Developmental Psychology Page 1 of 15

Late Adulthood

Late Adulthood

WELCOME PSYCHOLOGY STUDENTS.

I. INTRODUCTION:

We are considered in late adulthood from the time we reach our mid-sixties until death. In this lesson,
we will learn how many people are in late adulthood, how that number is expected to change, and how life
changes and continues to be the same as before in late adulthood. Developmentalists, however, divide this
population in to categories based on health and social well-being. Optimal aging refers to those who enjoy
better health and social well-being than average. Normal aging refers to those who seem to have the same
health and social concerns as most of those in the population. However, there is still much being done to
understand exactly what normal aging means. Impaired aging refers to those who experience poor health
and dependence to a greater extent than would be considered normal. Aging successfully involves making
adjustments as needed in order to continue living as independently and actively as possible. This is referred
to as selective optimization with compensation and means, for example, that a person who can no longer
drive, is able to find alternative transportation. Or a person who is compensating for having less energy,
learns how to reorganize the daily routine to avoid over-exertion. Perhaps nurses and other allied health
professionals working with this population will begin to focus more on helping patients remain independent
than on simply treating illnesses. Promoting health and independence are important for successful aging.

II. OBJECTIVES:

 Describe changes in the senses in late adulthood.

 Discuss the impact of aging on the sensory register, working memory, and long-term memory.
 Describe Erikson’s psychosocial stage for late adulthood.
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III. PRELIMINARY ACTIVITIES:

Before you proceed to the main lesson, test yourself in this activity.

Who Are Your Grandparents?

Think about your family. Answer the following questions. Grandparents can be biological or “adopted.”

Do you have a grandmother? ________________________ What do you call her?_________________

A grandfather? ___________________________________ What do you call him? ________________
What is your fondest memory of your grandparents?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
How old are they? _____________________________________________________________________
Are they still working? ________ What do they do? ________________________________________

Where do they live? ___________________________________________________________________

Do you have great-grandparents? ________________________

If you have great-grandparents, share some information about them.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

GREAT!!!
You may now proceed to the main lesson.
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IV. LESSON PROPER

Based on the preliminary activities, what did you notice about it?
________________________________________________________
CONGRATULATIONS!
You may now proceed to the lesson.

Physical Development

Primary and Secondary Aging

Healthcare providers need to be aware of which aspects of aging are reversible and which ones are
inevitable. By keeping this distinction in mind, caregivers may be more objective and accurate when
diagnosing and treating older patients. And a positive attitude can go a long way toward motivating patients
to stick with a health regime. Unfortunately, stereotypes can lead to misdiagnosis.

Primary aging refers to the inevitable changes associated with aging (Busse, 1969). These changes include
changes in the skin and hair, height and weight, hearing loss, and eye disease. However, some of these
changes can be reduced by limiting exposure to the sun, eating a nutritious diet, and exercising.

Skin and hair change as we age. The skin becomes drier, thinner, and less elastic as we age. Scars and
imperfections become more noticeable as fewer cells grow underneath the surface of the skin. Exposure to
the sun, or photoaging, accelerates these changes. Graying hair is inevitable. And hair loss all over the body
becomes more prevalent.
Height and weight vary with age. Older people are more than an inch shorter than they were during early
adulthood (Masoro in Berger, 2005). This is thought to be due to a settling of the vertebrae and a lack of
muscle strength in the back. Older people weigh less than they did in mid-life. Bones lose density and can
become brittle. This is especially prevalent in women. However, weight training can help increase bone
density after just a few weeks of training.
Muscle loss occurs in late adulthood and is most noticeable in men as they lose muscle mass. Maintaining
strong leg and heart muscles is important for independence. Weight-lifting, walking, swimming, or engaging
in other cardiovascular exercises can help strengthen the muscles and prevent atrophy.
Visual Problems: The majority of people over 65 have some difficulty with vision, but most is easily corrected
with prescriptive lenses. Three percent of those 65 to 74 and 8 percent of those 75 and older have hearing
or vision limitations that hinder activity. The most common causes of vision loss or impairment are glaucoma,
cataracts, age-related macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy (He et al., 2005).
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Hearing Loss is experienced by 30 percent of people age 70 and older. Almost half of people over 85 have
some hearing loss (He et al., 2005). Older adults are more likely to seek help with vision impairment than
with hearing loss, perhaps due to the stereotype that older people who have difficulty hearing are also less
mentally alert. Being unable to hear causes people to withdraw from conversation and others to ignore them
or shout. Unfortunately, shouting is usually high pitched and can be harder to hear than lower tones. The
speaker may also begin to use a patronizing form of ‘baby talk’ known as elderspeak (See et al., 1999).
This language reflects the stereotypes of older adults as being dependent, demented, and childlike. Image
others speaking to you in that way. How would you feel?
Hearing loss is more prevalent in men than women. Smoking, middle ear infections, and exposure to loud
noises increase hearing loss.

In summary, primary aging can be compensated for through exercise, corrective lenses, nutrition, and hearing
aids. And, more importantly, by reducing stereotypes about aging, people of age can maintain self-respect,
recognize their own strengths, and count on receiving the respect and social inclusion they deserve.

Secondary Aging

Secondary aging refers to changes that are caused by illness or disease. These illnesses reduce
independence, impact quality of life, affect family members and other caregivers, and bring financial burden.
Some of the most prevalent illnesses that cause impairment are discussed below.

Arthritis: This is the leading cause of disability in older adults. Arthritis results in swelling of the joints and
connective tissue that limits mobility. Arthritis is more common among women than men and increases with
age. About 19.3 percent of people over 75 are disabled with arthritis; 11.4 percent of people between 65 and
74 experience this disability.
Hypertension: Hypertension or high blood pressure and associated heart disease and circulatory conditions
increase with age. Hypertension disables 11.1 percent of 65 to 74 year olds and 17.1 percent of people over
75. Rates are higher among women and Blacks. Rates are highest for women over 75.
Heart Disease and Stroke: Coronary disease and stroke are higher among older men than women. The
incidence of stroke is lower than that of coronary disease.
Diabetes: In 2008, 27 percent of those 65 and older had diabetes. Rates are higher among Mexican origin
individuals and Blacks than non-Hispanic whites. The treatment for diabetes includes dietary changes,
increasing physical activity, weight loss for those who are overweight, and medication (National Institute on
Aging, 2011).
Cancer: Men over 75 have the highest rates of cancer at 28 percent. Women 65 and older have rates of 17
percent. The most common types of cancer found in men are prostate and lung cancer. Breast and lung
cancer are the most common forms in women.
Osteoporosis: Osteoporosis increases with age as bones become brittle and lose minerals. Bone loss is
four times more likely in women than in men and becomes even more prevalent in women 85 and older.
Alzheimer’s disease: This disease is not becomes more prevalent with age, but is not inevitable. This
typically appears after age 60 but develops slowly for years before it’s appearance. Social support, and
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aerobic exercise can reduce the risk of Alzheimer’s disease.

Cognitive Development

How Does Aging Affect Memory?

The Sensory Register

Aging may create small decrements in the sensitivity of the sensory register. And, to the extent that a person
has a more difficult time hearing or seeing, that information will not be stored in memory. This is an important
point, because many older people assume that if they cannot remember something, it is because their
memory is poor. In fact, it may be that the information was never seen or heard.

The Working Memory

Older people have more difficulty using memory strategies to recall details (Berk, 2007). As we age, the
working memory loses some of its capacity. This makes it more difficult to concentrate on more than one
thing at a time or to keep remember details of an event. However, people compensate for this by writing
down information and avoiding situations where there is too much going on at once to focus on a particular
cognitive task.

The Long-Term Memory

This type of memory involves the storage of information for long periods of time. Retrieving such information
depends on how well it was learned in the first place rather than how long it has been stored. If information
is stored effectively, an older person may remember facts, events, names and other types of information
stored in long-term memory throughout life. The memory of adults of all ages seems to be similar when they
are asked to recall names of teachers or classmates. And older adults remember more about their early
adulthood and adolescence than about middle adulthood (Berk, 2007). Older adults retain semantic memory
or the ability to remember vocabulary.

Younger adults rely more on mental rehearsal strategies to store and retrieve information. Older adults focus
rely more on external cues such as familiarity and context to recall information (Berk, 2007). And they are
more likely to report the main idea of a story rather than all of the details (Jepson & Labouvie-Vief, in Berk,
2007).

A positive attitude about being able to learn and remember plays an important role in memory. When people
are under stress (perhaps feeling stressed about memory loss), they have a more difficult time taking in
information because they are preoccupied with anxieties. Many of the laboratory memory tests require
compare the performance of older and younger adults on timed memory tests in which older adults do not
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perform as well. However, few real life situations require speedy responses to memory tasks. Older adults
rely on more meaningful cues to remember facts and events without any impairment to everyday living.

Wisdom

Wisdom is the ability to use common sense and good judgment in making decisions. A wise person is
insightful and has knowledge that can be used to overcome obstacles in living. Does aging bring wisdom?
While living longer brings experience, it does not always bring wisdom. Those who have had experience
helping others resolve problems in living and those who have served in leadership positions seem to have
more wisdom. So it is age combined with a certain type of experience that brings wisdom. However, older
adults do have greater emotional wisdom or the ability to empathize with and understand others.

Problem Solving

Problem solving tasks that require processing non-meaningful information quickly (a kind of task that might
be part of a laboratory experiment on mental processes) declines with age. However, real life challenges
facing older adults do not rely on speed of processing or making choices on one’s own. Older adults are able
to make resolve everyday problems by relying on input from others such as family and friends. And they are
less likely than younger adults to delay making decisions on important matters such as medical care (Strough
et al., 2003; Meegan & Berg, 2002).

Abnormal Loss of Cognitive Functioning During Late Adulthood

Dementia refers to severely impaired judgment, memory or problem-solving ability. It can occur before old
age and is not an inevitable development even among the very old. Dementia can be caused by numerous
diseases and circumstances, all of which result in similar general symptoms of impaired judgment, etc.
Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia and is incurable. But there are also nonorganic
causes of dementia that can be prevented. Malnutrition, alcoholism, depression, and mixing medications can
result in symptoms of dementia. If these causes are properly identified, they can be treated. Cerebral vascular
disease can also reduce cognitive functioning.
Delirium is a sudden experience of confusion experienced by some older adults.

Generativity in Late Adulthood

People in late adulthood continue to be productive in many ways. These include work, education,
volunteering, family life, and intimate relationships.

Productivity in Work

Some continue to be productive in work. Mandatory retirement is now illegal in the United States. However,
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we find that many do choose retirement by age 65 and most leave work by choice. Those who do leave by
choice adjust to retirement more easily. Chances are, they have prepared for a smoother transition by
gradually giving more attention to an avocation or interest as they approach retirement. And they are more
likely to be financially ready to retire. Those who must leave abruptly for health reasons or because of layoffs
or downsizing have a more difficult time adjusting to their new circumstances. Men, especially, can find
unexpected retirement difficult. Women may feel less of an identify loss after retirement because much of
their identity may have come from family roles as well. But women tend to have poorer retirement funds
accumulated from work and if they take their retirement funds in a lump sum (be that from their own or from
a deceased husband’s funds), are more at risk of outliving those funds. Women need better financial
retirement planning.

Volunteering: Face-to-face and Virtually

About 40 percent of older adults are involved in some type of structured, face-to-face, volunteer work. But
many older adults, about 60 percent, engage in a sort of informal type of volunteerism helping out neighbors
or friends rather than working in an organization (Berger, 2005). They may help a friend by taking them
somewhere or shopping for them, etc. Some do participate in organized volunteer programs but interestingly
enough, those who do tend to work part-time as well. Those who retire and do not work are less likely to feel
that they have a contribution to make. (It’s as if when one gets used to staying at home, their confidence to
go out into the world diminishes.) And those who have recently retired are more likely to volunteer than those
over 75 years of age.

Religious Activities

People tend to become more involved in prayer and religious activities as they age as well. This provides a
social network as well as a belief system that combats the fear of death. It provides a focus for volunteerism
and other activities as well. For example, one elderly woman prides herself on knitting prayer shawls that
are given to those who are sick. Another serves on the alter guild and is responsible for keeping robes and
linens clean and ready for communion.

Relationships

Grandparenting

Grandparenting typically begins in midlife rather than late adulthood, but because people are living longer,
they can anticipate being grandparents for longer periods of time. Cherlin and Furstenberg (1986) describe
three styles of grandparents:

1. Remote: These grandparents rarely see their grandchildren. Usually they live far away from the
grandchildren, but may also have a distant relationship. Contact is typically made on special occasions such
as holidays or birthdays. Thirty percent of the grandparents studied by Cherlin and Furstenberg were remote.
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2. Companionate Grandparents: Fifty-five percent of grandparents studied were described as

“companionate”. These grandparents do things with the grandchild but have little authority or control over
them. They prefer to spend time with them without interfering in parenting. They are more like friends to their
grandchildren.

3. Involved Grandparents: Fifteen percent of grandparents were described as “involved”. These

grandparents take a very active role in their grandchild’s life. They children might even live with the
grandparent. The involved grandparent is one who has frequent contact with and authority over the
grandchild.

An increasing number of grandparents are raising grandchildren today. Issues such as custody, visitation,
and continued contact between grandparents and grandchildren after parental divorce are contemporary
concerns.

Elderly Abuse

Nursing homes have been publicized as places where older adults are at risk of abuse. Abuse and neglect
of nursing home residents is more often found in facilities that are run down and understaffed. However, older
adults are more frequently abused by family members. The most commonly reported types of abuse are
financial abuse and neglect. Victims are usually very frail and impaired and perpetrators are usually
dependent on the victims for support. Prosecuting a family member who has financially abused a parent is
very difficult. The victim may be reluctant to press charges and the court dockets are often very full resulting
in long waits before a case is heard. Granny dumping or the practice of family members abandoning older
family members with severe disabilities in emergency rooms is a growing problem. An estimated 100,000
and 200,000 are dumped each year (Tanne in Berk, 2007).
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V. ANALYSIS, APPLICATION AND EXPLORATION

ACTIVITY 1

Name: ______________________________ Grade & Section: __________________

I. Complete the table with appropriate information.

Sensory Changes in Late Adulthood

Sensory Changes in Sensory What can other adults do to preserve or

Development Development enhance their sensory skills
Hearing

Seeing

Smelling

Tasting

Feeling Pain
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ACTIVITY 2

Name: ______________________________ Grade & Section: __________________

What care and living arrangements have been made for elders needing assistance in your family?
How did culture, personal values, financial means, health, and other factors influence those decisions?

ACTIVITY 3

Name: ______________________________ Grade & Section: __________________

Why is it important to understand older adults' perceptions of their circumstances—physical changes, health,
negative life changes, and social support? How do most elders' perceptions contribute to their psychological well-
being?

Finally, let us summarize the lesson of what we had discussed today.

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VI. GENERALIZATION

I. Cite evidence that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to Alzheimer's disease
and cerebrovascular dementia.

II. Estelle complained that she had recently forgotten two of her regular biweekly hair
appointments and sometimes had trouble finding the right words to convey her thoughts. What
cognitive changes account for Estelle's difficulties? What can she do to compensate?
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III. At age 51, Mae lost her job and couldn't afford to pay rent. She moved in with her 78-year-old
widowed mother, Anita. Although Anita welcomed Mae's companionship, Mae grew depressed
and drank heavily. When Anita complained about Mae's failure to look for work, Mae pushed
and slapped her. Explain why this mother–daughter relationship led to elder abuse.

KUDOS!
You have come to an end of Module 16.
OOPS! Don’t forget that you have still an assignment to do.
Here it is….

VII. ASSIGNMENT

Name: ______________________________ Grade & Section: __________________

1. Imagine yourself as an elderly resident in an assisted-living facility. List all the features you would want
your living environment to have, explaining how each helps ensure your well-being.
2. While watching TV during the coming week, keep a log of portrayals of older adults in programs and
commercials. How many images were positive? How many negative? Compare your observations with
research findings.

After your long journey of reading and accomplishing the

module, let us now challenge your mind by answering the evaluation
part of this module.
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VIII. EVALUATION

Name:______________________________ Grade & Section: __________________

Direction/Instruction: Choose the letter of the correct answer.

1. Although some age researchers believe there is no limit to how long a person can live, most
suggest that the limit is about 120 years. This figure is our human
A. life span.
B. gerontology.
C. life expectancy.
D. longevity.

2. Which African American male can expect to live longer than a white of the same age?
A. Martin, age 35
B. Gabriel, age 14
C. Jesse, age 2
D. Alex, age 85

3. Dr. Jones is a scientist who is studying APOE2 and APOE4. She hopes to use this information
to extend life for all humans. Dr. Jones subscribes to which theory of aging?
A. Rate-of-living
B. Genetic programming
C. Wear-and-tear
D. Free-radical

4. Changes in a person's reserve capacity will affect that person's

A. heart rate.
B. metabolism.
C. immune functioning.
D. ability to deal with physical and other types of stress.

5. Rivka is 90 years old. Research on the aging brain suggests that Rivka's brain
A. is larger now than it was when she was 25.
B. is shrinking mainly in the frontal cortex.
C. is showing growth of the existing neurons.
D. has steadily gained neurons since she reached puberty.

6. Rozee is visually impaired, particularly in her left eye. She has lost her ability to discern any
type of detail from the central portion of the eye. Rozee most likely has
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A. glaucoma.
B. age-related macular degeneration.
C. diabetic retinopathy.
D. a cataract.

7. Which of the following best describes losses in strength and endurance among the elderly?
A. Older adults consistently lose flexibility, although losses in endurance are more variable.
B. Adults generally lose about half of their strength by age 70.
C. Research shows that changes in muscle strength are unrelated to the likelihood of falls
and fractures.
D. Losses in strength and endurance are partly reversible.

8. The most common chronic health problem of older adults is

A. heart disease.
B. asthma.
C. arthritis.
D. diabetes.

9. Yolanda, a lifelong runner and walker, has just joined a team of seniors training for an
upcoming marathon. Yolanda is likely to experience which benefit as a result of her program of
regular exercise?
A. Avoiding high blood pressure
B. Better alertness and morale
C. Reduced chance of injuries from falls
D. All of these

10. As Dave got into his 70s, his wife noticed that he seemed to easily become irritable, anxious,
and depressed. He began to make a great many errors in their checkbook, and sometimes he
got frustrated because he could not even write a check. She became even more concerned
when Dave could not remember what he did yesterday or even that he had eaten a meal an
hour ago. He would often repeat the same question over and over, such as "What time is it?"
Dave is most likely developing
A. a stroke.
B. clinical depression.
C. Alzheimer's disease.
D. Parkinson's disease.
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CONGRATULATIONS on reaching the end of this module!

You may now proceed to the next module.
Don’t forget to submit all the exercises, activities and portfolio
on ___________________.
KEEP UP THE GOOD WORK.
Well Done!!!