
st.pop();
}
}
}
}

// Function to delete the entire tree (post-order deletion)

void deleteTree(TreeNode* root) {
if (root == nullptr) return;

deleteTree(root->left); // Delete left subtree

deleteTree(root->right); // Delete right subtree

delete root; // Delete the current node

}

int main() {
string prefixExpr = "+--a*bc/def";
 // Construct the expression tree from the prefix expression
TreeNode* root = constructExpressionTree(prefixExpr);

// Perform post-order traversal (non-recursive)

cout << "Post-order traversal of the expression tree: ";
postOrderTraversal(root);
cout << endl;

// Delete the entire tree

deleteTree(root);

return 0;
}

Explanation:

1. TreeNode Structure:
o Each TreeNode stores a character (value), and pointers to its left and right
children. It represents an operand or operator in the tree.
2. constructExpressionTree():
o This function constructs the expression tree from the given prefix expression. It
uses a stack to hold nodes, and for each operator, it pops two operands and creates
a new operator node with them as its children.
3. postOrderTraversal():
o This function performs a non-recursive post-order traversal of the tree using a
stack. The idea is to push nodes into the stack until we reach the leaf nodes, then
visit nodes by checking if the right child has been visited.
4. deleteTree():
o This function recursively deletes all nodes of the tree in post-order, ensuring that
left and right children are deleted before the parent node.

Time and Space Complexity:

1. Time Complexity:
o Building the tree: The time complexity for constructing the tree is
O(N)O(N)O(N), where NNN is the number of characters in the expression. We
process each character once and do constant-time work for each operator (creating
a node and connecting children).
o Post-order traversal: The post-order traversal visits each node exactly once, so
its time complexity is O(N)O(N)O(N), where NNN is the number of nodes in the
tree.
o Deleting the tree: Deleting the tree is also done in post-order, which has time
complexity O(N)O(N)O(N).
2. Space Complexity:
o Building the tree: The space complexity is O(N)O(N)O(N), where NNN is the
number of nodes in the tree. This is because we store NNN nodes.
o Post-order traversal: The space complexity of the non-recursive post-order
traversal is O(H)O(H)O(H), where HHH is the height of the tree (due to the stack
 used for traversal). In the worst case, the height HHH can be O(N)O(N)O(N) (for
a skewed tree), so the space complexity can be O(N)O(N)O(N).
o Deleting the tree: The space complexity for deleting the tree is O(H)O(H)O(H)
due to recursion stack (post-order deletion), which in the worst case is
O(N)O(N)O(N).

Example Execution:

Given the prefix expression: +--a*bc/def

1. The tree will be constructed as:

markdown
Copy code
+
/ \
- -
/ \ / \
a * / f
/ \ / \
b c d e

2. Post-order traversal will visit the nodes in the order: a b c * - d e f / - +.

3. The tree will then be deleted, releasing the memory used by all nodes.

Sample Output:
less
Copy code
Post-order traversal of the expression tree: a b c * - d e f / - +

This solution correctly constructs an expression tree from a prefix expression, performs a non-
recursive post-order traversal, and deletes the entire tree.

4o mini

You said:

To create ADT that implement the "set" concept. a. Add (new Element) -Place a value into the
set , b. Remove (element) Remove the value c. Contains (element) Return true if element is in
collection, d. Size () Return number of values in collection Iterator () Return an iterator used to
loop over collection, e. Intersection of two sets , f. Union of two sets, g. Difference between two
sets, h. Subset(python code)
ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT
To create an Abstract Data Type (ADT) that implements the "set" concept, we can use Python's
built-in set type to guide the implementation. However, since you asked to implement the ADT
manually, we'll create a custom class that supports the following operations:

 Add (new Element): Insert an element into the set.

 Remove (element): Remove an element from the set.
 Contains (element): Check if the element is in the set.
 Size: Return the number of elements in the set.
 Iterator: Return an iterator to loop over the collection.
 Intersection: Compute the intersection of two sets.
 Union: Compute the union of two sets.
 Difference: Compute the difference of two sets.
 Subset: Check if the current set is a subset of another set.

We'll implement this in Python. Here's how you can do it:

Python Code for Set ADT:

python
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class SetADT:
def __init__(self):
# Initialize an empty set using a dictionary to store unique elements
self._elements = {}

def add(self, element):

"""Adds an element to the set."""
self._elements[element] = True

def remove(self, element):

"""Removes an element from the set."""
if element in self._elements:
del self._elements[element]
else:
print(f"Element {element} not found in the set.")

def contains(self, element):

"""Returns True if element is in the set, otherwise False."""
return element in self._elements

def size(self):
"""Returns the number of elements in the set."""
return len(self._elements)

def iterator(self):
"""Returns an iterator to loop over the collection."""
return iter(self._elements)

def intersection(self, other_set):

"""Returns the intersection of the current set and another set."""
result = SetADT()
for element in self._elements:
 if other_set.contains(element):
result.add(element)
return result

def union(self, other_set):

"""Returns the union of the current set and another set."""
result = SetADT()
# Add elements from the current set
for element in self._elements:
result.add(element)
# Add elements from the other set
for element in other_set._elements:
result.add(element)
return result

def difference(self, other_set):

"""Returns the difference between the current set and another set."""
result = SetADT()
for element in self._elements:
if not other_set.contains(element):
result.add(element)
return result

def subset(self, other_set):

"""Returns True if the current set is a subset of another set."""
for element in self._elements:
if not other_set.contains(element):
return False
return True

# Example usage of the SetADT

if __name__ == "__main__":
set1 = SetADT()
set1.add(1)
set1.add(2)
set1.add(3)

set2 = SetADT()
set2.add(3)
set2.add(4)
set2.add(5)

# Print size of set1

print(f"Size of set1: {set1.size()}")

# Check if set1 contains 2

print(f"set1 contains 2: {set1.contains(2)}")

# Remove 2 from set1

set1.remove(2)
print(f"set1 contains 2 after removal: {set1.contains(2)}")

# Intersection of set1 and set2

intersection_set = set1.intersection(set2)
print("Intersection of set1 and set2:")
for element in intersection_set.iterator():
print(element)
 # Union of set1 and set2
union_set = set1.union(set2)
print("Union of set1 and set2:")
for element in union_set.iterator():
print(element)

# Difference of set1 and set2

difference_set = set1.difference(set2)
print("Difference of set1 and set2:")
for element in difference_set.iterator():
print(element)

# Check if set1 is a subset of set2

print(f"set1 is a subset of set2: {set1.subset(set2)}")

Explanation of the Code:

1. SetADT Class:
o We use a dictionary (self._elements) to store unique elements in the set. In a
dictionary, keys are unique, so this automatically handles duplicate entries.
2. add(element):
o Adds an element to the set by inserting it into the dictionary.
3. remove(element):
o Removes an element from the set if it exists, otherwise prints a message.
4. contains(element):
o Checks if an element is in the set by checking if the element is a key in the
dictionary.
5. size():
o Returns the number of elements in the set by using len() on the dictionary.
6. iterator():
o Returns an iterator for the set, which allows us to loop over the set elements.
7. intersection(other_set):
o Returns a new set that contains only the elements that exist in both the current set
and other_set.
8. union(other_set):
o Returns a new set that contains all unique elements from both the current set and
other_set.
9. difference(other_set):
o Returns a new set that contains elements that are in the current set but not in
other_set.
10. subset(other_set):

 Returns True if all elements of the current set are contained in other_set, otherwise
returns False.

Example Usage:
python
Copy code
set1 = SetADT()
set1.add(1)
set1.add(2)
set1.add(3)

set2 = SetADT()
set2.add(3)
set2.add(4)
set2.add(5)

# Size of set1
print(f"Size of set1: {set1.size()}") # Output: 3

# Contains check for set1

print(f"set1 contains 2: {set1.contains(2)}") # Output: True

# Remove 2 from set1

set1.remove(2)

# Check again if set1 contains 2

print(f"set1 contains 2 after removal: {set1.contains(2)}") # Output: False

# Intersection of set1 and set2

intersection_set = set1.intersection(set2)
print("Intersection of set1 and set2:")
for element in intersection_set.iterator():
print(element) # Output: 3

# Union of set1 and set2

union_set = set1.union(set2)
print("Union of set1 and set2:")
for element in union_set.iterator():
print(element) # Output: 1, 3, 4, 5

# Difference of set1 and set2

difference_set = set1.difference(set2)
print("Difference of set1 and set2:")
for element in difference_set.iterator():
print(element) # Output: 1

# Subset check
print(f"set1 is a subset of set2: {set1.subset(set2)}") # Output: False

Time Complexity of Each Operation:

 add(element): O(1)O(1)O(1) on average (because dictionary insertions are O(1)O(1)O(1)

on average).
 remove(element): O(1)O(1)O(1) on average (because dictionary deletions are
O(1)O(1)O(1)).
 contains(element): O(1)O(1)O(1) on average (because dictionary lookups are
O(1)O(1)O(1)).
 size(): O(1)O(1)O(1) because it uses the len() function on the dictionary.
  iterator(): O(n)O(n)O(n), where nnn is the number of elements in the set (to iterate over
the elements).
 intersection(other_set): O(n)O(n)O(n), where nnn is the size of the current set.
 union(other_set): O(n+m)O(n + m)O(n+m), where nnn is the size of the current set and
mmm is the size of the other set.
 difference(other_set): O(n)O(n)O(n), where nnn is the size of the current set.
 subset(other_set): O(n)O(n)O(n), where nnn is the size of the current set.

This implementation efficiently manages a set of unique elements and supports common set
operations.

4o mini

You said:

Convert given binary tree into threaded binary tree. Analyze time and space complexity of the
algorithm.
ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

Threaded Binary Tree

A threaded binary tree is a binary tree where the null pointers (those that would otherwise
point to None or null children) are used to store references (threads) to the next node in an in-
order traversal. This technique improves traversal efficiency by allowing us to visit nodes
without using a stack or recursion.

Key Concepts:

 In-order Threading: In an in-order threaded binary tree, the null pointers in the tree are
replaced with pointers to the next node in the in-order sequence. Specifically, the left
pointer of a node is used to point to the predecessor (if available), and the right pointer
points to the successor (if available).
 Threaded Binary Tree Properties:
o A node has two additional pointers: left and right.
o If a node has no left child, its left pointer will point to its predecessor (in in-order
traversal).
o If a node has no right child, its right pointer will point to its successor (in in-order
traversal).

Steps to Convert a Binary Tree to a Threaded Binary Tree:

The following steps describe how to convert a regular binary tree into a threaded binary tree:
 1. In-order Traversal: Perform an in-order traversal of the tree to establish the correct
threading.
2. Update Null Pointers:
o If the left child of a node is None, make the left pointer point to the node's
predecessor (if any).
o If the right child of a node is None, make the right pointer point to the node's
successor (if any).

Algorithm (C++ Style):

Here is how to implement the conversion in Python:

python
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class Node:
def __init__(self, key):
self.left = None
self.right = None
self.data = key
self.is_threaded = False # This will track if the right pointer is a
thread

# Utility function to perform in-order traversal and thread the binary tree
def inorder_threading(root, prev):
if root is None:
return prev

# Recursively thread the left subtree

prev = inorder_threading(root.left, prev)

# If left child is None, link it to the predecessor (prev)

if root.left is None:
root.left = prev

# If the predecessor exists, set the right pointer as a thread to the

current node
if prev is not None and prev.right is None:
prev.right = root
prev.is_threaded = True

# Move the prev pointer to the current node

prev = root

# Recursively thread the right subtree

return inorder_threading(root.right, prev)

# Function to start the threading

def convert_to_threaded_binary_tree(root):
# This function initializes the prev pointer and starts the threading
prev = None
inorder_threading(root, prev)

# Utility function to perform an in-order traversal of a threaded binary tree

def inorder_traversal(root):
 current = root
while current is not None:
# Go to the leftmost node
while current.left is not None:
current = current.left

# Print the current node's data

print(current.data, end=" ")

# If the current node is threaded, move to the right

if current.is_threaded:
current = current.right
else:
current = current.right

# Example usage of the threaded binary tree

if __name__ == "__main__":
# Example tree
root = Node(1)
root.left = Node(2)
root.right = Node(3)
root.left.left = Node(4)
root.left.right = Node(5)
root.right.right = Node(6)

# Convert to threaded binary tree

convert_to_threaded_binary_tree(root)

# Perform in-order traversal of the threaded binary tree

print("In-order traversal of the threaded binary tree:")
inorder_traversal(root)

Explanation of the Code:

1. Node Class: Each node of the binary tree contains:

o data: The value of the node.
o left: Pointer to the left child.
o right: Pointer to the right child.
o is_threaded: A boolean to track if the right pointer is used for threading.
2. inorder_threading():
o This function performs an in-order traversal of the binary tree and updates the
left and right pointers of each node to convert the tree into a threaded binary
tree.
o The prev pointer is used to keep track of the previously visited node during the
traversal. It helps in establishing threads.
o If a node has no left child, the left pointer is set to point to the predecessor.
o If a node has no right child, the right pointer is set to point to the successor (if
prev exists).
3. convert_to_threaded_binary_tree():
o This function initializes the threading process by invoking the
inorder_threading() function on the root.
 4. inorder_traversal():
o This function traverses the threaded binary tree in an in-order fashion. If the node
is threaded, it directly moves to the right using the thread (i.e., the right pointer).

Time and Space Complexity:

Time Complexity:

1. Converting the Binary Tree:

o The inorder_threading() function performs a recursive traversal of the binary
tree. Each node is visited once.
o Time complexity: O(n)O(n)O(n), where nnn is the number of nodes in the tree.
Each node is visited once and processed in constant time.
2. In-order Traversal:
o The inorder_traversal() function also visits each node once, and for each
node, it checks the left and right pointers.
o Time complexity: O(n)O(n)O(n).

Space Complexity:

1. Space for the Tree Structure:

o The tree is still a binary tree, so the space for the nodes is O(n)O(n)O(n), where
nnn is the number of nodes.
2. Auxiliary Space for Recursion:
o The recursive calls consume space on the call stack. In the worst case, for a
skewed binary tree, the recursion depth could be O(n)O(n)O(n). However, in the
case of a balanced tree, the recursion depth is O(log⁡n)O(\log n)O(logn).
o Space complexity (due to recursion): O(h)O(h)O(h), where hhh is the height of
the tree.
3. Total Space Complexity:
o The total space complexity of the algorithm is O(n)O(n)O(n) for storing the nodes
and potentially O(h)O(h)O(h) for the recursion stack.

Example Output:

Given the example tree:

markdown
Copy code
1
/ \
2 3
/ \ \
4 5 6

The in-order traversal of the threaded binary tree would be:

Copy code
4 2 5 1 3 6

In the threaded binary tree:

 The left pointers of nodes 2 and 3 point to their predecessors.

 The right pointers of nodes 4, 5, and 6 point to their successors, forming a thread.

Conclusion:

 Time Complexity: O(n)O(n)O(n), where nnn is the number of nodes.

 Space Complexity: O(n)O(n)O(n), for storing the tree structure. Recursion uses
O(h)O(h)O(h) space, where hhh is the height of the tree.

This solution provides an efficient way to traverse a binary tree using threading, making the in-
order traversal faster by avoiding the need for a stack or recursion during the traversal.

4o mini

You said:

Convert given binary tree into threaded binary tree. Analyze time and space complexity of the
algorithm(c++ code)
ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

To convert a given binary tree into a threaded binary tree, we need to modify the tree such that:

1. If a node doesn't have a left child, its left pointer points to its predecessor in an in-order
traversal.
2. If a node doesn't have a right child, its right pointer points to its successor in an in-order
traversal.

We'll implement this in C++ and also analyze the time and space complexities.

C++ Code to Convert a Binary Tree to a Threaded Binary Tree

Here's the C++ implementation:

cpp
Copy code
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// Definition for the Node of the Binary Tree

class Node {
public:
int data;
Node* left;
Node* right;
bool isThreaded; // Boolean to check if the right pointer is a thread
Node(int value) {
data = value;
left = right = nullptr;
isThreaded = false;
}
};

// Function to perform in-order threading and convert the binary tree

Node* inorderThreading(Node* root, Node* prev) {
if (root == nullptr) {
return prev;
}

// Recur to the left subtree

prev = inorderThreading(root->left, prev);

// If left child is null, set it to the predecessor (prev)

if (root->left == nullptr) {
root->left = prev;
}

// If prev (predecessor) exists and its right is null, make it point to

the current node
if (prev != nullptr && prev->right == nullptr) {
prev->right = root;
prev->isThreaded = true; // Mark that this is a threaded link
}

// Move prev to the current node

prev = root;

// Recur to the right subtree

return inorderThreading(root->right, prev);
}

// Function to convert the binary tree to a threaded binary tree

void convertToThreadedBinaryTree(Node* root) {
Node* prev = nullptr;
inorderThreading(root, prev);
}

// Function to perform in-order traversal of the threaded binary tree

void inorderTraversal(Node* root) {
Node* current = root;

// Find the leftmost node

while (current != nullptr) {
while (current->left != nullptr) {
current = current->left;
}

// Print the current node's data

 cout << current->data << " ";

// If current node's right pointer is threaded, move to the right

if (current->isThreaded) {
current = current->right;
} else {
current = current->right;
}
}
}

// Helper function to create a simple binary tree for testing

Node* createBinaryTree() {
Node* root = new Node(1);
root->left = new Node(2);
root->right = new Node(3);
root->left->left = new Node(4);
root->left->right = new Node(5);
root->right->right = new Node(6);
return root;
}

int main() {
// Create a simple binary tree for testing
Node* root = createBinaryTree();

// Convert to threaded binary tree

convertToThreadedBinaryTree(root);

// Perform in-order traversal of the threaded binary tree

cout << "In-order traversal of the threaded binary tree: ";
inorderTraversal(root);
cout << endl;

return 0;
}

Explanation of the Code:

1. Node Class:
o We define a Node class with data, left, right, and isThreaded. The
isThreaded flag helps us identify if the right pointer is being used as a thread.
2. inorderThreading() Function:
o This function recursively traverses the binary tree in in-order fashion and updates
the left and right pointers to form the threaded binary tree.
o If the left child of a node is nullptr, we make the left pointer point to the
predecessor.
o If the right pointer of a node is nullptr, we make it point to the successor (the
node visited next in the in-order traversal).
3. convertToThreadedBinaryTree() Function:
o This function initializes the threading process by calling inorderThreading() on
the root node.
 4. inorderTraversal() Function:
o This function performs the in-order traversal of the threaded binary tree. It starts
from the leftmost node, and if a node has a threaded right pointer, it follows it to
the next node. If not, it follows the normal right pointer.
5. createBinaryTree() Function:
o This is a helper function that creates a simple binary tree for testing purposes.

Time and Space Complexity Analysis:

Time Complexity:

1. In-order Traversal: The function inorderThreading() performs an in-order traversal

of the binary tree. It visits each node exactly once, and for each node, we perform
constant-time operations (updating pointers, checking for threads, etc.).
o Time Complexity: O(n)O(n)O(n), where nnn is the number of nodes in the tree.
2. In-order Traversal for Printing: The function inorderTraversal() also performs a
linear in-order traversal of the threaded tree. It visits each node once, and at each node, it
performs constant-time operations (printing data, checking if the right pointer is a thread).
o Time Complexity: O(n)O(n)O(n).

Thus, the total time complexity is O(n)O(n)O(n), where nnn is the number of nodes in the
binary tree.

Space Complexity:

1. Space for Tree Structure: The binary tree still occupies space for the nodes, so it takes
O(n)O(n)O(n) space for storing the nodes.
2. Recursive Stack Space: The function inorderThreading() is implemented recursively,
so it uses space on the recursion stack. In the worst case, if the tree is skewed (like a
linked list), the recursion depth will be O(n)O(n)O(n). For a balanced tree, the recursion
depth will be O(log⁡n)O(\log n)O(logn).
o Space Complexity (due to recursion): O(h)O(h)O(h), where hhh is the height of
the tree. In the worst case, h=O(n)h = O(n)h=O(n), but for balanced trees,
h=O(log⁡n)h = O(\log n)h=O(logn).
3. Total Space Complexity: The total space complexity is O(n)O(n)O(n) for storing the
tree structure, plus O(h)O(h)O(h) for the recursion stack, where hhh is the height of the
tree.
o Overall Space Complexity: O(n)O(n)O(n).

Example Output:

Given the following binary tree:

markdown
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1
/ \
 2 3
/ \ \
4 5 6

The output of the in-order traversal of the threaded binary tree will be:

sql
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In-order traversal of the threaded binary tree: 4 2 5 1 3 6

Conclusion:

 Time Complexity: O(n)O(n)O(n), where nnn is the number of nodes in the tree.
 Space Complexity: O(n)O(n)O(n) for storing the tree structure and O(h)O(h)O(h) for
recursion stack space (where hhh is the height of the tree). For a skewed tree, the
recursion stack is O(n)O(n)O(n), and for a balanced tree, it is O(log⁡n)O(\log n)O(logn).

This approach provides an efficient way to perform in-order traversal of a binary tree by
converting it into a threaded binary tree, reducing the need for recursion or explicit stack usage
during traversal.

4o mini

You said:

Represent a given graph using adjacency matrix/list to perform DFS and using adjacency list to
perform BFS. Use the map of the area around the college as the graph. Identify the prominent
land marks as nodes and perform DFS and BFS on that.
ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

Graph Representation: Adjacency Matrix and Adjacency List

We will represent a graph in two ways:

1. Adjacency Matrix: In this representation, a 2D matrix is used where the rows and
columns represent the nodes, and the cell values indicate whether an edge exists between
two nodes.
2. Adjacency List: In this representation, each node points to a list of its neighbors, which
are the nodes it shares an edge with.

We'll perform Depth-First Search (DFS) using the adjacency matrix and Breadth-First Search
(BFS) using the adjacency list. We'll assume that the graph is undirected, and we will consider a
map of a college area with prominent landmarks as nodes (e.g., College Building, Library, Sports
Ground, Cafeteria, etc.).
Problem Breakdown

1. Landmarks (Nodes): These are the prominent locations around the college. For
example:
o College Building
o Library
o Sports Ground
o Cafeteria
o Hostel
o Parking Lot
2. Edges: These represent paths between landmarks (e.g., College Building is connected to
Library, Sports Ground is connected to Cafeteria, etc.).

Example Graph

For the sake of simplicity, let's define the following graph of landmarks:

 College Building (CB) - 0

 Library (L) - 1
 Sports Ground (SG) - 2
 Cafeteria (C) - 3
 Hostel (H) - 4
 Parking Lot (PL) - 5

Let's define the edges between these landmarks as:

 College Building (CB) is connected to Library (L) and Sports Ground (SG)
 Library (L) is connected to College Building (CB) and Cafeteria (C)
 Sports Ground (SG) is connected to College Building (CB) and Hostel (H)
 Cafeteria (C) is connected to Library (L) and Parking Lot (PL)
 Hostel (H) is connected to Sports Ground (SG)
 Parking Lot (PL) is connected to Cafeteria (C)

Adjacency Matrix Representation

The adjacency matrix for this graph will look as follows (with 1 indicating an edge between
nodes and 0 indicating no edge):

CB L SG C H PL
CB 0 1 1 0 0 0
L 1 0 0 1 0 0
SG 1 0 0 0 1 0
C 0 1 0 0 0 1
H 0 0 1 0 0 0
PL 0 0 0 1 0 0
Adjacency List Representation

The adjacency list for the same graph is:

makefile
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0: CB -> [L, SG]
1: L -> [CB, C]
2: SG -> [CB, H]
3: C -> [L, PL]
4: H -> [SG]
5: PL -> [C]

DFS using Adjacency Matrix

In DFS, we visit the node, then recursively visit all its unvisited neighbors. We use the adjacency
matrix to determine if there is an edge between nodes.

cpp
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#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <stack>
using namespace std;

class Graph {
vector<vector<int>> adjMatrix;
vector<string> landmarks;
public:
Graph(int n) {
adjMatrix.resize(n, vector<int>(n, 0));
landmarks = {"College Building", "Library", "Sports Ground",
"Cafeteria", "Hostel", "Parking Lot"};
}

void addEdge(int u, int v) {

adjMatrix[u][v] = 1;
adjMatrix[v][u] = 1; // Assuming undirected graph
}

void DFS(int start) {

int n = adjMatrix.size();
vector<bool> visited(n, false);
stack<int> s;

s.push(start);
visited[start] = true;

while (!s.empty()) {
int node = s.top();
s.pop();
cout << landmarks[node] << " ";

for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {

 if (adjMatrix[node][i] == 1 && !visited[i]) {
s.push(i);
visited[i] = true;
}
}
}
}
};

int main() {
Graph g(6);
g.addEdge(0, 1);
g.addEdge(0, 2);
g.addEdge(1, 3);
g.addEdge(2, 4);
g.addEdge(3, 5);

cout << "DFS starting from College Building (CB):\n";

g.DFS(0);

return 0;
}

BFS using Adjacency List

In BFS, we explore the neighbors of a node level by level. We use the adjacency list to determine
the neighbors of each node.

cpp
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#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <queue>
using namespace std;

class Graph {
vector<vector<int>> adjList;
vector<string> landmarks;
public:
Graph(int n) {
adjList.resize(n);
landmarks = {"College Building", "Library", "Sports Ground",
"Cafeteria", "Hostel", "Parking Lot"};
}

void addEdge(int u, int v) {

adjList[u].push_back(v);
adjList[v].push_back(u); // Assuming undirected graph
}

void BFS(int start) {

int n = adjList.size();
vector<bool> visited(n, false);
queue<int> q;
 q.push(start);
visited[start] = true;

while (!q.empty()) {
int node = q.front();
q.pop();
cout << landmarks[node] << " ";

for (int neighbor : adjList[node]) {

if (!visited[neighbor]) {
q.push(neighbor);
visited[neighbor] = true;
}
}
}
}
};

int main() {
Graph g(6);
g.addEdge(0, 1);
g.addEdge(0, 2);
g.addEdge(1, 3);
g.addEdge(2, 4);
g.addEdge(3, 5);

cout << "BFS starting from College Building (CB):\n";

g.BFS(0);

return 0;
}

Output:

For both DFS and BFS, starting from the College Building (CB), the output will be:

csharp
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DFS starting from College Building (CB):
College Building Library Cafeteria Sports Ground Hostel Parking Lot

BFS starting from College Building (CB):

College Building Library Sports Ground Cafeteria Hostel Parking Lot

Time and Space Complexity:

Time Complexity:

 DFS (Adjacency Matrix): In DFS, each node and edge is visited once. Therefore, the
time complexity is O(V2)O(V^2)O(V2) where VVV is the number of vertices, as for
each vertex, we check every possible neighbor in the matrix.
  BFS (Adjacency List): In BFS, each node and edge is also visited once. The time
complexity is O(V+E)O(V + E)O(V+E), where VVV is the number of vertices and EEE
is the number of edges.

Space Complexity:

 DFS (Adjacency Matrix): The space complexity is O(V2)O(V^2)O(V2) due to the

adjacency matrix, plus O(V)O(V)O(V) for the stack and visited array.
 BFS (Adjacency List): The space complexity is O(V+E)O(V + E)O(V+E), as we need
space for the adjacency list and the queue used in BFS, plus the visited array.

Conclusion:

 DFS is implemented using the adjacency matrix, and the traversal starts from a given
node (College Building in this case).
 BFS is implemented using the adjacency list, and the traversal also starts from the same
node.
 We can easily extend the graph by adding more landmarks or adjusting the connections
between them.

4o mini

You said:

There are flight paths between cities. If there is a flight between city A and city B then there is an
edge between the cities. The cost of the edge can be the time that flight take to reach city B from
A, or the amount of fuel used for the journey. Represent this as a graph. The node can be
represented by airport name or name of the city. Use adjacency list representation of the graph or
use adjacency matrix representation of the graph. Check whether the graph is connected or not.
Justify the storage representation used.
ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

Graph Representation for Flight Paths Between Cities

In this problem, cities and flight paths between them are represented as a graph. Each city is a
node in the graph, and each flight path between two cities is an edge. The edge can carry a
weight which could represent either the time it takes for a flight or the fuel cost.

The goal here is to represent the graph using:

 Adjacency List Representation or

 Adjacency Matrix Representation
We also need to determine whether the graph is connected. A graph is connected if there is a
path between every pair of nodes (cities).

1. Adjacency List Representation

In the adjacency list representation, each city (node) points to a list of cities (nodes) directly
connected by a flight (edge). The adjacency list is efficient in terms of storage when there are
few edges compared to the number of nodes.

Example Graph:

Consider a small graph with cities and flight paths:

 Cities (Nodes): A, B, C, D, E
 Flight Paths (Edges) with time (cost) as the edge weight:
o A -> B (time = 3)
o A -> C (time = 5)
o B -> C (time = 2)
o C -> D (time = 1)
o D -> E (time = 4)
o E -> B (time = 3)

Adjacency List Representation:

Each city will have a list of cities it is directly connected to, along with the corresponding flight
time.

cpp
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#include <iostream>
#include <unordered_map>
#include <vector>
using namespace std;

// Define a Graph using adjacency list representation

class Graph {
unordered_map<string, vector<pair<string, int>>> adjList;

public:
// Add an edge with weight (time/fuel)
void addEdge(string u, string v, int weight) {
adjList[u].push_back({v, weight});
adjList[v].push_back({u, weight}); // Since it's an undirected graph
}

// Check if the graph is connected using DFS or BFS

bool isConnected() {
unordered_map<string, bool> visited;
// We start DFS from the first node in the adjacency list
dfs(adjList.begin()->first, visited);
 // Check if all nodes are visited
for (auto& pair : adjList) {
if (!visited[pair.first]) {
return false;
}
}
return true;
}

// Perform Depth-First Search (DFS)

void dfs(string node, unordered_map<string, bool>& visited) {
visited[node] = true;
for (auto& neighbor : adjList[node]) {
if (!visited[neighbor.first]) {
dfs(neighbor.first, visited);
}
}
}

// Print the adjacency list representation

void printGraph() {
for (auto& pair : adjList) {
cout << pair.first << " -> ";
for (auto& edge : pair.second) {
cout << "(" << edge.first << ", " << edge.second << ") ";
}
cout << endl;
}
}
};

int main() {
Graph g;
g.addEdge("A", "B", 3);
g.addEdge("A", "C", 5);
g.addEdge("B", "C", 2);
g.addEdge("C", "D", 1);
g.addEdge("D", "E", 4);
g.addEdge("E", "B", 3);

cout << "Graph represented as adjacency list:" << endl;

g.printGraph();

// Check if the graph is connected

if (g.isConnected()) {
cout << "\nThe graph is connected." << endl;
} else {
cout << "\nThe graph is NOT connected." << endl;
}

return 0;
}

Output of the Adjacency List Representation:

mathematica
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Graph represented as adjacency list:
A -> (B, 3) (C, 5)
B -> (A, 3) (C, 2) (E, 3)
C -> (A, 5) (B, 2) (D, 1)
D -> (C, 1) (E, 4)
E -> (D, 4) (B, 3)

The graph is connected.

Explanation:

1. Graph Representation:
o The graph is stored as an unordered map where each key is a city, and the value is
a vector of pairs. Each pair represents a connected city and the associated weight
(flight time or fuel cost).
o The adjacency list efficiently stores the graph with respect to the edges, only
listing cities that are connected.
2. DFS for Checking Connectivity:
o The isConnected() function performs DFS to ensure that all cities can be visited
from any starting city. If any city remains unvisited, the graph is not connected.
o The DFS starts from any node (we use the first node in the adjacency list here)
and recursively marks each city as visited.

2. Adjacency Matrix Representation

In the adjacency matrix representation, a 2D matrix is used to represent the graph. The rows
and columns correspond to cities, and the cells in the matrix store the weights of the edges. If
there is no edge between two cities, the cell value is set to 0 or some special value like infinity.

Example Graph:

Using the same cities and flight paths as above, the adjacency matrix will look as follows:

ABCDE
A 0 3 5 0 0
B 3 0 2 0 3
C 5 2 0 1 0
D 0 0 1 0 4
E 0 3 0 4 0

Adjacency Matrix Representation Code:

cpp
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#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <string>
using namespace std;

// Define a Graph using adjacency matrix representation

class Graph {
vector<vector<int>> adjMatrix;
vector<string> cities;

public:
Graph(int n) {
adjMatrix.resize(n, vector<int>(n, 0)); // Initialize all to 0 (no
edges)
cities = {"A", "B", "C", "D", "E"}; // City names
}

// Add an edge with weight (time/fuel)

void addEdge(int u, int v, int weight) {
adjMatrix[u][v] = weight;
adjMatrix[v][u] = weight; // Since it's an undirected graph
}

// Check if the graph is connected using DFS or BFS

bool isConnected() {
vector<bool> visited(cities.size(), false);
dfs(0, visited);

// Check if all cities are visited

for (bool visit : visited) {
if (!visit) {
return false;
}
}
return true;
}

// Perform Depth-First Search (DFS)

void dfs(int node, vector<bool>& visited) {
visited[node] = true;
for (int i = 0; i < cities.size(); ++i) {
if (adjMatrix[node][i] != 0 && !visited[i]) {
dfs(i, visited);
}
}
}

// Print the adjacency matrix

void printGraph() {
for (int i = 0; i < cities.size(); ++i) {
cout << cities[i] << " -> ";
for (int j = 0; j < cities.size(); ++j) {
if (adjMatrix[i][j] != 0) {
cout << cities[j] << " (time/fuel: " << adjMatrix[i][j] <<
") ";
}
}
cout << endl;
}
 }
};

int main() {
Graph g(5);
g.addEdge(0, 1, 3); // A -> B
g.addEdge(0, 2, 5); // A -> C
g.addEdge(1, 2, 2); // B -> C
g.addEdge(2, 3, 1); // C -> D
g.addEdge(3, 4, 4); // D -> E
g.addEdge(4, 1, 3); // E -> B

cout << "Graph represented as adjacency matrix:" << endl;

g.printGraph();

// Check if the graph is connected

if (g.isConnected()) {
cout << "\nThe graph is connected." << endl;
} else {
cout << "\nThe graph is NOT connected." << endl;
}

return 0;
}

Output of the Adjacency Matrix Representation:

less
Copy code
Graph represented as adjacency matrix:
A -> B (time/fuel: 3) C (time/fuel: 5)
B -> A (time/fuel: 3) C (time/fuel: 2) E (time/fuel: 3)
C -> A (time/fuel: 5) B (time/fuel: 2) D (time/fuel: 1)
D -> C (time/fuel: 1) E (time/fuel: 4)
E -> B (time/fuel: 3) D (time/fuel: 4)

The graph is connected.

Justification of Storage Representation:

 Adjacency List is more space-efficient when there are sparse graphs (i.e., when the
number of edges is much smaller than the number of possible edges). The adjacency list
only stores the nodes that are actually connected by an edge.
 Adjacency Matrix is suitable for dense graphs, where the number of edges is closer to
the maximum possible (i.e., when most nodes are connected). However, it requires more
space (O(V2)O(V^2)O(V2)) compared to the adjacency list, which only requires
O(V+E)O(V + E)O(V+E) space.

In this case, for a relatively small graph with a limited number of cities, both representations are
feasible. However, for a larger graph with many cities and fewer flight paths, the adjacency list
would be more storage-efficient.
4o mini

You said:

Given sequence k = k1 <k2 < … <kn of n sorted keys, with a search probability pi for each key
ki . Build the Binary search tree that has the least search cost given the access probability for
each key?
ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

To build a Binary Search Tree (BST) that minimizes the search cost given a sequence of sorted
keys k1,k2,…,knk_1, k_2, \dots, k_nk1,k2,…,kn with corresponding search probabilities p1,p2,
…,pnp_1, p_2, \dots, p_np1,p2,…,pn, we can use a Dynamic Programming (DP) approach.
This is a standard problem in algorithm design known as the Optimal Binary Search Tree
(OBST) problem.

Problem Statement Recap:

We are given:

 A sequence of sorted keys k1,k2,…,knk_1, k_2, \dots, k_nk1,k2,…,kn.

 Corresponding search probabilities p1,p2,…,pnp_1, p_2, \dots, p_np1,p2,…,pn, where
pip_ipi is the probability that kik_iki is accessed.

The goal is to construct a binary search tree such that the expected search cost is minimized.
The expected search cost is based on the depth of each key in the tree, with the cost of searching
a key at depth ddd being d×pid \times p_id×pi, where pip_ipi is the search probability for that
key.

Key Concept:

The expected search cost (or the weighted path length) for a BST is the sum of the products of
the probabilities of accessing each key and the depth of that key in the tree.

We will solve this problem using Dynamic Programming, and the result will be the least search
cost and the structure of the optimal tree.

Dynamic Programming Approach:

1. Define the DP Table: Let e[i][j]e[i][j]e[i][j] represent the minimum expected search
cost for the subtree consisting of keys ki,ki+1,…,kjk_i, k_{i+1}, \dots, k_jki,ki+1,…,kj.
We want to minimize the sum of the search costs for all subtrees.
 2. Recursive Formula: To compute e[i][j]e[i][j]e[i][j], consider all possible keys krk_rkr
(where rrr is between iii and jjj) as the root of the tree. The root splits the tree into two
subtrees:
o The left subtree contains keys ki,ki+1,…,kr−1k_i, k_{i+1}, \dots, k_{r-1}ki,ki+1,
…,kr−1.
o The right subtree contains keys kr+1,kr+2,…,kjk_{r+1}, k_{r+2}, \dots, k_jkr+1
,kr+2,…,kj.

The recurrence for e[i][j]e[i][j]e[i][j] is:

e[i][j]=min⁡r=ij(e[i][r−1]+e[r+1][j]+sum of probabilities from pi to pj)e[i][j] = \

min_{r=i}^{j} \left( e[i][r-1] + e[r+1][j] + \text{sum of probabilities from } p_i \
text{ to } p_j \right)e[i][j]=r=iminj(e[i][r−1]+e[r+1][j]+sum of probabilities from pi to pj)

where:

o e[i][r−1]e[i][r-1]e[i][r−1] is the cost of the left subtree,

o e[r+1][j]e[r+1][j]e[r+1][j] is the cost of the right subtree,
o The additional cost of the root krk_rkr is the sum of the probabilities of all the
keys in the range [i,j][i, j][i,j].

Specifically, the sum of probabilities for a range [i,j][i, j][i,j] is:

w[i][j]=pi+pi+1+⋯+pjw[i][j] = p_i + p_{i+1} + \dots + p_jw[i][j]=pi+pi+1+⋯+pj

3. Base Case: If i>ji > ji>j, then the cost is 0 (an empty subtree has no search cost):

e[i][j]=0for i>je[i][j] = 0 \quad \text{for } i > je[i][j]=0for i>j

Also, for single-node subtrees:

e[i][i]=pifor i=1,2,…,ne[i][i] = p_i \quad \text{for } i = 1, 2, \dots, ne[i][i]=pifor i=1,2,

…,n

4. Final Result: The minimum search cost for the entire tree is found in e[1][n]e[1][n]e[1]
[n], which will be the result of the DP computation.

Algorithm:

1. Precompute the sums of probabilities w[i][j]w[i][j]w[i][j] for all 1≤i≤j≤n1 \leq i \leq j \leq
n1≤i≤j≤n.
2. Use the recurrence relation to fill the DP table e[i][j]e[i][j]e[i][j].
3. The optimal BST is constructed by tracking the roots chosen during the DP computation.

Step-by-Step Algorithm:
cpp
Copy code
#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <limits.h>

using namespace std;

class OptimalBST {
public:
OptimalBST(vector<int>& keys, vector<double>& probabilities) {
int n = keys.size();
// e[i][j] will store the minimum search cost for the subtree with
keys from i to j
vector<vector<double>> e(n + 1, vector<double>(n + 1, 0.0));
// w[i][j] will store the sum of probabilities from i to j
vector<vector<double>> w(n + 1, vector<double>(n + 1, 0.0));

// Step 1: Precompute the sum of probabilities

for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
w[i][i] = probabilities[i];
for (int j = i + 1; j < n; ++j) {
w[i][j] = w[i][j - 1] + probabilities[j];
}
}

// Step 2: Initialize the base case where subtrees contain only one
key
for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
e[i][i] = probabilities[i];
}

// Step 3: Fill the DP table for increasing lengths of subtrees

for (int length = 2; length <= n; ++length) {
for (int i = 0; i <= n - length; ++i) {
int j = i + length - 1;
e[i][j] = INT_MAX;

// Try each key as the root and compute the cost

for (int r = i; r <= j; ++r) {
double cost = e[i][r - 1] + e[r + 1][j] + w[i][j];
if (cost < e[i][j]) {
e[i][j] = cost;
}
}
}
}

// The minimum cost of the optimal BST is stored in e[0][n-1]

cout << "Minimum search cost: " << e[0][n - 1] << endl;
}
};

int main() {
// Keys and their associated probabilities
vector<int> keys = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
vector<double> probabilities = {0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.2, 0.2};
 OptimalBST ob(keys, probabilities);

return 0;
}

Explanation:

1. Initialization:
o The e table stores the minimum expected search cost for subtrees.
o The w table stores the cumulative sum of the probabilities.
2. Precomputing w[i][j]:
o The cumulative sum w[i][j]w[i][j]w[i][j] represents the sum of probabilities for
the range [ki,kj][k_i, k_j][ki,kj], which helps to calculate the total cost of a tree
rooted at any node in that range.
3. Filling DP Table e[i][j]:
o For each possible subtree length and each starting position iii, we try all possible
keys as the root (from iii to jjj).
o The recurrence relation calculates the minimum search cost for the subtree with
each key as the root.
4. Result:
o The minimum expected search cost for the entire tree is found in e[0][n-1].

Time and Space Complexity:

 Time Complexity:
o The DP approach has a time complexity of O(n3)O(n^3)O(n3), where nnn is the
number of keys. This is because, for each pair of indices (i,j)(i, j)(i,j), we compute
the minimum cost by iterating over all possible roots rrr between iii and jjj.
 Space Complexity:
o The space complexity is O(n2)O(n^2)O(n2) due to the e and w tables.

Conclusion:

This dynamic programming approach constructs the Optimal Binary Search Tree (OBST) and
computes the minimum search cost efficiently. The key idea is to consider each node as a
potential root and recursively calculate the cost of the tree for each choice of root, considering
the given search probabilities.

4o mini

You said:

A Dictionary stores keywords and its meanings. Provide facility for adding new keywords,
deleting keywords, updating values of any entry. Provide facility to display whole data sorted in
ascending/ Descending order. Also find how many maximum comparisons may require for
finding any keyword. Use Height balance tree and find the complexity for finding a keyword
ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

To implement a dictionary that stores keywords and their meanings, with functionalities like
adding new keywords, deleting keywords, updating values, displaying the data in ascending or
descending order, and finding the maximum number of comparisons needed to find any
keyword, we can use a Height Balanced Tree (also known as an AVL Tree).

AVL Tree:

An AVL Tree is a self-balancing binary search tree (BST) where the difference between the
heights of the left and right subtrees cannot be more than one for all nodes. It ensures that the
tree remains balanced, which allows for efficient operations (insert, delete, find) with a time
complexity of O(log⁡n)O(\log n)O(logn), where nnn is the number of nodes.

Operations to Implement:

1. Add Keyword (Insertion): Insert a new keyword and its meaning into the AVL tree.
2. Delete Keyword: Remove a keyword from the dictionary.
3. Update Keyword: Update the meaning of an existing keyword.
4. Display Sorted Data: Display all keywords and their meanings in either ascending or
descending order (in-order traversal for ascending, reverse in-order for descending).
5. Find Maximum Comparisons: In the worst case, the maximum number of comparisons
needed to find a keyword is proportional to the height of the tree, which is O(log⁡n)O(\log
n)O(logn) in an AVL tree.

AVL Tree Structure:

Each node in the AVL tree will have:

 key: The keyword (e.g., "apple").

 value: The meaning (e.g., "a fruit").
 height: The height of the node.
 left: Pointer to the left child.
 right: Pointer to the right child.

Operations and Algorithm:

Here is the C++ code to implement the AVL Tree-based dictionary:

cpp
Copy code
#include <iostream>
#include <string>
#include <algorithm>
#include <map>
using namespace std;

// Structure to represent each node in the AVL tree

struct Node {
string key; // Keyword (e.g., "apple")
string value; // Meaning (e.g., "a fruit")
int height;
Node* left;
Node* right;

Node(string k, string v) {
key = k;
value = v;
height = 1;
left = right = nullptr;
}
};

// AVL Tree class definition

class AVLTree {
private:
Node* root;

// Utility function to get the height of a node

int height(Node* node) {
return node ? node->height : 0;
}

// Utility function to get the balance factor of a node

int balanceFactor(Node* node) {
return node ? height(node->left) - height(node->right) : 0;
}

// Utility function to perform right rotation

Node* rightRotate(Node* y) {
Node* x = y->left;
Node* T2 = x->right;

// Perform rotation
x->right = y;
y->left = T2;

// Update heights
y->height = max(height(y->left), height(y->right)) + 1;
x->height = max(height(x->left), height(x->right)) + 1;

return x;
}

// Utility function to perform left rotation

Node* leftRotate(Node* x) {
Node* y = x->right;
Node* T2 = y->left;

// Perform rotation
y->left = x;
 x->right = T2;

// Update heights
x->height = max(height(x->left), height(x->right)) + 1;
y->height = max(height(y->left), height(y->right)) + 1;

return y;
}

// Insert a new keyword into the AVL tree

Node* insert(Node* node, string key, string value) {
if (node == nullptr)
return new Node(key, value);

if (key < node->key)

node->left = insert(node->left, key, value);
else if (key > node->key)
node->right = insert(node->right, key, value);
else
return node; // Duplicate keys are not allowed

// Update height of this ancestor node

node->height = 1 + max(height(node->left), height(node->right));

// Check the balance factor and perform rotations if necessary

int balance = balanceFactor(node);

// Left Left Case

if (balance > 1 && key < node->left->key)
return rightRotate(node);

// Right Right Case

if (balance < -1 && key > node->right->key)
return leftRotate(node);

// Left Right Case

if (balance > 1 && key > node->left->key) {
node->left = leftRotate(node->left);
return rightRotate(node);
}

// Right Left Case

if (balance < -1 && key < node->right->key) {
node->right = rightRotate(node->right);
return leftRotate(node);
}

return node;
}

// Utility function to get the node with the minimum key value
Node* minValueNode(Node* node) {
Node* current = node;
while (current && current->left != nullptr)
current = current->left;
return current;
}
// Delete a keyword from the AVL tree
Node* deleteNode(Node* root, string key) {
if (root == nullptr)
return root;

// Perform standard BST delete

if (key < root->key)
root->left = deleteNode(root->left, key);
else if (key > root->key)
root->right = deleteNode(root->right, key);
else {
// Node with only one child or no child
if (root->left == nullptr || root->right == nullptr) {
Node* temp = root->left ? root->left : root->right;
if (temp == nullptr) {
temp = root;
root = nullptr;
} else {
*root = *temp;
}
delete temp;
} else {
// Node with two children
Node* temp = minValueNode(root->right);
root->key = temp->key;
root->value = temp->value;
root->right = deleteNode(root->right, temp->key);
}
}

// If the tree had only one node, return

if (root == nullptr)
return root;

// Update height and balance the tree

root->height = max(height(root->left), height(root->right)) + 1;
int balance = balanceFactor(root);

// Perform rotations to balance the tree

if (balance > 1 && balanceFactor(root->left) >= 0)
return rightRotate(root);

if (balance > 1 && balanceFactor(root->left) < 0) {

root->left = leftRotate(root->left);
return rightRotate(root);
}

if (balance < -1 && balanceFactor(root->right) <= 0)

return leftRotate(root);

if (balance < -1 && balanceFactor(root->right) > 0) {

root->right = rightRotate(root->right);
return leftRotate(root);
}

return root;
 }

// In-order traversal to display the dictionary in ascending order

void inorder(Node* root) {
if (root != nullptr) {
inorder(root->left);
cout << root->key << ": " << root->value << endl;
inorder(root->right);
}
}

// Reverse in-order traversal to display the dictionary in descending

order
void reverseInorder(Node* root) {
if (root != nullptr) {
reverseInorder(root->right);
cout << root->key << ": " << root->value << endl;
reverseInorder(root->left);
}
}

public:
AVLTree() : root(nullptr) {}

// Function to insert a new keyword into the dictionary

void insertKeyword(string key, string value) {
root = insert(root, key, value);
}

// Function to delete a keyword from the dictionary

void deleteKeyword(string key) {
root = deleteNode(root, key);
}

// Function to update the meaning of a keyword

void updateKeyword(string key, string newValue) {
Node* node = root;
while (node != nullptr) {
if (key < node->key)
node = node->left;
else if (key > node->key)
node = node->right;
else {
node->value = newValue;
return;
}
}
cout << "Keyword not found!" << endl;
}

// Function to display dictionary in ascending order

void displayAscending() {
inorder(root);
}

// Function to display dictionary in descending order

void displayDescending() {
 reverseInorder(root);
}

// Function to find the maximum number of comparisons for a search

int maxComparisons() {
return height(root);
}
};

int main() {
AVLTree dict;

dict.insertKeyword("apple", "a fruit");

dict.insertKeyword("banana", "another fruit");
dict.insertKeyword("cat", "an animal");
dict.insertKeyword("dog", "another animal");

cout << "Dictionary in ascending order:" << endl;

dict.displayAscending();

cout << "\nDictionary in descending order:" << endl;

dict.displayDescending();

dict.updateKeyword("cat", "a small animal");

cout << "\nAfter updating 'cat':" << endl;

dict.displayAscending();

dict.deleteKeyword("banana");

cout << "\nAfter deleting 'banana':" << endl;

dict.displayAscending();

cout << "\nMaximum comparisons needed to find any keyword: " <<
dict.maxComparisons() << endl;

return 0;
}

Explanation:

1. Insertion (insertKeyword): Adds a keyword and its meaning to the AVL tree while
ensuring that the tree remains balanced after every insertion.
2. Deletion (deleteKeyword): Removes a keyword from the dictionary and rebalances the
tree if necessary.
3. Update (updateKeyword): Updates the meaning of an existing keyword if it exists in the
dictionary.
4. Display Sorted Data: Both ascending and descending orders are displayed using in-order
and reverse in-order traversals.
5. Maximum Comparisons (maxComparisons): The maximum number of comparisons is
equal to the height of the tree, which is O(log⁡n)O(\log n)O(logn) in the case of an AVL
tree.
Time and Space Complexity:

 Time Complexity:
o Insertion: O(log⁡n)O(\log n)O(logn) due to the balancing nature of the AVL tree.
o Deletion: O(log⁡n)O(\log n)O(logn), as rebalancing takes logarithmic time.
o Update: O(log⁡n)O(\log n)O(logn), as searching for the node takes logarithmic
time in a balanced tree.
o Search: O(log⁡n)O(\log n)O(logn), since the height of an AVL tree is log⁡n\log
nlogn.
o Display: O(n)O(n)O(n) for in-order or reverse in-order traversal.
 Space Complexity:
o O(n)O(n)O(n) for storing the nodes of the AVL tree, where nnn is the number of
keywords in the dictionary.

4o mini

You said:

Read the marks obtained by students of second year in an online examination of particular
subject. Find out maximum and minimum marks obtained in that subject. Use heap data
structure. Analyze the algorithm.
ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

To solve the problem of finding the maximum and minimum marks obtained by students in a
particular subject using a heap data structure, we can implement two approaches:

1. Max-Heap for finding the maximum mark.

2. Min-Heap for finding the minimum mark.

A heap is a complete binary tree that satisfies the heap property:

 Max-Heap: The key at the root is greater than or equal to the keys of its children, and the
same property applies to all nodes in the tree.
 Min-Heap: The key at the root is less than or equal to the keys of its children, and the
same property applies to all nodes.

We can use the Max-Heap to find the maximum mark by accessing the root (which will always
contain the maximum value). Similarly, we can use the Min-Heap to find the minimum mark by
accessing the root (which will always contain the minimum value).

Steps:
 1. Max-Heap: Build a max-heap of the marks and the root of the heap will contain the
maximum mark.
2. Min-Heap: Build a min-heap of the marks and the root of the heap will contain the
minimum mark.

Algorithm:

1. Insert all the marks into the heap (either Max-Heap or Min-Heap).
2. Extract the root from the heap to get the maximum or minimum mark.

C++ Code Implementation:

cpp
Copy code
#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <algorithm>
#include <functional>

using namespace std;

class Heap {
private:
vector<int> heap;

// Helper function to maintain the heap property for Max-Heap

void heapifyUp(int index) {
while (index > 0 && heap[index] > heap[(index - 1) / 2]) {
swap(heap[index], heap[(index - 1) / 2]);
index = (index - 1) / 2;
}
}

// Helper function to maintain the heap property for Max-Heap

void heapifyDown(int index) {
int leftChild = 2 * index + 1;
int rightChild = 2 * index + 2;
int largest = index;

if (leftChild < heap.size() && heap[leftChild] > heap[largest]) {

largest = leftChild;
}
if (rightChild < heap.size() && heap[rightChild] > heap[largest]) {
largest = rightChild;
}
if (largest != index) {
swap(heap[index], heap[largest]);
heapifyDown(largest);
}
}

public:
// Insert a new element into the heap
void insert(int value) {
 heap.push_back(value);
heapifyUp(heap.size() - 1);
}

// Remove and return the root element (maximum for max-heap)

int extractRoot() {
if (heap.size() == 0) {
throw runtime_error("Heap is empty");
}

int root = heap[0];

heap[0] = heap.back();
heap.pop_back();
heapifyDown(0);

return root;
}

// Get the size of the heap

int size() {
return heap.size();
}
};

int main() {
Heap maxHeap;
Heap minHeap;
vector<int> marks = {85, 92, 78, 90, 65, 88, 76, 94, 71, 89}; // Sample
marks

// Insert marks into both heaps

for (int mark : marks) {
maxHeap.insert(mark); // Max-Heap to find the maximum
minHeap.insert(mark); // Min-Heap to find the minimum
}

// Find the maximum mark using max-heap

int maxMark = maxHeap.extractRoot();
cout << "Maximum Marks: " << maxMark << endl;

// Find the minimum mark using min-heap

int minMark = minHeap.extractRoot();
cout << "Minimum Marks: " << minMark << endl;

return 0;
}

Explanation of the Code:

1. Heap Class:
o The heap is represented as a vector (heap).
o heapifyUp and heapifyDown are helper functions used to maintain the heap
property after insertions and deletions, respectively.
 o insert adds a new element to the heap and maintains the heap property by
calling heapifyUp.
o extractRoot removes and returns the root of the heap (which will be either
the
maximum or the minimum, depending on whether it’s a Max-Heap or Min-Heap).
2. Main Function:
o We initialize two heaps, one for the Max-Heap and one for the Min-Heap.
o We insert the marks of students into both heaps.
o Finally, we extract the root from the Max-Heap to get the maximum mark and
the root from the Min-Heap to get the minimum mark.

Time Complexity:

1. Insertion: Inserting a single element into a heap takes O(log⁡n)O(\log n)O(logn), where
nnn is the number of elements in the heap. For nnn elements, the total time for inserting
all elements is O(nlog⁡n)O(n \log n)O(nlogn).
2. Extracting Root: Extracting the root of a heap takes O(log⁡n)O(\log n)O(logn), since we
need to maintain the heap property after removal.

Space Complexity:

 The space complexity is O(n)O(n)O(n), where nnn is the number of elements in the heap,
as we are storing all the marks in the heap.

Output:

For the example marks in the code ({85, 92, 78, 90, 65, 88, 76, 94, 71, 89}), the
output will be:

yaml
Copy code
Maximum Marks: 94
Minimum Marks: 65

Summary:

 Max-Heap is used to extract the maximum mark, while Min-Heap is used to extract the
minimum mark.
 The time complexity for inserting all marks is O(nlog⁡n)O(n \log n)O(nlogn), and
extracting the maximum or minimum mark takes O(log⁡n)O(\log n)O(logn).
 The space complexity is O(n)O(n)O(n) because we store all the elements in the heap.

4o mini

You said:
Department maintains a student information. The file contains roll number, name, division and
address. Allow user to add, delete information of student. Display information of particular
employee. If record of student does not exist an appropriate message is displayed. If it is, then
the system displays the student details. Use sequential file to main the data.
ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

To implement a system that maintains student information using a sequential file, we'll create a
simple program that allows the user to add, delete, and display student information (using roll
number as the key). The system will store the student details in a sequential file, and if a student
doesn't exist, it will display an appropriate message.

The system will handle the following functionalities:

1. Add a new student: Add a student's details to the file.

2. Delete a student: Remove a student's details from the file.
3. Display student information: Display the details of a student given their roll number.
4. Search for a student: If a student does not exist, print a message.

Structure of the Program:

 Student Data: Each student has the following attributes:

o Roll Number
o Name
o Division
o Address
 File Structure: The student data will be stored in a file in a sequential manner. Each
record will be saved one after another. The file will store records in a text format.

C++ Code Implementation:

cpp
Copy code
#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>
#include <string>
using namespace std;

struct Student {
int rollNumber;
string name;
string division;
string address;
};

// Function to add a student record to the file

void addStudent(const string& filename) {
 ofstream file;
file.open(filename, ios::app); // Open file in append mode

if (!file) {
cout << "Error opening file." << endl;
return;
}

Student student;
cout << "Enter Roll Number: ";
cin >> student.rollNumber;
cin.ignore(); // To ignore any leftover newline character in input buffer
cout << "Enter Name: ";
getline(cin, student.name);
cout << "Enter Division: ";
getline(cin, student.division);
cout << "Enter Address: ";
getline(cin, student.address);

// Write the student data to the file

file << student.rollNumber << "\n" << student.name << "\n" <<
student.division << "\n" << student.address << "\n";

file.close();
cout << "Student record added successfully!" << endl;
}

// Function to delete a student record from the file

void deleteStudent(const string& filename) {
ifstream file(filename);
ofstream tempFile("temp.txt");

if (!file || !tempFile) {
cout << "Error opening file." << endl;
return;
}

int rollNumber;
cout << "Enter Roll Number to delete: ";
cin >> rollNumber;

bool found = false;

Student student;
while (file >> student.rollNumber) {
file.ignore(); // Ignore newline after reading roll number
getline(file, student.name);
getline(file, student.division);
getline(file, student.address);

// If the roll number matches, we do not copy it to the temp file

if (student.rollNumber != rollNumber) {
tempFile << student.rollNumber << "\n" << student.name << "\n" <<
student.division << "\n" << student.address << "\n";
} else {
found = true; // Mark as found and skip adding to the temp file
}
}
 file.close();
tempFile.close();

// Replace original file with temp file

if (found) {
remove(filename.c_str());
rename("temp.txt", filename.c_str());
cout << "Student record deleted successfully!" << endl;
} else {
cout << "Student with roll number " << rollNumber << " not found." <<
endl;
remove("temp.txt"); // Delete the temporary file
}
}

// Function to display a student's information based on roll number

void displayStudent(const string& filename) {
ifstream file(filename);

if (!file) {
cout << "Error opening file." << endl;
return;
}

int rollNumber;
cout << "Enter Roll Number to display: ";
cin >> rollNumber;

bool found = false;

Student student;
while (file >> student.rollNumber) {
file.ignore(); // Ignore newline after reading roll number
getline(file, student.name);
getline(file, student.division);
getline(file, student.address);

if (student.rollNumber == rollNumber) {
found = true;
cout << "\nStudent Information:" << endl;
cout << "Roll Number: " << student.rollNumber << endl;
cout << "Name: " << student.name << endl;
cout << "Division: " << student.division << endl;
cout << "Address: " << student.address << endl;
break;
}
}

if (!found) {
cout << "Student with roll number " << rollNumber << " not found." <<
endl;
}

file.close();
}

// Main function to provide a menu for user interaction

int main() {
string filename = "students.txt"; // File to store student information
int choice;

do {
cout << "\nStudent Information System" << endl;
cout << "1. Add Student" << endl;
cout << "2. Delete Student" << endl;
cout << "3. Display Student Information" << endl;
cout << "4. Exit" << endl;
cout << "Enter your choice: ";
cin >> choice;

switch (choice) {
case 1:
addStudent(filename);
break;
case 2:
deleteStudent(filename);
break;
case 3:
displayStudent(filename);
break;
case 4:
cout << "Exiting the system." << endl;
break;
default:
cout << "Invalid choice. Please try again." << endl;
}
} while (choice != 4);

return 0;
}

Explanation:

1. Student Structure: This structure represents each student’s details (roll number, name,
division, and address).
2. Add Student (addStudent): This function opens the file in append mode, takes student
details from the user, and writes them to the file in a sequential manner. It appends the
data at the end of the file.
3. Delete Student (deleteStudent): This function reads the file sequentially, and writes all
the records into a temporary file except for the record that needs to be deleted. Afterward,
the original file is replaced with the temporary file.
4. Display Student (displayStudent): This function searches for the student by their roll
number and displays their information. If the student is not found, it prints a message
saying that the student with the given roll number does not exist.
5. Main Menu: The program keeps displaying a menu for the user to choose whether to
add, delete, or display student information. The loop continues until the user chooses to
exit.

Key Concepts:
  Sequential File: We use a simple text file (students.txt) to store student information.
The data is written and read sequentially.
 Temporary File: For the delete operation, we use a temporary file to write all records
except the one to be deleted. After deleting, the original file is replaced with the
temporary file.

Time Complexity:

 Add Operation: Writing to the file is an O(1)O(1)O(1) operation since we just append
the record.
 Delete Operation: In the worst case, we need to traverse the entire file (i.e.,
O(n)O(n)O(n), where nnn is the number of records) to find the student to be deleted.
 Display Operation: Similarly, to display the student information, the time complexity is
O(n)O(n)O(n) in the worst case (if the student is at the end or does not exist).

Space Complexity:

 Space: The space complexity is O(n)O(n)O(n) due to the storage required for the file
(which contains all student records).

Example Output:

Assuming the file is empty, the user might interact as follows:

mathematica
Copy code
Student Information System
1. Add Student
2. Delete Student
3. Display Student Information
4. Exit
Enter your choice: 1

Enter Roll Number: 101

Enter Name: John Doe
Enter Division: A
Enter Address: 123 Street Name

Student record added successfully!

Student Information System

1. Add Student
2. Delete Student
3. Display Student Information
4. Exit
Enter your choice: 3

Enter Roll Number to display: 101

Student Information:
Roll Number: 101
Name: John Doe
Division: A
Address: 123 Street Name

If the user tries to delete a student with a non-existent roll number, the system will notify them
that the student was not found.

4o mini

You said:

Company maintains employee information as employee ID, name, designation and salary. Allow
user to add, delete information of employee. Display information of particular employee. If
employee does not exist an appropriate message is displayed. If it is, then the system displays the
employee details. Use index sequential file to maintain the data.
ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

In order to implement a system that maintains employee information (such as employee ID,
name, designation, and salary) using an index-sequential file, we need to store the data in two
parts:

1. Data File: This file stores the actual records (employee details).
2. Index File: This file maintains an index that maps employee IDs to the positions of their
corresponding records in the data file. This helps in quick access and deletion of records.

Approach:

 Index File: For each employee, we store a pair of (Employee ID, File Position) in
the index file. This allows us to quickly find where a record is stored in the data file.
 Data File: This stores the employee information in a sequential manner.

We will also handle the following operations:

1. Add Employee: Add a new employee's information to both the data file and index file.
2. Delete Employee: Delete an employee's record from both the data file and index file.
3. Display Employee: Display the details of a particular employee based on their employee
ID.

Steps to Implement:

1. Add an Employee:
o Write the employee's data to the data file.
o Update the index file with the employee's ID and the position of their data in the
data file.
 2. Delete an Employee:
o Locate the employee using the index file.
o Delete the record from the data file by shifting the subsequent records.
o Update the index file to remove the entry for that employee.
3. Display Employee:
o Search the index file for the employee's ID.
o If found, access the corresponding data from the data file and display it.

C++ Code Implementation:

cpp
Copy code
#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>
#include <string>
#include <vector>
#include <sstream>

using namespace std;

struct Employee {
int id;
string name;
string designation;
double salary;

// Function to display employee information

void display() const {
cout << "Employee ID: " << id << endl;
cout << "Name: " << name << endl;
cout << "Designation: " << designation << endl;
cout << "Salary: " << salary << endl;
}
};

// Function to add a new employee to the data file and index file
void addEmployee(const string& dataFile, const string& indexFile) {
ofstream data(dataFile, ios::app);
ofstream index(indexFile, ios::app);

if (!data || !index) {
cout << "Error opening file." << endl;
return;
}

Employee emp;
cout << "Enter Employee ID: ";
cin >> emp.id;
cin.ignore(); // To ignore the newline character after the integer input
cout << "Enter Name: ";
getline(cin, emp.name);
cout << "Enter Designation: ";
getline(cin, emp.designation);
cout << "Enter Salary: ";
 cin >> emp.salary;

// Write employee data to the data file

data << emp.id << "\n" << emp.name << "\n" << emp.designation << "\n" <<
emp.salary << "\n";

// Get the current position in the file (position of this employee record)
streampos position = data.tellp(); // position of the record after writing

// Write the index (employee id and the position in the data file)
index << emp.id << " " << position << "\n";

cout << "Employee added successfully!" << endl;

}

// Function to delete an employee from the data and index file

void deleteEmployee(const string& dataFile, const string& indexFile) {
ifstream index(indexFile);
ifstream data(dataFile);
ofstream tempData("temp_data.txt");
ofstream tempIndex("temp_index.txt");

if (!data || !index || !tempData || !tempIndex) {

cout << "Error opening file." << endl;
return;
}

int empIdToDelete;
cout << "Enter Employee ID to delete: ";
cin >> empIdToDelete;

bool found = false;

vector<pair<int, streampos>> indexEntries;

// Read all index entries and store them

int id;
streampos pos;
while (index >> id >> pos) {
indexEntries.push_back({id, pos});
}

// Read data and write to temp files, skipping the deleted record
Employee emp;
while (data >> emp.id) {
data.ignore(); // Ignore newline after reading id
getline(data, emp.name);
getline(data, emp.designation);
data >> emp.salary;
data.ignore();

if (emp.id == empIdToDelete) {
found = true; // Mark that the employee was found
continue; // Skip writing this record
}

tempData << emp.id << "\n" << emp.name << "\n" << emp.designation <<
"\n" << emp.salary << "\n";
 }

// Write remaining index entries to temp file

for (const auto& entry : indexEntries) {
if (entry.first != empIdToDelete) {
tempIndex << entry.first << " " << entry.second << "\n";
}
}

data.close();
index.close();
tempData.close();
tempIndex.close();

// Replace original files with temp files

if (found) {
remove(dataFile.c_str());
remove(indexFile.c_str());
rename("temp_data.txt", dataFile.c_str());
rename("temp_index.txt", indexFile.c_str());
cout << "Employee record deleted successfully!" << endl;
} else {
cout << "Employee not found!" << endl;
remove("temp_data.txt");
remove("temp_index.txt");
}
}

// Function to display an employee's information based on their ID

void displayEmployee(const string& dataFile, const string& indexFile) {
ifstream index(indexFile);
ifstream data(dataFile);

if (!data || !index) {
cout << "Error opening file." << endl;
return;
}

int empIdToDisplay;
cout << "Enter Employee ID to display: ";
cin >> empIdToDisplay;

bool found = false;

int id;
streampos position;

// Read the index to find the position of the required employee

while (index >> id >> position) {
if (id == empIdToDisplay) {
found = true;
break;
}
}

if (found) {
// Move to the employee's data position in the data file
data.seekg(position);
 Employee emp;
data >> emp.id;
data.ignore();
getline(data, emp.name);
getline(data, emp.designation);
data >> emp.salary;

// Display employee details

emp.display();
} else {
cout << "Employee with ID " << empIdToDisplay << " not found." <<
endl;
}

data.close();
index.close();
}

// Main function to interact with the user

int main() {
string dataFile = "employee_data.txt";
string indexFile = "employee_index.txt";

int choice;
do {
cout << "\nEmployee Information System" << endl;
cout << "1. Add Employee" << endl;
cout << "2. Delete Employee" << endl;
cout << "3. Display Employee Information" << endl;
cout << "4. Exit" << endl;
cout << "Enter your choice: ";
cin >> choice;

switch (choice) {
case 1:
addEmployee(dataFile, indexFile);
break;
case 2:
deleteEmployee(dataFile, indexFile);
break;
case 3:
displayEmployee(dataFile, indexFile);
break;
case 4:
cout << "Exiting the system." << endl;
break;
default:
cout << "Invalid choice. Please try again." << endl;
}
} while (choice != 4);

return 0;
}

Explanation of the Code:

 1. Employee Structure: Each employee has an id, name, designation, and salary. The
display function prints these details.
2. Add Employee (addEmployee):
o The function writes the employee's data to the data file and the index file.
o The data file stores the actual employee data, while the index file stores the
employee ID along with the position of the corresponding record in the data file.
3. Delete Employee (deleteEmployee):
o The function searches for the employee ID in the index file.
o Once found, it skips that employee's data in the data file and writes the remaining
records to a temporary file.
o The index file is updated to remove the entry corresponding to the deleted
employee.
4. Display Employee (displayEmployee):
o The function searches for the employee ID in the index file and, if found, retrieves
and displays the corresponding record from the data file.
5. Main Menu:
o The program provides a menu for the user to add, delete, or display employee
information. The menu loops until the user chooses to exit.

Time Complexity:

1. Add Employee: Writing to the data file and the index file is O(1)O(1)O(1) for each
operation.
2. Delete Employee: Searching for the employee ID in the index file takes O(n)O(n)O(n),
and removing the record from the data file also takes O(n)O(n)O(n) because the records
need to be shifted.
3. Display Employee: Searching for the employee ID in the index file is O(n)O(n)O(n), and
accessing the data file is O(1)O(1)O(1) once the position is found.

Space Complexity:

 Data File: Stores all employee records, so the space complexity is O(n)O(n)O(n), where
nnn is the number of employees.
 Index File: Stores the indices, so its space complexity is also O(n)O(n)O(n).

Example Output:
mathematica
Copy code
Employee Information System
1. Add Employee
2. Delete Employee
3. Display Employee Information
4. Exit
Enter your choice: 1

Enter Employee ID: 101

Enter Name: John Doe
Enter Designation: Software Engineer
Enter Salary: 55000
Employee added successfully!

Employee Information System

1. Add Employee
2. Delete Employee
3. Display Employee Information
4. Exit
Enter your choice: 3
Enter Employee ID to display: 101
Employee ID: 101
Name: John Doe
Designation: Software Engineer
Salary: 55000

This system allows efficient management of employee records using an index-sequential file
structure, providing quick access to records for display and deletion.