LIST OF EXPERIMENT

S.No Name of the Experiment Page No

1. Concept design with E-R Model 3
2. Draw E-R diagram and convert entities and 5
relationships to relation table for a given scenario.
a.Two assignments shall be carried out i.e., consider
two different scenarios (eg.bank, college)

3. Relational Model 10
4. Write relational algebra queries for a given set of 12
relations
5. Perform the following : 16
a)creating a Database ,Viewing all databases, ,
Viewing all Tables in a database (with and
without Constraints), Backing up/Restoring a
Database.

6. Practicing DDL commands 18

7. Practicing DML commands 21
8. Queries using Aggregate Operators, 27
Queries using Group by and Having clauses ,Date
Functions, String Functions, Math Functions.

9. For a given set of Relation tables perform the 36

following
a. Creating Views (with and without check
option), Dropping views, Selecting from a view
10. Normalization 39

11. Queries using UNION, INTERSECT, EXCEPT, IN, ANY, 43

ALL, EXISTS.
Join Queries-Inner Join, Outer Join

12. Queries using Nested, Correlated sub queries, Sub 52

queries-With In clause, With Exists Clause

13. Write a PL/SQL Program using FOR loop to insert 54

ten rows into a database table.

1
 14. Given the table EMPLOYEE (Emp No, Name, 55
Salary, Designation, Dept Id) write cursor to select
the five highest paid employees from the table.

15. Given an integer, Write a PL/SQL procedure to insert 57

the tuple(1,’xx’) into a given relation
16. Queries for creating triggers 58

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Database Management Systems, Raghurama Krishnan, Johannes Gehrke, Tata Mc
Graw Hill, 3rd Edition
2. Database System Concepts, Silberschatz, Korth, McGraw Hill, V edition.

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Database Systems design, Implementation, and Management, Peter Rob & Carlos
Coronel 7th Edition.
2. Fundamentals of Database Systems, Elmasri Navrate, Pearson Education
3. Introduction to Database Systems, C.J. Date, Pearson Education
4. Oracle for Professionals, The X Team, S. Shah and V. Shah, SPD.
5. Database Systems Using Oracle: A Simplified guide to SQL and PL/SQL, Shah, PHI.
6. Fundamentals of Database Management Systems, M. L. Gillenson, Wiley Student Edition.

E- RESOURCES:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q1kQ1vgW7D8

2
EXPERIMENT 1

Concept design with E-R Model

Analyze the problem with the entities which identify data persisted in the database which
contains entities and attributes.
Objectives

Student will be able to learn the Entity-Relationship(ER) modeling to develop a conceptual

model of data.

Outcomes

Student gains the ability

 About business rules, notations and constructs.
 To Construct E-R diagrams including:
Entities (strong, weak, associative)

Attributes (simple, multi-valued, derived)

Relations (unary, binary, ternary)

E-R diagram: An entity-relationship(ER) diagram is a specified graphical representation that
illustrates the interrelationships between entities in a database. We can express the overall
logical structure of database graphically with an E-R diagram.
Entity: An Entity is an object or concept about which you want to store information

Relationship: A relationship is an association between several entities.

Attributes: An object is characterized by its properties or attributes. In relational database systems

attributes correspond to fields.

3
4
 EXPERIMENT 2

Draw E-R diagram and convert entities and relationships to relation table for a given
scenario.
Two assignments shall be carried out i.e., consider two different scenarios (eg.bank,
college)

ER diagram is known as Entity-Relationship diagram. It is used to analyze to structure of

the Database. It shows relationships between entities and their attributes. An ER model
provides a means of communication.

ER diagram of Bank has the following description :

 Bank have Customer.

 Banks are identified by a name, code, address of main office.
 Banks have branches.
 Branches are identified by a branch_no., branch_name, address.
 Customers are identified by name, cust-id, phone number, address.
 Customer can have one or more accounts.
 Accounts are identified by account_no., acc_type, balance.
 Customer can avail loans.
 Loans are identified by loan_id, loan_type and amount.
 Account and loans are related to bank’s branch.

ER Diagram of Bank Management System :

5
 This bank ER diagram illustrates key information about bank, including entities such as
branches, customers, accounts, and loans. It allows us to understand the relationships
between entities.

Entities and their Attributes are :

 Bank Entity : Attributes of Bank Entity are Bank Name, Code and Address.
Code is Primary Key for Bank Entity.
 Customer Entity : Attributes of Customer Entity are Customer_id, Name, Phone
Number and Address.
Customer_id is Primary Key for Customer Entity.
 Branch Entity : Attributes of Branch Entity are Branch_id, Name and Address.
Branch_id is Primary Key for Branch Entity.
 Account Entity : Attributes of Account Entity are Account_number, Account_Type and
Balance.
Account_number is Primary Key for Account Entity.
 Loan Entity : Attributes of Loan Entity are Loan_id, Loan_Type and Amount.
Loan_id is Primary Key for Loan Entity.

-- Bank Entity Table

CREATE TABLE Bank ( Code INT PRIMARY KEY, BankName VARCHAR(255),
Address VARCHAR(255));
6
 -- Customer Entity Table
CREATE TABLE Customer ( Customer_id INT PRIMARY KEY, Name
VARCHAR(255), Phone_Number VARCHAR(20), Address VARCHAR(255));
-- Branch Entity Table
CREATE TABLE Branch ( Branch_id INT PRIMARY KEY,
Name VARCHAR(255), Address VARCHAR(255));
-- Account Entity Table
CREATE TABLE Account ( Account_number INT PRIMARY KEY, Account_Type
VARCHAR(50), Balance DECIMAL(10,2));
-- Loan Entity Table
CREATE TABLE Loan ( Loan_id INT PRIMARY KEY, Loan_Type VARCHAR(50),
Amount DECIMAL(10,2));

ER Diagram of College Management System :

The ER diagram is given below:

There are some points for converting the ER diagram to the table:

o Entity type becomes a table.

7
 In the given ER diagram, LECTURE, STUDENT, SUBJECT and COURSE forms
individual tables.

o All single-valued attribute becomes a column for the table.

In the STUDENT entity, STUDENT_NAME and STUDENT_ID form the column of

STUDENT table. Similarly, COURSE_NAME and COURSE_ID form the column of
COURSE table and so on.

o A key attribute of the entity type represented by the primary key.

In the given ER diagram, COURSE_ID, STUDENT_ID, SUBJECT_ID, and

LECTURE_ID are the key attribute of the entity.

o The multivalued attribute is represented by a separate table.

In the student table, a hobby is a multivalued attribute. So it is not possible to represent

multiple values in a single column of STUDENT table. Hence we create a table
STUD_HOBBY with column name STUDENT_ID and HOBBY. Using both the column,
we create a composite key.

o Composite attribute represented by components.

In the given ER diagram, student address is a composite attribute. It contains CITY, PIN,
DOOR#, STREET, and STATE. In the STUDENT table, these attributes can merge as an
individual column.

o Derived attributes are not considered in the table.

In the STUDENT table, Age is the derived attribute. It can be calculated at any point of
time by calculating the difference between current date and Date of Birth.

Using these rules, you can convert the ER diagram to tables and columns and assign the
mapping between the tables. Table structure for the given ER diagram is as below:

8
Figure: Table structure

-- Student Table
CREATE TABLE Student ( Student_ID INT PRIMARY KEY, Student_Name
VARCHAR(255), Date_of_Birth DATE, City VARCHAR(100), Pin INT,
Door_Number VARCHAR(50),Street VARCHAR(100), State VARCHAR(100));

-- Course Table
CREATE TABLE Course ( Course_ID INT PRIMARY KEY,Course_Name
VARCHAR(255));

-- Subject Table
CREATE TABLE Subject ( Subject_ID INT PRIMARY KEY,Subject_Name
VARCHAR(255));

-- Lecture Table
CREATE TABLE Lecture ( Lecture_ID INT PRIMARY KEY, Lecture_Name
VARCHAR(255));

-- Student-Hobby Table (for multivalued attribute)

CREATE TABLE Student_Hobby ( Student_ID INT,Hobby VARCHAR(255),
PRIMARY KEY (Student_ID, Hobby), FOREIGN KEY (Student_ID) REFERENCES
Student(Student_ID));

9
EXPERIMENT 3
Relational Model
AIM

Relation Model represents attributes as columns in tables and different types of attributes like
composite, Multi-valued and Derived.

Objectives

Student will be able to learn the structural components of the relational data model. Student will be able
to learn relational models(tables).

Outcomes:

Student gains the ability

 To describe the Model Structure.
 To define Properties of Relations.
 To define Domains.
 To implement Notations to Describe the Relational Schema

COLUMNNAME DATATYPE CONSTRAINT

BusNo varchar2(10) PrimaryKey

Source varchar2(20)

Destination varchar2(20)

CoachType varchar2(20)

Example: The passenger tables look as below. This is an example.

BUS RELATION

10
 COLUMNNAME DATATYPE CONSTRAINT

Ticket_No number(9) PrimaryKey

Journeydate Date
Age int(4)
Sex Char(10)
Source varchar2(10)
Destination varchar2(10)
Dep-time varchar2(10)
BusNo Number2(10)

TICKET RELATION

Busno Source destination

AP11Z 5467 Hyderabad Vijayawada

AP29Z 1945 Hyderabad Vizag

AP28Z 3489 Hyderabad Warangal

Ppno Name Age Sex Address Phone_no

A-1290 Raju 40 Male Hyderabad 9966678888
B-1256 Ramu 30 Male Secunderabad 9949116666
B-5687 Teja 20 Female Hyderabad 9944666772

11
EXPERIMENT 4.

Write relational algebra queries for a given set of relations.

AIM: The goal of a relational algebra query language is to fetch data from database or to perform various
operations like delete, insert, update on the data.

Relational algebra in DBMS is a procedural query language and main foundation of Relational Algebra is
the Relational Database and SQL.

Relational Algebra Operations in DBMS

Different Relational algebra operations in DBMS are listed here .

 Select
 Project
 Union
 Set different
 Cartesian product

Consider two relations French, German

FRENCH GERMAN

Student_Name Roll_Number Student_Name Roll_Number

Ram 01 Vivek 13

Mohan 02 Geeta 17

Vivek 13 Shyam 21

Geeta 17 Rohan 25

1.Selection(σ): It is used to select required tuples of the relations.

For the above relation, we select the tuples where student name =’vivek’

Query: σ (Student_Name=’vivek’)FRENCH

OUTPUT:
Student_Name Roll_Number

Vivek 13

12
2. Projection(π): It is used to project required column data from a relation.

Query : π(Student_Name) FRENCH

OUTPUT:
Student_Name

Ram

Mohan

Vivek

Geeta

3. Union(U): Union operation in relational algebra is the same as union operation in set theory.

Query : π(Student_Name)FRENCH U π(Student_Name)GERMAN

OUTPUT:

Student_Name

Ram

Mohan

Vivek

Geeta

Shyam

Rohan

Note: The only constraint in the union of two relations is that both relations must have the
same set of Attributes.
13
4.Set Difference(-): Set Difference in relational algebra is the same set difference operation as
in set theory.
Example: From the above table of FRENCH and GERMAN, Set Difference is used as follows
Query: π(Student_Name)FRENCH - π(Student_Name)GERMAN
OUTPUT:

Student_Name

Ram

Mohan

Note: The only constraint in the Set Difference between two relations is that both relations
must have the same set of Attributes.

5. Set Intersection(∩): Set Intersection in relational algebra is the same set intersection operation in set
theory.
Example: From the above table of FRENCH and GERMAN, the Set Intersection is used as follows

Query : π(Student_Name)FRENCH ∩ π(Student_Name)GERMAN

OUTPUT:

Student_Name

Vivek

Geeta

Note: The only constraint in the Set Difference between two relations is that both relations must
have the same set of Attributes.

6.Cross Product(X): Cross-product between two relations. Let’s say A and B, so the cross
product between A X B will result in all the attributes of A followed by each attribute of B.
Each record of A will pair with every record of B.
Example:

14
A B

ID Course
Name Age Sex
1 DS
Ram 14 M
2 DBMS
Sona 15 F AXB

Kim 20 M

Name Age Sex ID Course

Ram 14 M 1 DS

Ram 14 M 2 DBMS

Sona 15 F 1 DS

Sona 15 F 2 DBMS

Kim 20 M 1 DS

Kim 20 M 2 DBMS

Note: If A has ‘n’ tuples and B has ‘m’ tuples then A X B will have ‘ n*m ‘ tuples.

15
EXPERIMENT 5

Perform the following :

a)creating a Database ,Viewing all databases, , Viewing all Tables in a database (with and
without Constraints), Backing up/Restoring a Database.

Creating a Database:

The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a new SQL database.

Syntax
CREATE DATABASE databasename;

EX. CREATE DATABASE testDB;

a) Select database
Syntax
USE DATABASE NAME
EX. USE testDB;

b) Viewing all databases

Syntax
SHOW DATABASES;

c) Viewing all Tables in a database (with and without Constraints)

Syntax
SHOW TABLES;

d) Backing up/Restoring a Database.

The BACKUP DATABASE statement is used in SQL Server to create a full back up of an existing SQL
database.
Syntax
BACKUP DATABASE databasename TO DISK = 'filepath';

Example:
16
BACKUP DATABASE testDB TO DISK = 'D:\backups\testDB.bak';

EXPERIMENT 6
Practicing DDL commands
Objectives
Student will be able to learn DDL Statements to Create and Manage Tables.

Outcomes

Student gains the ability to

• Categorize the main database objects

• Review the table structure

• List the data types that are available for columns

Data Type Description • Create

Integer -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 a simple
table
real -3.40E + 38 to 3.40E + 38
float -1.79E + 308 to 1.79E + 308
•
CHAR Fixed length with maximum length of 8,000 characters
VARCHAR Variable length storage with maximum length of 8,000 •
characters •
VARCHAR(max) Variable length storage with provided max characters •
•
DATE Stores date in the format YYYY-MM-DD
•
TIME Stores time in the format HH:MI:SS
DATETIME Stores date and time information in the format YYYY-MM- •
DD HH:MI:SS •
•
Describe how constraints are created at the time of table creation
• Describe how schema objects work.

Basic Data Types in SQL

17
 SQL-Structured Query Language
AIM : Creating Tables and altering the Tables

Mysql>Create table passenger2(passportId Integer Primary Key, Name varchar(10)

NotNull, Age Integer Not Null, Sex char, Address varchar(20) Not Null);

Mysql> desc passenger2;

USING ALTER COMMAND

Adding Extra column to Existing Table

Mysql>Alter table passenger3 add column TicketNo varchar(10);

18
19
Mysql>Alter Table passenger3 add Foreign key(TicketNo) references Ticket(TicketNo);

Mysql>Alter Table passenger3 Modify column Name varchar(20);

20
Mysql>Alter table passenger drop foreign key fk1;

Mysql> Alter table passenger2 Drop column TicketNo;

21
 EXPERIMENT 7
DML COMMANDS

AIM: Create a DML Commands are used to manage data within the scheme objects.
Objectives:
Student will be able to learn commands that make changes in relational database and transaction
management.
Outcomes

Student gains the knowledge to perform transactions like updating, deleting, inserting and selecting
data from a data base.

DML Commands:

INSERT COMMAND ON BUS2 & PASSENGER2 RELATIONS

mysql> select * from Bus2; Empty set (0.00 sec)

mysql> insert into Bus2 values(1234,'Hyderabad','Tirupathi'); Query OK, 1 row affected

(0.03 sec)

mysql> insert into Bus2 values(2345,'Hyderabad','Banglore'); Query OK, 1 row affected

(0.01 sec)

mysql> insert into Bus2 values(23,'Hyderabad','Kolkata'); Query OK, 1 row affected (0.03

sec)

mysql> insert into Bus2 values(45,'Tirupathi','Banglore'); Query OK, 1 row affected (0.03

sec)

mysql> insert into Bus2 values(34,'Hyderabad','Chennai'); Query OK, 1 row affected (0.03

sec)

mysql> select * from Bus2;

22
mysql> select * from Passenger2; Empty set (0.00 sec)

mysql> insert into Passenger2 values(145,'Ramesh',45,'M','abc123'); Query OK, 1 row

affected (0.05 sec)

mysql> insert into Passenger2 values(278,'Geetha',36,'F','abc124'); Query OK, 1 row

affected (0.02 sec)

mysql> insert into Passenger2 values(4590,'Ram',30,'M','abc12'); Query OK, 1 row

affected (0.03 sec)

mysql> insert into Passenger2 values(6789,'Ravi',50,'M','abc14'); Query OK, 1 row

affected (0.03 sec)

mysql> insert into Passenger2 values(5622,'Seetha',32,'F','abc55'); Query OK, 1 row

affected (0.03 sec)

23
mysql> select * from Passenger2;

24
UPDATE COMMAND ON BUS2 RELATION

UPDATE Selected Rows & Multiple Rows

mysql> Update Bus2 SET Source='Secundrabad' where BusNo=1234; Query OK, 1 row

affected (0.05 sec) Rows matched: 1 Changed: 1 Warnings: 0

25
DELETE COMMAND ON BUS2 RELATION

DELETES Selected Rows and Multiple Rows

mysql> Delete from Bus2 where BusNo=1234; Query OK, 1 row affected (0.05 sec) mysql>

select * from Bus2;

26
mysql> Delete from Bus2 where Source=’Secundrabad’; Query OK, 1 row affected

(0.05 sec) mysql> select * from Bus2;

Queries using Aggregate Operators,

Queries using Group by and Having clauses ,Date Functions, String Functions, Math Functions.

27
 EXPERIMENT 8
For a given set of relation Schemas, Create tables and perform the following
Simple Queries, Simple Queries with Aggregate functions, Queries
with aggregate functions (group by
And having clause), Queries involving –Date Functions, String Functions,
Math Functions.

AIM :-
Queriesusingaggregatefunctions(COUNT,AVG,MIN,MAX,SU M),Group
by,Orderby,Having.

E_id E_nam Age Salary

e
101 Anu 22 9000
102 Shane 29 8000
103 Rohan 34 6000
104 Scott 44 10000
105 Tiger 35 8000
106 Alex 27 7000
107 Abhi 29 8000

(i) Create Employee table containing allRecords.

SQL> create table emp(eidnumber,ename varchar2(10),age
number,salary
number); Table created. SQL> desc emp;

Name Null Type

?
---------------------- -------------------------
------
-- --
EI ID
NNUMBER
E NAME VARCHAR2(10
A AGE )
NNUMBER
S SALARY NNUMBER

28
 (ii) Countnumber of employee names from employeetable.
SQL> select count(ename) from emp; COUNT(ENAME)
-------------------------
7
(iii)Find
the Maximum age from employeetable.
SQL> select max(age) from emp;
MAX(AGE)
----------------- 44
(iv) Find the Minimum age from employeetable.
SQL> select min(age) from emp;
MIN(AGE)
---------------- 22
Display the Sum of age employeetable.
SQL> select sum(age) from emp;
SUM(AGE)
---------------- 220
Display the Average of age from Employeetable.
SQL> select avg(age) from emp; AVG(AGE)
---------------- 31.4285714
Create a View for age in employeetable.
SQL> create or replace view A as select age from emp where age<30; View created.
Displayviews
SQL> select * from A;
AGE
22
29
27
29

(v) Find grouped salaries of employees.(group byclause)

SQL> select salary from emp group by salary;
SALARY
29
 --------------
9000
10000
8000
6000
7000
(x).Find salaries of employee in Ascending Order.(order by clause)
SQL> select ename,salary from emp order by salary;
ENAME SALARY
----------
------------
rohan 6000
alex 7000
shane 8000
abhi 8000
tiger 8000
anu 9000
sc 10000
ott 7 rowsselected.
(xi) Find salaries of employee in DescendingOrder.SQL> select ename,salary from emp
order by salary desc;
ENAME SALARY
-------------- ---------------
scott 10000
anu 9000
Shane 8000
Abhi 8000
Tiger 8000
Alex 7000
Rohan 6000
7 rows selected.
(xii) HavingClause.

30
 SQL> select ename,salary from emp where age<29 group by ename,salary having
salary<10000;
ENAME SALARY
----------- --------------
alex 7000
anu 9000
Date functions:
NOW()
Returns the current date and time.
Query:
SELECT NOW();
Output:

CURDATE()
Returns the current date.
Query:
SELECT CURDATE();
Output:

31
CURTIME()
Returns the current time.
Query:
SELECT CURTIME();
Output:

DATE()
Extracts the date part of a date or date/time expression. Example: For the below table
named ‘Test’

Id Name BirthTime

4120 Pratik 1996-09-26 16:44:15.581

Query:
SELECT Name, DATE(BirthTime)
AS BirthDate FROM Test;
Output:
Name BirthDate

Prati
1996-09-26
k

32
EXTRACT()
Returns a single part of a date/time.
Syntax
EXTRACT(unit FROM date);
Several units can be considered but only some are used such as MICROSECOND,
SECOND, MINUTE, HOUR, DAY, WEEK, MONTH, QUARTER, YEAR,
etc. And ‘date’ is a valid date expression. Example: For the below table named ‘Test’
Id Name BirthTime

4120 Pratik 1996-09-26 16:44:15.581

Query:
SELECT Name, Extract(DAY FROM
BirthTime) AS BirthDay FROM Test;
Output:
Name Birthday

Prati
26
k
Query:
SELECT Name, Extract(YEAR FROM BirthTime)
AS BirthYear FROM Test;
Output:
Name BirthYear

Pratik 1996
Query:
SELECT Name, Extract(SECOND FROM
BirthTime) AS BirthSecond FROM Test;
Output:

33
 Name BirthSecond

Prati
581
k

DATE_ADD()
Adds a specified time interval to a date.
Syntax:
DATE_ADD(date, INTERVAL expr type);
Where, date – valid date expression, and expr is the number of intervals we want to
add. and type can be one of the following: MICROSECOND, SECOND, MINUTE,
HOUR, DAY, WEEK, MONTH, QUARTER, YEAR, etc. Example: For the below
table named ‘Test’

Id Name BirthTime

4120 Pratik 1996-09-26 16:44:15.581

DATE_SUB()
Subtracts a specified time interval from a date. The syntax for DATE_SUB is the
same as DATE_ADD just the difference is that DATE_SUB is used to subtract a
given interval of date.

String functions

CONCAT(): Concatenates two or more strings together.

Example:

SELECT CONCAT('Hello ', 'World') AS concatenated_string;

Output:

+-------------------+
| concatenated_string |
+-------------------+
| Hello World |
34
+-------------------+

UPPER(): Converts a string to uppercase.

Example:

SELECT UPPER('hello') AS uppercase_string;

Output:

+------------------+
| uppercase_string |
+------------------+
| HELLO |
+------------------+
LOWER(): Converts a string to lowercase.

Example:

SELECT LOWER('WORLD') AS lowercase_string;

Output:

+------------------+
| lowercase_string |
+------------------+
| world |
+------------------+
LENGTH(): Returns the length of a string.

Example:

SELECT LENGTH('Hello World') AS string_length;

Output:

+--------------+
| string_length |
+--------------+
35
| 11 |
+--------------+
SUBSTRING(): Extracts a substring from a string.

Example:

SELECT SUBSTRING('Hello World', 7, 5) AS extracted_substring;

Output:

+-------------------+
| extracted_substring |
+-------------------+
| World |
+-------------------+
TRIM(): Removes leading and trailing spaces from a string.

Example:

SELECT TRIM(' Hello World ') AS trimmed_string;

Output:

+---------------+
| trimmed_string |
+---------------+
| Hello World |
+---------------+
REPLACE(): Replaces occurrences of a substring within a string with another substring.

Example:

SELECT REPLACE('Hello World', 'Hello', 'Hi') AS replaced_string;

Output:

+------------------+
| replaced_string |
+------------------+
| Hi World |
36
+------------------+

EXPERIMENT 9

For a given set of Relation tables perform the following

a. Creating Views (with and without check option), Dropping views, Selecting
from a view
a).Creating Views
Database views are created using the CREATE VIEW statement. Views can be created from a single
table, multiple tables or another view.

To create a view, a user must have the appropriate system privilege according to the specific
implementation.

The basic CREATE VIEW syntax is as follows −

CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2.....
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition];

You can include multiple tables in your SELECT statement in a similar way as you use them in a
normal SQL SELECT query

Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −

37
 ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY
1 Ramesh 32 Ahmedabad 2000.00
2 Khilan 25 Delhi 1500.00
3 kaushik 23 Kota 2000.00
4 Chaitali 25 Mumbai 6500.00
5 Hardik 27 Bhopal 8500.00
6 Komal 22 Mp 4500.00
7 Muffy 24 Indore 10000.00

Following is an example to create a view from the CUSTOMERS table. This view would be used to
have customer name and age from the CUSTOMERS table.

SQL > CREATE VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW AS

SELECT name, age
FROM CUSTOMERS;
SQL > CREATE VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW AS
SELECT name, age
FROM CUSTOMERS;
OUTPUT ;
NAME AGE
Ramesh 32
Khilan 25
kaushik 23
Chaitali 25
Hardik 27
Komal 22
Muffy 24

The WITH CHECK OPTION

The following code block has an example of creating same view CUSTOMERS_VIEW with the WITH CHECK
OPTION.

CREATE VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW AS

38
SELECT name, age
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE age IS NOT NULL
WITH CHECK OPTION;

Updating a View
SQL > UPDATE CUSTOMERS_VIEW
SET AGE = 35
WHERE name = 'Ramesh';

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 Ramesh 35 Ahmedabad 2000.00
2 Khilan 25 Delhi 1500.00
3 kaushik 23 Kota 2000.00
4 Chaitali 25 Mumbai 6500.00
5 Hardik 27 Bhopal 8500.00
6 Komal 22 Mp 4500.00
7 Muffy 24 Indore 10000.00

DELETING ROWS INTO A VIEW

Rows of data can be deleted from a view. The same rules that apply to the UPDATE and INSERT
commands apply to the DELETE command.
Following is an example to delete a record having AGE = 22.
SQL > DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS_VIEW
WHERE age = 22;
OUTPUT
ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY
1 Ramesh 35 Ahmedabad 2000.00
2 Khilan 25 Delhi 1500.00
3 kaushik 23 Kota 2000.00
4 Chaitali 25 Mumbai 6500.00
5 Hardik 27 Bhopal 8500.00
7 Muffy 24 Indore 10000.00

39
DROPPING VIEWS
DROP VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW;

EXPERIMENT 10
Normalization of tables

Objectives:
Student will be able to learn to avoid problems that are associated with updating redundant data.

Outcomes:

Student gains the knowledge to build the database that does not have redundant data.

Normalization

Database normalization is a technique for designing relational database tables to minimize

duplication of information and, in so doing, to safeguard the database against certain types of
logical or structural problems, namely data anomalies.

In relational databases, normalization is a process that eliminates redundancy, organizes data

efficiently; Normalization is the process of efficiently organizing data in a database. There are
two goals of the normalization process: eliminating redundant data(for example, storing the same
data in more than one table) and ensuring data dependencies make sense(only storing related data
in a table). Both of these are worthy goals as they reduce the amount of space a database
consumes and ensure that data is logically stored.

A basic objective of the first normal form defined by Edgar Frank "Ted" Codd in 1970 was to
permit data to be queried and manipulated using a "universal data sub-language" grounded in
first-order logic. (SQL is an example of such a data sub-language, albeit one that Codd regarded
as seriously flawed.)

The objectives of normalization beyond 1NF (First Normal Form) were stated as follows
by Codd:
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1. To free the collection of relations from undesirable insertion, update and deletion
dependencies;

2. To reduce the need for restructuring the collection of relations, as new types of data are
introduced, and thus increase the life span of application programs;

3. To make the relational model more informative to users;

4. To make the collection of relations neutral to the query statistics, where these statistics are
liable to change as time goes by.

To each customer corresponds a repeating group of transactions. The automated evaluation of any
query relating to customers' transactions therefore would broadly involve two stages:

1. Unpacking one or more customers' groups of transactions allowing the individual

transactions in a group to be examined, and

2. Deriving a query result based on the results of the first stage

For example, in order to find out the monetary sum of all transactions that occurred in October
2003 for all customers, the system would have to know that it must first unpack the Transactions
group of each customer, then sum the Amounts of all transactions thus obtained where the Date
of the transaction falls in October 2003.

One of Codd's important insights was that this structural complexity could always be removed
completely, leading to much greater power and flexibility in the way queries could be formulated
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(by users and applications) and evaluated (by the DBMS). The normalized equivalent of the
structure above would look like this:

Now each row represents an individual credit card transaction, and the DBMS can obtain the
answer of interest, simply by finding all rows with a Date falling in October, and summing their
Amounts. The data structure places all of the values on an equal footing, exposing each to the
DBMS directly, so each can potentially participate directly in queries; whereas in the previous
situation some values were embedded in lower-level structures that had to be handled specially.
Accordingly, the normalized design lends itself to general-purpose query processing, whereas the
unnormalized design does not.

A relation is in 1 NF if and only if all the domains(fields or columns) contain only atomic values(it
should not contain list of values or set of values)

A relation R is said to be in 2 NF if and only if it is in 1 NF(first normal form) and all non-prime

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attributes are fully functional dependent on the primary key

"A relation R is in 3NF, if it is in Second normal form, and not any non-prime attribute of the
relation is transitively dependent on the primary key.“

A relation R is said to be in BCNF if and only if it is in 3 NF and all the determinants are
candidate keys

For a table to satisfy the Fourth Normal Form, it should satisfy the following two conditions

It should be in the Boyce-Codd Normal Form.

And, the table should not have any Multi-valued Dependency

Fifth normal form (5NF)

A relation R is in 5NF if and only if it satisfies the following conditions:

R should be already in 4NF.

It cannot be further decomposed

5NF is satisfied when all the tables are broken into as many tables as possible in order to avoid
redundancy.

The broken smaller tables must satisfy join dependency. Means after joining the smaller tables we
must get the original table without losing any data.

5NF is also known as Project-join normal form (PJ/NF).

If there is any decomposition of the Relational Schema R there will be lossless decomposition in
join dependency. So, the 5NF is called as project-join normal form (PJNF).

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EXPERIMENT 11

QUERIES USING UNION, INTERSECT, EXCEPT, IN, ANY, ALL,

EXISTS
Objectives:

Student will be able to learn to operate on multiple result sets to return a single result set. Student
will be able to learn to perform nested Queries, Correlated Queries

UNIOR, INTERSECT AND EXCEPT

Q: Find the names of sailors who have reserved a red or a green boat.

Q: Find the names of sailors who have reserved both a red and a green boat.

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SELECT S.sname
From Sailors S, Reserves R, Boats B
Where S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=B.bid AND B.color=’red’
INTERSECT
SELECT S2.sname
From Sailors S2, Reserves R2, Boats B2
Where S2.sid=R2.sid AND R2.bid=B2.bid AND B2.color=’green’;

Q: Find the sids of all sailors who have reserved red boats but not green boats

Set-Comparison Operators

Q: Find sailors whose rating is better than some sailor called Horatio.

Q: Find the Sailors with the highest rating.

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SQL Join statement is used to combine data or rows from two or more tables based
on a common field between them.

Consider the two tables below as follows:

Student

StudentCourse

The simplest Join is INNER JOIN.

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A. INNER JOIN
The INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both the tables as long as the
condition is satisfied. This keyword will create the result-set by combining all rows
from both the tables where the condition satisfies i.e value of the common field will
be the same.

Example Queries(INNER JOIN)

This query will show the names and age of students enrolled in different courses.
SELECT StudentCourse.COURSE_ID, Student.NAME, Student.AGE FROM
Student
INNER JOIN StudentCourse
ON Student.ROLL_NO = StudentCourse.ROLL_NO;
Output:

Example Queries(LEFT JOIN):

SELECT Student.NAME,StudentCourse.COURSE_ID
FROM Student
LEFT JOIN StudentCourse
ON StudentCourse.ROLL_NO = Student.ROLL_NO;
Output:

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C. RIGHT JOIN
RIGHT JOIN is similar to LEFT JOIN. This join returns all the rows of the table on
the right side of the join and matching rows for the table on the left side of the join.
For the rows for which there is no matching row on the left side, the result-set will
contain null. RIGHT JOIN is also known as RIGHT OUTER JOIN.
Syntax:
SELECT table1.column1,table1.column2,table2.column1,....
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

table1: First table.

table2: Second table
matching_column: Column common to both the tables.
Note: We can also use RIGHT OUTER JOIN instead of RIGHT JOIN, both are the
same.

Example Queries(RIGHT JOIN):

SELECT Student.NAME,StudentCourse.COURSE_ID
FROM Student

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RIGHT JOIN StudentCourse
ON StudentCourse.ROLL_NO = Student.ROLL_NO;
Output:

D. FULL JOIN
FULL JOIN creates the result-set by combining results of both LEFT JOIN and
RIGHT JOIN. The result-set will contain all the rows from both tables. For the rows
for which there is no matching, the result-set will contain NULL values.

Syntax:
SELECT table1.column1,table1.column2,table2.column1,....
FROM table1
FULL JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

table1: First table.

table2: Second table
matching_column: Column common to both the tables.
Example Queries(FULL JOIN):
SELECT Student.NAME,StudentCourse.COURSE_ID
FROM Student
FULL JOIN StudentCourse
ON StudentCourse.ROLL_NO = Student.ROLL_NO;
Output:
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NAME COURSE_ID

HARSH 1

PRATIK 2

RIYANKA 2

DEEP 3

SAPTARHI 1

DHANRAJ NULL

ROHIT NULL

NIRAJ NULL

NULL 4

NULL 5

NULL 4

IN vs. EXISTS
IN Operator

The IN operator is used to retrieves results when the specified value matches any
value in a set of values or is returned by a subquery.

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 If we want to get all customer details whose occupation is either doctor, engineer,
or scientist, then we can use the statement as follows:

1. mysql> SELECT * FROM customer

2. WHERE occupation IN ('Doctor', 'Scientist', 'Engineer');

Here is the output:

EXISTS Operator

EXISTS is a Boolean operator which checks the subquery result and returns an
either TRUE or FALSE value. It is used in combination with subquery and checks
whether a row is returned through this subquery or not. This operator returns TRUE if
the subquery returns single or multiple records. Otherwise, it gives a FALSE result
when no records are returned.

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 If we want to get all customer names and occupation who has placed at least one
order, then we can use the statement as follows:

1. mysql> SELECT name, occupation FROM customer

2. WHERE EXISTS (SELECT * FROM Orders
3. WHERE customer.cust_id = Orders.cust_id);

Here is the output:

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EXPERIMENT 12

NESTED QUERIES
A nested query is a query that has another query embedded within it. The embedded query is
called a subquery. Outer and inner queries are completely independent of each other

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Q: Find the names of sailors who have reserved boat 103.

Q: Find the names of sailors who have reserved a red boat.

Q: Find the names of sailors who have not reserved a red boat.

Correlated Nested Queries

Outer and inner queries are dependent on each other

Q: Find the names of sailors who have reserved boat number 103.

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55
 EXPERIMENT 13

Write a PL/SQL Program using FOR loop to insert ten rows into a database table.

-- Create a table to store the data

CREATE TABLE example_table (
id NUMBER,
name VARCHAR2(50)
);

-- PL/SQL program to insert ten rows into the table

DECLARE
v_counter NUMBER := 1;
BEGIN
FOR i IN 1..10 LOOP
INSERT INTO example_table (id, name) VALUES (v_counter, 'Name ' ||
v_counter);
v_counter := v_counter + 1;
END LOOP;
COMMIT; -- Committing the transaction
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Ten rows inserted successfully.');
END;
/

Creates a table called example_table with columns id and name.

Declares a PL/SQL block that initializes a counter variable v_counter to 1.
Executes a FOR loop from 1 to 10, where each iteration inserts a row into the
example_table with the id incremented by 1 and the name set to 'Name 1', 'Name 2',
and so on.
Commits the transaction to save the changes to the database.
Prints a message confirming the successful insertion of ten rows.

Output:

Ten rows inserted successfully.

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 EXPERIMENT 14

Given the table EMPLOYEE (Emp No, Name, Salary, Designation, Dept Id) write
cursor to select the five highest paid employees from the table.

Declare Variables: Declare variables to hold employee information and loop counter.

sql:

DECLARE @EmpNo INT, @Name VARCHAR(50), @Salary DECIMAL(10,2),

@Designation VARCHAR(50), @DeptId INT, @Rank INT

Declare Cursor: Declare a cursor to fetch employee records ordered by salary in

descending order.

DECLARE employee_cursor CURSOR FOR SELECT EmpNo, Name, Salary,

Designation, DeptId, ROW_NUMBER() OVER (ORDER BY Salary DESC) AS Rank
FROM EMPLOYEE

Open Cursor: Open the cursor to start fetching records.

sql:

OPEN employee_cursor

Fetch Records: Fetch records one by one until the desired number of records are
fetched or until there are no more records.

sql:

FETCH NEXT FROM employee_cursor INTO @EmpNo, @Name, @Salary,

@Designation, @DeptId, @Rank

Process Records: Check if the fetched record's rank is within the top five. If it is, print
the employee information.

sql:
57
WHILE @@FETCH_STATUS = 0 AND @Rank <= 5 BEGIN PRINT 'EmpNo: ' +
CAST(@EmpNo AS VARCHAR(10)) + ', Name: ' + @Name + ', Salary: ' +
CAST(@Salary AS VARCHAR(10)) + ', Designation: ' + @Designation + ', DeptId: '
+ CAST(@DeptId AS VARCHAR(10)) FETCH NEXT FROM employee_cursor
INTO @EmpNo, @Name, @Salary, @Designation, @DeptId, @Rank END

Close Cursor: Close the cursor after fetching all required records.

sql:

CLOSE employee_cursor DEALLOCATE employee_cursor

Output of the program:

EmpNo: 101, Name: John Doe, Salary: 10000.00, Designation: Manager, DeptId: 1
EmpNo: 102, Name: Jane Smith, Salary: 9500.00, Designation: Engineer, DeptId: 2
EmpNo: 103, Name: Mike Johnson, Salary: 9000.00, Designation: Analyst, DeptId: 1
EmpNo: 104, Name: Emily Davis, Salary: 8500.00, Designation: Developer, DeptId: 3
EmpNo: 105, Name: Chris Wilson, Salary: 8000.00, Designation: Designer, DeptId: 2

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 EXPERIMENT 15

a) Given an integer, Write a PL/SQL procedure to insert the tuple(1,’xx’) into a

given relation.
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE InsertTuple(
p_table_name IN VARCHAR2,
p_integer_value IN NUMBER
)
IS
BEGIN
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'INSERT INTO ' || p_table_name || ' VALUES (' ||
p_integer_value || ', ''xx'')';
COMMIT;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Tuple inserted successfully.');
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Error: ' || SQLERRM);
END;
/
This procedure InsertTuple accepts two parameters:

p_table_name: The name of the table where the tuple will be inserted.
p_integer_value: The integer value to be inserted into the table along with the string
value 'xx'.
Here's we can call this procedure:

sql
BEGIN
InsertTuple('your_table_name', 1);
END;
/

Output
Tuple inserted successfully.

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EXPERIMENT 16
Queries for Creating Triggers

Trigger: A trigger is a stored procedure(function) in a database which is automatically invoked(called

or activated) and executed whenever a special event in the database occurs.

For example, a trigger can be invoked when a row is inserted into a specified table or when certain
table columns are being updated.

A trigger is specified by the DBA(Database Administrator)

A Database Administrator (DBA) is a person who is responsible for controlling, maintaining,

coordinating, and operating the database server. Managing, securing, allowing users to access the
DBMS server, and taking care of database system are the prime responsibilities of a DBA.

A database that has a set of associated triggers is called an active database.

Syntax to create a trigger

create trigger [trigger_name]
[before | after]
{insert | update | delete}
on [table_name]
[for each row]
[trigger_body]

Explanation of syntax:
create trigger [trigger_name]: Creates a trigger with the trigger_name.
[before | after]: This specifies when the trigger will be executed.
{insert | update | delete}: This specifies the DML operation.
on [table_name]: This specifies the name of the table associated with the trigger.
[for each row]: The trigger will be executed for each row being affected.
[trigger_body]: This provides the operation to be performed when a trigger is activated

Example:

Given Student marks Database, in which student marks are recorded.

In such schema, create a trigger so that the total and percentage of specified marks are automatically
calculated and inserted whenever a student row is inserted.

Mysql> Create table student (rollno integer NOT NULL,

name varchar(20),

60
 sub1 integer,
sub2 integer,
sub3 integer,
total integer,
percentage real,
PRIMARY KEY (rollno) );

The database schema

Mysql> desc student;

Mysql> create trigger stud_marks

before INSERT
on student
for each row
set student.total = student.subj1 + student.subj2 + student.subj3,
student.percentage = student.total/300*100;

Above SQL statement will create a trigger in the student table in which whenever subjects marks are
entered,
before inserting the marks into the database, the trigger will compute the total marks & percentage and
insert with the marks.

mysql> insert into student(rollno,name,sub1,sub2,sub3,total,percentage)

values(501, ‘Dennis’, 90, 90, 80, 0, 0);

mysql> insert into student(rollno,name,sub1,sub2,sub3,total,percentage)

values(502, ‘Ritche’, 100, 95, 90, 0, 0);

mysql> select * from student;

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In this way triggers can be created and executed in a database.

62