FA1

1. He is known as the father of modern soil mechanics. Karl Terzaghi

2. It is the identification of issues like erosion and settlement that will pose a safety risk to
the proposed project. Field Test
3. It is one of the most famous examples of problems related to soil. Leaning Tower of Pisa
4. It is the branch of science that deals with the study of physical properties of soil and the
behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of forces. Soil Mechanics
5. It is the collection of soil samples from the site, using bores and test pits. Subsurface
Investigation
6. It is the analysis of results of subsurface investigations and field tests with dedicated
software. Computer Analysis
7. It is defined as the uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed organic matter
(solid particles) with liquid and gas in the empty spaces between the solid particles. Soil
8. The publication is primarily the result of Karl Terzaghi's research. Erdbaumachanik

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 FA2
Note: Cu - Coefficient of Uniformity, Cc - Coefficient of Curvature / Gradation / Concavity

1. A sample of dry coarse-grained material was taken through a layer of sieves and the
following results were obtained. Make the necessary calculations and draw the particle
distribution curve.
U.S sieve Opening Mass of soil retained Cumulative mass retained Percent
no. (mm) on each sieve (g) above each sieve (g) Finer
4 4.75 0 0 100
10 2.00 40 0+40=40 94.5
20 0.850 60 40+60=100 86.3
40 0.425 89 100+89=189 74.1
60 0.250 140 189+140=329 54.9
80 0.180 122 329+122=451 38.1
100 0.150 210 451+210=661 9.3
200 0.075 56 661+56=717 1.6
Pan - 12 717+12=729 0
Step 1: fine the sum of mass:

Step 2: Solve for cumulative mass retained above each sieve.

Step 3: Solve for Percent Finer for each row using this:

Step 4: Calculator technique:

Menu → Statistics → y = a + b ln (x) → opening – x : percent finer – y (only put 2 rows)

a. D10 = 0.151 mm
D30 = 0.171 mm
D60 = 0.288 mm

b.

c.

2. The results of sieve analysis are shown below.

U.S sieve Opening Mass of soil retained Cumulative mass retained Percent
no. (mm) on each sieve (g) above each sieve (g) Finer
4 4.75 0 0 100
10 2.00 18.5 18.5 95.6078
20 0.850 53.2 71.7 82.9772
40 0.425 90.5 162.2 61.491
60 0.250 81.8 244 42.0703
100 0.150 92.2 336.2 20.1804
200 0.075 58.5 394.7 6.2915
Pan - 26.5 421.2 0

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 a. D10 = 0.09024846 mm
D30 = 0.18862988 mm
D60 = 0.40803414 mm

b.

c.

3. 500 grams of dry soil was tested for grain size analysis and the following observations
were recorded.
Opening Mass of soil retained on Cumulative mass retained Percent
(mm) each sieve (g) above each sieve (g) Finer
2.00 10 10 98
1.4 18 28 94.4
1 60 88 82.4
0.5 135 223 55.4
0.25 145 368 26.4
0.125 56 424 15.2
0.075 45 469 6.2
Pan 31 500 0

a. D10 = 0.09305307633 mm
D30 = 0.2724640761 mm
D60 = 0.5626736741 mm

b.

c.

4. The following are the results of a sieve analysis.

Sieve Opening Mass of soil retained Cumulative mass retained Percent
no. (mm) on each sieve (g) above each sieve (g) Finer
4 4.75 28 28 95.4619
10 2.00 42 70 88.6548
20 0.850 48 188 69.53
40 0.425 128 246 60.1297
60 0.250 221 467 24.3112
100 0.150 86 553 10.3728
200 0.075 40 593 3.8898
Pan - 24 617 0

a. D10 = 0.144138752 mm
D30 = 0.2719822657 mm
D60 = 0.4241841793 mm

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 b.

c.

5. A sample of dry coarse-grained material was taken through a nest of sieves and the
following results were obtained:

Sieve Opening Mass retained Cumulative mass retained above Percent

no. (mm) (g) each sieve (g) Finer
4 4.75 0 0 100
10 2.00 14.8 14.8 97.0382
20 0.850 98 112.8 77.4265
40 0.425 90.1 202.9 59.3956
100 0.150 181.9 384.8 22.9938
200 0.075 108.8 493.6 1.2207
Pan - 6.1 499.7 0

a. D10 = 0.09918406315 mm
D30 = 0.1832923398 mm
D60 = 0.4324129463 mm

b.

c.

6. From the grain distribution curve, D60 = 1.4 mm, D30 = 0.95 mm, and D10 = 0.50 mm.

a.

b.

7. It is the distribution in the particle size of the soil. Gradation

8. It is the test used to determine the grain size distribution of the soils passing the No. 200
sieve. Hydrometer Analysis
9. It is used to determine the grain size distribution of coarse-grained soil. Sieve Analysis

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 FA3
1. It is the ratio of the volume of water in the void spaces to the volume of the voids. It is
simply the measure of the void volume that is filled by water, expressed as a percentage
ranging from 0 to 100.
Degree of Saturation

2. The ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the soil is called
Porosity

3. A soil sample having a volume of 1 x 10-3 m3 has a mass of 1950 grams and moisture
content of 10%. The specific gravity of the soil solids is 2.66.
(a) What is the nearest value to the dry density of the soil in kg/m 3.

(b) What is the nearest value to the void ratio in percent?

(c) What is the nearest value to the degree of saturation in percent?

4. A sample of sand above the water table was found to have a natural moisture content of
15% and a unit weight of 120 pcf. Laboratory tests on a dried sample indicated values of
emin = 0.50 and emax = 0.85 for the densest and loosest states respectively. Assume Gs=
2.65.
(a) Find the void ratio.

(b) Find the degree of saturation.

(c) Find the relative density.

5. The dry soil is mixed with water (17% by mass) and compacted. The volume of wet soil is
0.001 m3 and has a mass of 1.6 kg. If the specific gravity of the soil solids is 2.70.
(a) what is the void ratio?

(b) what is the degree of saturation?

(c) What is the dry unit weight of the soil?

6. A soil specimen having a volume of 0.012 m3 has a specific gravity of 2.60. It has a moist
mass of 20.6 kg and a dried mass of 16.1 kg.
(a) Compute its void ratio.

(b) Compute the dry unit weight of the soil.

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 (c) Compute its degree of saturation.

7. A fully saturated clay sample has a mass of 1526 grams. After oven-drying, its mass was
reduced to 1053 grams. The specific gravity of the soil particles is 2.7.
(a) Calculate the void ratio in percent.

(b) Calculate the porosity in percent.

8. A sample of moist clay is found to have a moisture content of 400% and degree of
saturation of 85%. The specific gravity of the soil solids is 2.76. Determine the void ratio of
the soil.

9. The soil sample in natural state having a volume of 0.0012 m 3 weighs 1.73 kg. The degree
of saturation being 45.6%. After drying in an oven, the final weight of the sample was 1.44
kg.
(a) Determine the void ratio.

(b) Find the specific gravity of solid.

10. An undisturbed sample of clayey soil is found to have a wet weight of 285 N, a dry weight
of 250 N, and a total volume of 14x103 cm3. The specific gravity of soil solids is 2.70.
(a) What is the water content?

(b) What is the void ratio?

(c) What is the degree of saturation?

11. A sample of soil in natural state having a volume of 0.00934 m 3 weighs 18.11 kg. The
sample is allowed to dry in an oven and the weight was reduced to 15.68 kg. The specific
gravity of the solid was found to be 2.67.
(a) What is the porosity?

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 (b) What is the dry unit weight of the soil?

(c) What is the moist unit weight of the soil?

12. If a soil sample has a dry unit weight of 19.5 KN/m 3, moisture content of 8% and a specific
gravity of solids particles is 2.67.
(a) What is void ratio?

(b) What is the saturated unit weight?

(c) What is the moist unit weight?

(d) What is the mass of water to be added to a cubic meter of soil to reach 80% of
saturation?

(e) Volume of soil solids when the mass of the water is 25 grams.

13. The moist soil having a volume of 0.0154 m3 has a unit weight of 16.5 kN/m3 and a
moisture content of 15%. The specific gravity of solid is 2.7.
(a) Determine the degree of saturation.

(b) The volume of air in the original sample?

.
(c) What is the weight of water to be added to reach full saturation?

14. A sample of moist soil taken from the field was found to have a moisture content of 14%
and a porosity of 38%. In a laboratory test that simulates field conditions, it was found

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 and a porosity of 38%. In a laboratory test that simulates field conditions, it was found
that its loosest state, its void ratio is 85% and at its densest state its void ratio is 40%.
Determine the relative density of the sand.

15. The saturated unit weight of a soil is 19.8 kN/m3. The moisture content of the soil is 17.1%.
Determine the dry unit weight.

16. If a soil sample has a dry unit weight of 19.5 KN/m3, moisture content of 8% and a specific
gravity of solids particles is 2.67. What is the moist unit weight?

17. An embankment has a mass density of 1900 kg/m3. Laboratory test shows that the soil
has a dry density of 1550 kg/m3 and the void ratio at its loosest and densest states were
0.85 and 0.42, respectively. The specific gravity of soil particles is 2.66.
(a) Determine its saturated density.

(b) Determine the relative density of the embankment.

(c) Determine the moisture content of the embankment.

18. A soil sample has a moisture content 30% and degree of saturation of 45%. The solids has
a specific gravity of 2.61.
(a) Determine the dry unit weight of the soil in kN/m 3.

(b) What is the saturated unit weight?

19. Given the following characteristics of a soil sample:

Volume = 0.5 cubic ft.
Mass = 56.7 pounds
The solids have a specific gravity of 2.69. After oven drying, the mass of the soil was 48.7
pounds.

(a) Which of the following most nearly gives the density of the in-situ soil?

(b) Which of the following most nearly gives the degree of saturation of the in-situ soil?

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20. A 480 cc soil sample taken from the site weighs 850.5 grams. After oven drying, it
weighed 594.4 grams. If the specific gravity of solids is 2.72. What is the void ratio of the
soil?

21. A clay sample has the following properties:

Porosity = 0.35
Maximum void ratio = 0.85
Minimum void ratio = 0.42
Specific gravity of soil solids = 2.72
Moisture content = 62%
Determine the dry unit weight of the soil in its natural state, in pcf.

22. A soil sample has a moisture content of 30% and degree of saturation of 45%. The solids
has a specific gravity of 2.61.
Determine the dry unit weight of the soil in kN/m3.

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 FA4
1. Given the laboratory results of the Atterberg limits test in the following figure. Plot the
water content versus number of blows.
A. Liquid Limit
Test Number 1 2 3 4
Number of Blows 38 29 20 14
Weight of Wet Soil + Container, g 22.47 21.29 21.27 26.12
Weight of Dry Soil + Container, g 19.44 18.78 18.75 22.10
Weight of Container, g 12.74 13.24 13.20 13.27
Weight of Water, g 3.03 2.51 2.52 4.02
Weight of Dry Soil, g 6.70 5.54 5.55 8.83
Water Content,% 45.22 45.31 45.41 45.53
B. Plastic Limit and Natural Water Content
Plastic Natural
Limit Water
Content
Test Number 1 2 3 4
Weight of Wet Soil + Container, g 23.20 22.80 17.53 16.97
Weight of Dry Soil + Container, g 20.42 20.19 14.84 14.36
Weight of Container, g 12.90 12.95 9.50 9.55
Weight of Water, g 2.78 2.61 2.69 2.61
Weight of Dry Soil, g 7.52 7.24 5.34 4.81
Water Content, % 36.97 36.05 50.37 54.26
Average, % 36.51 52.315
(a) Determine the nearest value to the Liquidity Limit of soil.

(b) Determine the nearest value to the Plastic Limit of the soil.

(c) Determine the nearest value to the natural water content of soil.

(d) Determine the nearest value to the Liquidity Index of soil.

2. Given the following properties of a soil:

Liquid Limit = 45%
Plastic Limit = 22%
Natural moisture content = 40%

(a) What is the Liquidity Index?

(b) What is the Plasticity Index?

3. In a liquid limit test using cup apparatus, the following data were taken:
Sample Water Content No. of blows

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 A 41.8% 39
B 43.5% 23
C 44.3% 20
D 45.5% 13
While in a plastic limit test, the following values were obtained:
Weight of wet soil + container = 21.19 grams
Weight of dry soil + container = 18.78 grams
Weight of container = 8.20 grams
Find the Liquid Limit.

4. Given the laboratory results of the Atterberg limits test in the following figure. Plot the
water content versus number of blows.
A. Liquid Limit
Test Number 1 2 3 4
Number of Blows 35 28 20 15
Weight of Wet Soil + Container, g 91.57 108.16 119.14 114.94
Weight of Dry Soil + Container, g 73.78 85.04 89.56 84.10
Weight of Container, g 21.45 22.56 20.78 19.86
Weight of Water, g 17.79 23.12 29.58 30.84
Weight of Dry Soil, g 52.33 62.48 68.78 64.24
Water Content,% 34.00 37.00 43.01 48.01
B. Plastic Limit and Natural Water Content
Plastic Natural
Limit Water
Content
Test Number 1 2 3 4
Weight of Wet Soil + Container, g 24.46 26.73 30.5 28.11
Weight of Dry Soil + Container, g 21.79 23.44 24.64 23.69
Weight of Container, g 12.45 13.21 12.32 13.24
Weight of Water, g 2.67 3.29 5.86 4.42
Weight of Dry Soil, g 9.34 10.23 12.32 10.45
Water Content, % 28.59 32.16 47.56 42.30
Average, % 30.375 44.93
(a) Determine the nearest value to the Liquidity Limit of soil.

(b) Determine the nearest value to the Plastic Limit of the soil.

(c) Determine the nearest value to the natural water content of soil.

(d) Determine the nearest value to the Liquidity Index of soil.

5. You are given the following results from Atterberg Limits Testing on a soil sample (w p =
23%, wL = 50%) collected from a boring on a local project site. What is the plasticity index
for this soil?

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6. A soil having a natural moisture content of 28% has a liquid limit of 54% and plastic limit
of 32%. Calculate the Liquidity Index of the soil.

7. A saturated soil has the following characteristics:

Initial Volume = 25cm3
Final Volume = 16cm3
Mass of wet soil = 45g
Mass of dry soil = 31g
(a) Determine the shrinkage limit.

(b) Determine the shrinkage ratio.

(c) Determine the specific gravity of soil.

8. These are the limits of water content used to define soil behavior.
Atterberg Limits

9. The Following data were recorded from a liquid limit test on a silty clay
No. of blows Water content (%)
35 41.1
29 41.8
21 43.5
15 44.9
(a) Determine the liquid limit.

10. What is the term applied to a fine-grained soils (particularly clays) to indicate the soils
(plus included water's) ability to flow or be remodeled without raveling or breaking apart.
Plasticity

11. A clay soil is found to have a liquid limit of 75%, a plastic limit of 45%, and a shrinkage
limit of 25%. A sample of the soil has a total volume of 30 cm 3 at the liquid limit and a
volume of 16.7 cm3 at the shrinkage limit.
(a) what is the specific gravity of soil solids?

(b) what is the shrinkage ratio?

(c)Determine the volumetric shrinkage.

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 (d) what is the mass of the soil at the shrinkage limit?

12. Given the following properties of a soil sample:

Liquid Limit = 63.2%
Plastic Limit = 36.8%
Liquidity Index = 0.52
(a) What is the plasticity index of soil?

(b) What is the natural water content of the soil?

13. The results of Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit tests are shown in the following figure.

Note: The x-axis of the graph on the left corresponds to the moisture content (in %).

Plastic Limit Test

Weight of Moist Soil Weight of Oven Dried Soil Weight of Water Content
(G) (G) Water (%)
128.6 105.4 23.2 22.011
141.4 116.8 24.6 21.062
132.6 109.6 23.0 20.985
134.6 111.2 23.4 21.043
136.0 113.4 22.6 19.929
Which of the following most nearly gives the Plasticity Index (PI) of the soil?

14. Given the laboratory results of the Atterberg Limit Test in the following figure, plot the
water content versus the number of blows.
A. Liquid Limit
Test Number 1 2 3 4
Number of Blows 39 28 19 13
Weight of Wet Soil + Container, g 23.43 21.05 21.40 22.50
Weight of Dry Soil + Container, g 20.21 18.32 18.65 19.43
Weight of Container, g 12.74 12.43 13.11 13.54
Weight of Water, g 3.22 2.73 2.75 3.07
Weight of Dry Soil, g 7.47 5.89 5.54 5.89

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 Weight of Dry Soil, g 7.47 5.89 5.54 5.89
Water Content,% 43.11 46.35 49.64 52.12
B. Plastic Limit and Natural Water Content
Plastic Natural
Limit Water
Content
Test Number 1 2 3 4
Weight of Wet Soil + Container, g 23.50 23.10 17.33 17.11
Weight of Dry Soil + Container, g 20.42 20.19 14.84 14.36
Weight of Container, g 12.45 12.54 9.76 9.34
Weight of Water, g 3.08 2.91 2.49 2.75
Weight of Dry Soil, g 7.97 7.65 5.08 5.02
Water Content, % 38.64 38.04 49.02 54.78
Average, % 38.34 51.90
(a) Determine the nearest value to the Liquidity Limit of soil.

(b) Determine the nearest value to the Plastic Limit of the soil.

(c) Determine the nearest value to the natural water content of soil.

(d) Determine the nearest value to the Liquidity Index of soil.

15. The liquid and plastic limits of clay are 72% and 38%, respectively. If the moisture content
of this clay is 15%, What is its liquidity Index?

(b) What is the plasticity index of this clay?

16. In a liquid limit test using Fall cone apparatus, the following readings were recorded.
Sample Water Content Penetration of cone (mm)
1 40% 12
2 45% 16
3 50% 21
4 58% 35
While in the plastic limit test, the following data were obtained:
Weight of soil + container = 22.12 grams
Weight of dry soil + container = 20.42 grams
Weight of container = 13.07 grams
(a) Compute the liquid limit.

(b) Compute the plastic limit.

17. The liquid and plastic limits of clay are 72% and 38%, respectively. What is the plasticity
index of this clay?

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 index of this clay?

18. Given the laboratory results of the Atterberg Limit Test in the following figure, plot the
water content versus the number of blows.
A. Liquid Limit
Test Number 1 2 3 4
Number of Blows 16 21 27 36
Weight of Wet Soil + Container, g 26.14 26.84 28.37 26.57
Weight of Dry Soil + Container, g 21.85 22.16 23.45 22.67
Weight of Container, g 13.60 12.80 13.20 14.10
Weight of Water, g 4.29 4.68 4.92 3.90
Weight of Dry Soil, g 8.25 9.36 10.25 8.57
Water Content,% 52.00 50.00 48.00 45.51
A. Plastic Limit and Natural Water Content
Plastic Natural
Limit Water
Content
Test Number 1 2 3 4
Weight of Wet Soil + Container, g 24.03 25.13 21.33 25.05
Weight of Dry Soil + Container, g 21.01 21.90 17.34 19.55
Weight of Container, g 12.45 12.54 9.76 9.34
Weight of Water, g 3.02 3.23 3.99 5.50
Weight of Dry Soil, g 8.56 9.36 7.58 10.21
Water Content, % 35.28 34.51 52.64 53.87
Average, % 34.895 53.255
(a) Determine the nearest value to the Liquidity Limit of soil.

(b) Determine the nearest value to the Plastic Limit of the soil.

(c) Determine the nearest value to the natural water content of soil.

(d) Determine the nearest value to the Liquidity Index of soil.

19. A saturated soil has the following characteristics:

Initial Volume = 19.65cm3
Final Volume = 13.5cm3
Mass of wet soil = 36g
Mass of dry soil = 25g
(a) Determine the shrinkage limit.

19. The following data were obtained from the Atterberg limits test for a soil:
Liquid Limit = 41%
Plastic Limit = 21.1%

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Plastic Limit = 21.1%
What is the Plasticity Index of the soil?

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 Fa5
1. According to USCS, what do you call a soil grain size greater than 4.75mm, but less than
75mm?
Gravel

2. According to USCS, what do you call a soil grain size greater than 4.75 mm, but less than
75 mm?
Sand

3. Classify the soil according to the USDA textural classification system. The soil has particle
size distribution of:
Gravel = 21%
Sand = 12%
Silt = 35%
Clay = 32%

(a) Determine the modified percentage of sand.

(b) Determine the modified percentage of silt.

(c) Determine the modified percentage of clay.

4. What is the classification of the soil using the U.S. Department of Agriculture textural
classification?
Soil Particle-size
distribution
(%)
Sand Silt Clay
A 20 20 60
B 55 5 40
C 45 35 20
D 50 15 35
E 70 15 15
F 30 58 12
G 40 25 35
H 30 25 45
I 5 45 50
J 45 45 10

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 (a) Soil A
Clay
(b) Soil B
Sandy Clay
(c) Soil C
Loam
(d) Soil D
Sandy Clay or Sandy Clay Loam
(e) Soil E
Sandy Loam
(f) Soil F
Silty Loam
(g) Soil G
Clay Loam
(h) Soil H
Clay
(i) Soil I
Silty Clay
(j) Soil J
Loam

5. A sample of soil has the following grain-size characteristics.

Size (mm) Percent Passing
2.000 100
0.075 74
0.050 60
0.005 32
0.002 15
(a) Classify the soil using the Triangular Classification Chart.

GEO TECH Page 18

 2 to 0.05 0.05 to 0.002 <0.002

(b) Determine the activity classification if the plasticity index is 34%.

6. For a soil specimen, the following are given:

% passing Sieve No. 4 = 92%

% passing Sieve No. 10 = 81%
% passing Sieve No. 40 = 78%
% passing Sieve No. 200 = 65%
LL = 48%
PI = 32%

Classify the soil by the AASHTO system.

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7. Ninety-five percent of a soil passes through the No. 200 sieve and has LL = 60 % and PL =
20%.

Classify the soil by the AASHTO system.

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8. From the given data, shows a sieve analysis of soil sample A, B, and C.

Sieve Analysis
Sieve No. Precent Passing
Soil A Soil B Soil C
4 100 100 100
8 97 90 100
10 92 77 75
20 97 59 92
40 53 51 84
60 42 41 79
100 26 35 70
200 17 33 63

LL 35 46 47
PL 20 29 24
Cu 7 5 8

(a) Classify soil A using AASHTO method.

5

(b) Classify soil B using AASHTO method.

(c) Classify soil C using AASHTO method.

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 (c) Classify soil C using AASHTO method.

9. The result of sieve analysis of three soils is given. It is required to classify these soils
according to the AASHTO Classification System.

Sieve Analysis
Sieve No. Diam. (mm) Precent Passing
Soil A Soil B Soil C
4 4.760 90 100 100
8 2.380 64 90 100
10 2.000 55 77 78
20 0.840 33 59 91
40 0.420 24 50 85
60 0.250 17 42 79
100 0.149 9 36 70
200 0.074 5 33 63

LL - 46 47
PL - 29 24

(a) What is the classification of Soil A?

(b) What is the classification of Soil B?

(c) What is the classification of Soil C?

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10. The result of sieve analysis of three soils is given. It is required to classify these soils
according to the AASHTO Classification System.

Sieve Analysis
Sieve No. Diam. (mm) Precent Passing
Soil A Soil B Soil C
4 4.760 85 98 100
8 2.380 80 90 95
10 2.000 68 85 88
20 0.840 62 78 75
40 0.420 52 62 60
60 0.250 48 55 52
100 0.149 38 50 40
200 0.074 25 45 34

LL 42 45 38
PL 33 37 18

(a) What is the classification of Soil A?

(b) What is the classification of Soil B?

(c) What is the classification of Soil C?

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11. Classify the following soils by the AASHTO classification system.
Description Soil A Soil B Soil C
Percent finer than No. 10 sieve 100 92 94
Percent finer than No. 40 sieve 82 81 85
Percent finer than No. 200 sieve 38 51 52
Liquid limit 42 29 43
Plastic limit 23 16 34

(a) What is the classification of Soil A?

(b) What is the classification of Soil B?

(c) What is the classification of Soil C?

9. The results for sieve analysis is shown in the following table.

Sieve No. % Passing Liquid Limit Plastic Limit
4 -
10 79.5
20 -
40 69 53.5 31.6
60 -
100 -
200 54.3
Determine the classification of soil according to AASHTO.

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 Determine the classification of soil according to AASHTO.

10. Classify the following soil using AASHTO system:

% passing sieve No. 10 = 10%
% passing sieve No. 40 = 80%
% passing sieve No. 200 = 58%
LL = 30%
PL=20%

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11. The sieve analysis results are shown in the following table, It is required to classify the
soils according to the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS).

Sieve Analysis
Sieve No. Diam. (mm) Precent Passing
Soil A Soil B Soil C
3.5 5.66 75 100 90
4 4.760 48 100 75
10 2.000 38 92 60
20 0.840 32 88 50
40 0.420 28 75 30
60 0.250 22 68 25
100 0.149 18 65 16
200 0.074 15 60 10

LL - 45 -
PL - 20 -

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 (a) Which of the following classifies Soil A?

Since gravel has the most pecentage, it is gravel.

Fines are 15%, therefore it is either GM or GC.
GM is the only option therefore GM is the answer.
(b) Which of the following classifies Soil B?

(c) Which of the following classifies Soil C?

12. You are given the following results from Atterberg Limits testing on a soil sample (PL =
23%, LL = 50%) collected from a boring on a local project site.

If the soil is fine grained, what is its classification according to USCS?

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 CH

13. A soil has the following properties:

% passing sieve no. 4 = 86%, D10 = 0.1mm, D60 = 0.9mm
% passing sieve no. 200 = 12%, D30 = 0.32mm
PL = 26%
PI = 10%

Classify the soil according to USCS.

GEO TECH Page 28

 1 < 1.14 < 3

SW-SM

14. From the given data, shows a sieve analysis of soil sample A, B, and C.

Sieve Analysis
Sieve No. Precent Passing
Soil A Soil B Soil C
4 100 100 100
8 97 90 100
10 92 77 75
20 97 59 92
40 53 51 84
60 42 41 79
100 26 35 70
200 17 33 63

GEO TECH Page 29

 LL 35 46 47
PL 20 29 24
Cu 7 5 8

(a) Classify soil A using USCS method.

SC

(b) Classify soil B using USCS method.

GM

(c) Classify soil C using USCS method.

CL

15. For a soil specimen, the following are given:

GEO TECH Page 30

% passing Sieve No. 4 = 92%
% passing Sieve No. 10 = 81%
% passing Sieve No. 40 = 78%
% passing Sieve No. 200 = 65%
LL = 48%
PI = 32%

Classify the soil by the USCS.

CL

GEO TECH Page 31

 FA6
1. The field compaction of an earthwork was checked by an inspection engineer. In the
laboratory test, the soil gives a maximum dry density of 1.523 gram/cc at optimum
moisture content of 23.4%. Construction specifications require that the soil compacted
dry density must be at least 95% of the maximum dry density obtained from laboratory
within ± 2% of optimum moisture content.

The following data were obtained in the field using the sand cone test:
Volume of soil excavated = 1425 cm3
Weight of soil excavated = 2542 grams
Dry weight of soil = 2068 grams

(a) What is the in situ moisture content of the soil?

(b) What is the field unit weight of the soil?

(c) Determine the dry density at the field.

(d) Determine the relative compaction of the soil.

2. The field compaction of an earthwork was checked by an inspection engineer. In the

laboratory test, the soil gives a maximum dry density of 1.438 g/cc at optimum moisture
content of 22.6%. Construction specifications require that the soil compacted dry density
must be at least 95% of the maximum dry density obtained from laboratory within ±
0.2% of optimum moisture content.

The following data were obtained in the field using the sand cone test:
Volume of soil excavated = 1356 cm3
Weight of soil excavated = 2331 grams
Dry weight of soil = 1856 grams

(a) What is the in situ moisture content of the soil?

(b) What is the field unit weight of the soil?

(c) Determine the dry density at the field.

(d) Determine the relative compaction of the soil.

3. The laboratory compaction test of a certain type of soil gives a maximum dry density of
1.486 g/cm3 with an optimum moisture content of 12.5 %. The following are the results of

GEO TECH Page 32

 1.486 g/cm3 with an optimum moisture content of 12.5 %. The following are the results of
a field unit weight determination test using sand cone method.

Volume of the soil excavated from the hole = 0.001337 m 3

Weight of soil from the hole when wet = 2220 g
Weight of soil when dry = 1890 g

(a) What is the in situ water content of the soil?

(b) What is the field unit weight of the soil?

(c) Determine the dry density at the field.

(d) Determine the relative compaction of the soil.

4. The results of field unit weight determination of a soil sample using the sand cone
method is as follows:

Volume of soil: 0.00134 m3

Mass of soil: 2250 grams
Dry mass of soil: 1734 grams

In a laboratory, this soil yields a dry density of 1.425 g/cc at optimum moisture content of
13.8%. Note: g/cc stands for gram per cubic centimeter.

(a) What is the in situ water content of soil?

(b) What is the field unit weight of the soil?

(c) Determine the dry density at the field.

(d) Determine the relative compaction of the soil.

5. The results of field unit weight determination of a soil sample using the sand cone
method is as follows:

Volume of soil: 0.001338 m3

Mass of soil: 2300 grams
Dry mass of soil: 1910 grams

In a laboratory, this soil yields a dry density of 1.495 g/cc at optimum moisture content of
20.8%. Specification requires that the compacted unit weight if the soil to be at least
95% ± 2% of the maximum laboratory value. Note: g/cc stands for gram per cubic

GEO TECH Page 33

 95% ± 2% of the maximum laboratory value. Note: g/cc stands for gram per cubic
centimeter.

(a) What is the in situ water content of soil?

(b) What is the field unit weight of the soil in kN/m3?

(c) Determine the dry density at the field.

(d) What is the relative compaction of the soil, and did it comply with the specification?

6. Specifications on a job required a fill using borrowed soil to be compacted at 95% of its
standard Proctor maximum dry density. Tests indicate that the maximum is 19.5 kN/m 3
with 12% moisture. The borrow material has a void ratio of 0.60 and a solid specific
gravity of 2.65.

(a) Compute the dry unit weight of the compacted soil.

(b) Compute the wet unit weight of the compacted soil.

(c) Find the required minimum volume of borrow soil required to fill one cubic meter.

7. An earth dam requires one million cubic meter of soil compacted to a void ratio of 0.8. In
the vicinity of the proposed dam, three borrow pits were identified as having suitable
materials. The cost of purchasing the soil and the cost of excavation are the same for
each borrow pit. The only difference of the cost for each borrow pit is the cost of
transportation.

Borrow pit No. Void Ratio Transportation Cost ($/m3)

1 1.8 0.6
2 0.9 1
3 1.5 0.75

Which borrow pit would be the most economical? Borrow pit 1

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 Which borrow pit would be the most economical? Borrow pit 1

8. A road embankment needs 130,000 cu.m. to be completed. DPWH requires 96%

compaction and the contractor is to provide soil from a borrow site. The optimum
moisture content is 17% and the maximum dry density is 19.20 kN/m 3.

(a) Determine the weight of dry soil in the embankment.

(b) How many truckloads of borrow material are needed if the soil would have a specific
gravity 2.6 and void ratio of 0.70 and the capacity of each truck is 9 cubic meter.

(c) How much borrowed soil (in m3) is required if the moisture content of the borrowed
material is 14% and the moist unit weight of the borrow is 17 kN/m 3?

7. Your company has won a contract to provide and compact the fill material for an earth
levee with the dimensions shown below. The levee fill is a silty clay soil to be compacted
to at least 95% of maximum standard proctor of = 106 pcf at an optimum moisture

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 to at least 95% of maximum standard proctor of = 106 pcf at an optimum moisture
content 18%. Your borrow pit has a silty clay with an in-situ moist density of 112.1 pcf at
18% moisture content, and Gs = 2.68. When the soil is excavated and loaded on to you
trucks, the void ratio of material is e = 1.47. Your trucks can haul 15 yd3 of materials per trip.
Note: 1 yd3 = 27 ft3.

(a) Determine the volume of fill required for levee.

(b) Determine the volume required from the borrow pit.

(c) Determine the required number of trucks.

8. The following are the results of a field unit weight determination test performed on the
soil by means of the sand cone method.

Calibrated of dry density of Ottawa sand = 1570 kg/m3

Calibrated mass of Ottawa sand to fill the cone = 0.545 kg
Mass of jar + cone + sand (before use) = 7.59 kg
Mass of jar + cone + sand (after use) = 4.78 kg
Mass of moist soil dug from hole = 3.007 kg
Water content of moist soil = 10.2%
Max dry unit weight = 19 kN/m3

(a) Determine the moist unit weight of compacted soil in kN/m 3.

Mass of sand used to fill the hole and cone = 7.59kg -4.78kg = 2.81kg
Mass of sand used to fill the hole = 2.81kg - 0.545kg = 2.265kg

GEO TECH Page 36

 (b) Determine the dry unit weight of compaction in the field.

9. The following are the results of a field unit weight determination test on a soil with the
sand cone method:

Calibrated of dry density of Ottawa sand = 1667 kg/m3

Calibrated mass of Ottawa sand to fill the cone = 0.117 kg
Mass of jar + cone + sand (before use) = 5.99 kg
Mass of jar + cone + sand (after use) = 2.81 kg
Mass of moist soil dug from hole = 3.331kg
Water content of moist soil = 11.6%

(a) Determine the moist unit weight of compacted soil in kN/m 3.

Mass of sand used to fill the hole and cone = 5.99kg -2.81kg = 3.18kg
Mass of sand used to fill the hole = 3.18kg - 0.117kg = 3.063kg

(b) Determine the dry unit weight of compaction in the field.

10. The following observations were recorded when sand replacement test was conducted
using sand-cone equipment in order to find the density of natural soil:

Density of sand used in the test = 1.4 g/cm3

Weight of soil excavated from the pit = 950 g
Weight of sand filling the pit = 700 g
Water content of natural soil = 15%
Specific gravity of solid = 2.70

(a) Determine the moist unit weight of compacted soil.

GEO TECH Page 37

 (b) Find the dry density of soil in g/cm3.

11. The in-situ moisture content of a soil is 18% and its moist unit weight is 105 pcf (lb/ft 3).
The specific gravity of soil solids is 2.75. This soil is to be excavated and transported to a
construction site, and then compacted to a minimum dry weight of 103.5 pcf at a
moisture content of 20%. (Hint: 1 ton = 2000 lb, 1 yd3 = 27 ft3).

(a) What is the dry unit weight in the field in lb/ft3?

(b) How many cubic yards of excavated soil are needed to produce 10,000 yd3 of
compacted fill?

(c) If 10,000 yd3 of compacted fill is needed for the construction site, how many
truckloads are needed to transport the excavated soil if each truck can carry 20 tons?

12. An embankment for a highway 30 m wide and 1.5 m thick is to be constructed from
sandy soil, trucked in from a borrow pit. The water content of the sandy soil in the borrow
pit is 15% and its void ration is 0.69. Specifications require the embankment to compact
to dry density of 18 kN/m3. The length of the embankment is 1 km.

(a) What is the dry unit weight (in kN/m3 ) of sandy soil from the borrow pit to construct
the embankment? Assume that Gs=2.7.

(b) What is the number of 10 m3 of truckloads of sandy soil required to construct the
embankment? Assume that Gs = 2.7.

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 (c) What is the weight (in kN) of water per truck load of sandy soil? Assume that Gs = 2.7
and total volume of soil per truckload is 10 m 3?

(d) The degree of saturation of the in-situ sandy soil.

13. The following are the details for the backfill material in a vibroflotation project.

D10 = 0.36 mm
D20 = 0.52 mm
D25 = 0.60 mm
D50 = 1.42 mm
D75 = 1.65 mm

(a) Find the suitability number.

(b) Determine the rating.

Excellent

14. The relative compaction of a sand in the field is 88%. The maximum and minimum dry
unit weights of the sand are 118 lb/ft3 and 98 lb/ft3, respectively.

(a) Determine the dry unit weight in the field.

(b) Determine the relative density of compaction.

(c) Determine the moist unit weight at a moisture content of 13%.

15. The relative compaction of a sand in the field is 94%. The max and min dry unit weights
of the sand are 16.2 kN/m3 and 14.9 kN/m3, respectively. For field conditions, compute the
relative density of compaction.

GEO TECH Page 39

16. A proposed embankment fill requires 8000 m3 of compacted soil. The void ratio of the
compacted fill is specified as 0.7. Four borrow pits are available as described in the
following table, which lists the respective void ratios of the soil and the cost per cubic
meter for moving the soil to the proposed construction site. Make the necessary
calculations to select the pit from which the soil should be bought to minimize the cost.
Assume Gs to be the same at all pits.

Borrow Pit Void Ratio Cost ($/m3)

A 0.82 8
B 1.1 5
C 0.90 9
D 0.78 12

GEO TECH Page 40

GEO TECH Page 41
 FA7
1. This test is described as follows: "The water supply at the inlet is adjusted in such a way
that the difference of head between the inlet and the outlet remains constant during the
test period." Constant Head

2. Which of the following statements is TRUE for the relation between discharge velocity (v)
and seepage velocity (vs)?
○ Seepage velocity can never be smaller than discharge velocity
○ No relation between seepage velocity and discharge velocity can be established
○ Seepage velocity is always smaller than discharge velocity
○ Seepage velocity is equal to the discharge velocity

3. The soil layer under a dam is made up of 4 layers with the following properties.
Thickness (m) K (cm/hr)
1 4 6
2 6 4
3 10 3
4 5 2
(a) What is the equivalent coefficient of permeability in the vertical direction?

(b) Considering the equivalent coefficient of permeability in the vertical direction, what is
the transmissivity of the soil when the water table is at the ground surface?

(c) Consider the equivalent coefficient of permeability in the vertical direction. If the
hydraulic gradient of flow is 0.002, what is the interstitial velocity of water through the
soil if the soil has average void ratio of 0.70?

4. The soil under a dam has three layers with different coefficient of permeability.

(a) Determine the equivalent vertical coefficient of permeability in cm/sec.

GEO TECH Page 42

 (b) With the computed vertical coefficient of permeability, compute the transmissibility
of the soil when the water table is at the ground surface, in cm 2/sec.

(c) With the computed vertical coefficient of permeability, compute the interstitial
velocity (in cm/hr) of water moving through the soil if it has a void ratio of 0.60 and a
hydraulic gradient of 0.0018.

5. From constant head permeability test on fine sand, the following data were recorded:

Length of sample = 16 cm
Diameter of sample = 9.6 cm
Constant head difference = 50 cm
Volume of water collected in 4 minutes = 420 cm3

(a) Determine the coefficient of permeability in cm/sec.

(b) Find the discharge velocity in cm/sec.

(c) If the void ratio is 0.55, compute the seepage velocity in cm/sec.

6. A 300 mm diameter test well penetrates 27 m below the static water table. After 24
hours of pumping at 69 liters/sec, the water level in an observation well at a distance of
98 m from the test well is lowered 0.56 m. The other observation well at a distance of
34.5 m from the test well has a drawdown of 1.10 m.

(a) What is the rate of flow in m3 /day?

(b) Compute the coefficient of permeability of the aquifer in m/day.

(c) Compute the transmissibility of the aquifer in m2 /day.

(d) Compute the transmissivity of the aquifer in m2/day.

Note that transmissivity is different from transmissibility. The formula for transmissivity is
as follows:

GEO TECH Page 43

7. For a falling-head permeability test, the following are given: length of specimen =
380mm; area of specimen = 6.5 cm2; k = 0.175 cm/min.

What should be the area of the standpipe for the head to drop from 650 cm to 300 cm in
8 min?

8. A confined aquifer shown has hydraulic conductivity of 48 m/day with porosity of 25%.
The average thickness is 25m and the average width is 4km.

(a) Determine the nearest value of the rate of flow through the aquifer in m 3/day.

(b) Compute the seepage velocity in m/day.

(c) Considering seepage velocity as the velocity, determine the nearest value of the time
of travel from the head of aquifer to a point 4.8 km downstream in days.

9. A 5.3 m thick of soil consist of three different layers as follows:

Layer 1: H1 = 1.6 m, k1 = 4.5 m/day

Layer 2: H2 = 2.3 m, k2 = 3.5 m/day
Layer 3: H3 = 1.4 m, k3 = 5.1 m/day

(a) What is the equivalent coefficient of permeability in the horizontal direction?

(b) Considering the equivalent coefficient of permeability in the horizontal direction,

what is the transmissivity of soil?

GEO TECH Page 44

 (c) Considering the equivalent coefficient of permeability in the horizontal direction, what
is the seepage velocity assuming I = 0.005 and n = 35%.

10. Given are the results of a constant-head permeability test of a sand sample:

Sample diameter = 250 mm

Constant head = 50 cm
Weight of water collected in 90 sec = 410 grams
Length of sample = 250 mm

Determine the coefficient of permeability in mm/min.

11. Three layers of soil are shown with the corresponding values of coefficient of
permeability.

(a) What is the equivalent vertical coefficient of permeability (in cm/s)?

(b) What is the equivalent horizontal coefficient of permeability (in cm/s)?

(c) What is the ratio of equivalent coefficient of permeability, ?

12. Pumping test was carried out in a layer of soil extending to a depth of 28 m. The initial
position of water table is located 4 m below the ground. Observation wells were sighted
33.5 m & 97.5 m from the pumping well. Water is pump at 248.4 m3/hr and when steady
level was attained, the drawdowns at the observation wells were observed to be 1.1 m and
0.54 m, respectively.

(a) Determine the height of water at the farthest observation well.

GEO TECH Page 45

 (b) Compute the coefficient of permeability in m/day.

(c) Compute the transmissivity of the aquifer in m2/day.

(d) Determine the transmissibility (drainage capability) of the soil in m 2/day.

13. A layered soil is shown in the figure. Given the following:

○ H1 = 1.5m
○ H2 = 2.5m
○ H3 = 3.0m
○ k1 = 10-5 cm/sec
○ k2 = 3.0 x 10-3 cm/sec
○ k3 = 3.5 x 10-5 cm/sec

Estimate the ratio of equivalent hydraulic conductivity, .

14. A constant head permeability test is conducted on a certain soil. The diameter of the
ample is 5.5 cm, the length is 18 cm, and the constant head is 45 cm. The mass of water
collected in 50 seconds is 80 grams.

GEO TECH Page 46

 Determine the coefficient of permeability in cm/min.

15. The figure shows the layers of soil in the tube that is 10 cm by 10 cm in cross section.
When the tube is supplied with water, a constant head difference of 30 cm is observed,

(a) Determine the hydraulic gradient.

(b) Find the equivalent coefficient of permeability.

16. A falling head hydraulic conductivity test is performed on a sample of soil. The standpipe
having a diameter 0.2 cm is observed and it takes 60 seconds for the water to drop by 50
cm from an initial hydraulic head of 90 cm. The sample has a length of 20 cm, and a
diameter of 4 cm.

(a) Find the coefficient of permeability of soil.

(b) Solve for the hydraulic gradient.

(c) Compute the rate of flow of water in the soil (in cm 3/s).

17. A confined aquifer underlies an unconfined aquifer as shown in the figure. Given the
following: D1 = 59 m, D2 = 41 m, H1 = 45m, H2 = 33m, K1 = 35 m/day, K2 = 27 m/day, L = 2 km.

GEO TECH Page 47

 (a) Calculate the equivalent coefficient of permeability in horizontal direction.

(b) Calculate the hydraulic gradient.

18. In a falling head permeameter, the sample used is 20 cm long having a cross-sectional
area of 24 cm2. Calculate the time required for a drop of head from 25 cm to 12 cm if the
cross-sectional area of the stand pipe is 2 cm2. The sample of soil is made of three layers.
The thickness of the first layer from the top is 8 cm and has a value of k1 = 2 x 10-4 cm/sec,
the second layer of thickness 8 cm has k2 = 5 x 10-4 cm/sec and the bottom layer of
thickness 4 cm has k3 = 7 x 10-4 cm/sec. Assume that the flow is taking place
perpendicular to the layers.

19. A sand layer of the cross-sectional area shown in the figure has been determined to exist
for 800-m length of the levee. The hydraulic conductivity of the sand layer is 2.8 m/day.

GEO TECH Page 48

 (a) Determine total head at cross-sections A and B.

(b) Determine the quantity of water which flows into the ditch in m 3/min.

(c) Determine the discharge velocity in m/min.

(d) Determine the elevation of water in the observation well.

(e) At the location of observation well, a 1-m thick clay layer overlies the sand layer. The
clay has a bulk unit weight of 18 kN/m3 and saturated unit weight of 20 kN/m3. Comment
on the likely behavior (e.g. quick condition or disaster) of the clay layer.

20. Refer to the constant-head arrangement shown in the figure.

For a test, the following are given:

L = 18 in.
A = Area of the specimen = 3.5 in2
Constant-head difference = h = 28 in

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Constant-head difference = h = 28 in
Water collected in 3 min = 21.58 in3

Calculate the hydraulic conductivity (in/sec).

GEO TECH Page 50

 FA8
1. The water table in soil deposit is 1 m below the ground surface. The soil above the water
table has dry unit weight of 15.6 kN/m3. The saturated unit weight of the soil is 18.6 kN/m3.

(a) Determine the vertical stress at a point 4 m below the ground.

(b) The total pore water pressure at a point 4 m below the ground is:

(c) The effective vertical stress at a point 4 m below the ground is:

2. The water table in a soil layer is 1.5 m below the ground. The soil above the water table is
also saturated. The saturated unit weight of soil is 20.3 kN/m3.

(a) Determine the total pressure at plane "A" in kPa. (A is 4 m below the ground).

(b) Determine the effective pressure at plane "A" in kPa. (A is 4 m below the ground).

3. The water table in soil deposit is 2 m below the ground surface. The soil above the water
table has dry unit weight of 14.85 kN/m3. The saturated unit weight of the soil is 20.58
kN/m3.

(a) Determine the total vertical stress at a point 4.8 m below the ground.

(b) Determine the pore water pressure at a point 4.8 m below the ground.

(c) Determine the effective vertical stress at a point 4.8 m below the ground.

4. A soil deposit is shown in the figure. The ground water table, initially at the ground
surface, was lowered to a depth of 25 ft below the ground. After such lowering, the
degree of saturation of the sand above the water table was lowered to 20%.

(a) Which of the following gives the vertical effective pressure at the midheight of the clay
layer before lowering of the water table in psf?

GEO TECH Page 51

 (b) Which of the following gives the vertical effective pressure at the midheight of the
clay layer after lowering of the water table in psf?

(c) Which of the following gives the vertical effective pressure when there is no water in
the sand layer, in psf?

5. The soil shown in the figure has a void ratio of 0.50 and Gs = 2.70. h1 = 1.5m, h2 = 3m.

(a) Which of the following is closest to the effective unit weight of sand in kN/m 3?

(b) Which of the following is closest to the critical hydraulic gradient of sand (for quick
condition)?

(c) Which of the following is closest to the effective stress at point A in kPa?

6. A saturated clay layer has a thickness of 8 m with a water content of 50% and a specific
gravity of 2.78.

(a) Compute the saturated unit weigh of the clay.

(b) Determine the total stress at the bottom.

(c) Find the pore water pressure at the bottom.

(d) Find the effective stress at the bottom.

7. The water table in a soil layer is 1 meter below the ground. The soil above the water table

GEO TECH Page 52

7. The water table in a soil layer is 1 meter below the ground. The soil above the water table
is also saturated due to capillary action. Saturated unit weight of soil is 20.15 kN/m 3.

(a) Determine the total pressure at plane "A" in kPa. (A is 4.3 m below the ground).

(b) Determine the pore water pressure at plane "A" in kPa. (A is 4.3 below the ground).

(c) Determine the effective pressure at plane "A" in kPa. (A is 4.3 m below the ground).

8. A 20 m thick submerged clay has water content of 57%. The specific gravity of the solid
particles is 2.84.

(a) Determine the density of the clay in kg/m3.

(b) Determine the total vertical stress at the bottom of the clay layer, in kPa.

(c) Determine the effective vertical stress at the bottom of the clay layer, in kPa.

9. For the layered soil shown in the figure, H1 = 5m, H2 = 5m, and H3 = 20m. The soil densities
are ρ1 = 2040 kg/m3, ρ2 = 1940 kg/m3, and ρ3' = 1020 kg/m3.

(a) What is the total stress at the bottom of soil 3?

GEO TECH Page 53

 (b) What is the effective stress at the bottom of soil 3 when h' = 15 meters?

(c) What value of h' will cause quick condition at the bottom of soil 3?

10. A thick layer of saturated clay has moisture content of 59%. The specific gravity of soil
solids is 2.68. The water table is on the ground surface.

(a) What is the total stress at a depth of 30m?

(b) What is the pore water pressure at a depth of 30 m?

(c) What is the effective stress at a depth of 30 m?

(d) What is the saturated density of clay in grams per cc?

11. A 6 m thick homogenous soil layer has dry unit weight of 16.1 kN/m 3 and a saturated unit
weight of 17.8 kN/m3. The water table is located 4 m below the ground surface.

(a) Which of the following statements is correct when the water table rises to the ground
surface?
○ None of these statement are correct
○ The effective pressure at the bottom of the layer will remain the same
○ The effective pressure at the bottom of the layer will increase
○ The effective pressure at the bottom of the layer will decrease

(b) What is the total stress at the bottom of the layer?

(c) What is the pore water pressure at the bottom of the layer?

(d) What is the effective stress at the bottom of the layer?

12. The soil profile consists of a 10 m layer of sand underlain by a 20 m layer of clay. The
location of water table is 4 m from the ground surface. The unit weight of sand above the
water table is 19.05 kN/m3 and below the saturated unit weight of sand is 20.11 kN/m3.
The clay has a saturated unit weight of 18.73 kN/m3.

GEO TECH Page 54

 (a) Find the total stress at the bottom of clay.

(b) Compute the effective stress at the bottom of clay.

(c) If the effective pressure at the bottom of sand is 81.9 kPa, what height above this point
the water will rise in the piezometer.

13. A 4 m thick of sand overlies a thick layer of clay. The water table is 1.8 m below the sand
surface. The sand has a void ration of 0.53 and a degree of saturation of 36% above the
water table. The clay has a moisture content of 45%. Gs = 2.68 for both sand and clay.

(a) What is the unit weight of sand above water table?

(b) Determine the total stress at a point 12 m below the sand surface.

(c) Determine the effective stress at a point 12 m below the sand surface.

14. A 15 m thick clay layer has Gs = 2.72 and e = 0.45. The water table is at the ground surface.

(a) What is the total stress at the bottom of the layer?

(b) What is the pore water pressure at the bottom of the layer?

(c) What is the effective stress at the bottom of the layer?

15. The figure shows a granular soil in a tank having a downward seepage. The water level in
the tank is held constant by adjusting the supply from the top and the outflow at the
bottom. The void ratio of the soil is 0.50 and the specific gravity is 2.7.

GEO TECH Page 55

(a) Find the seepage force per unit volume in kN/m3.

(b) If a piezometer is placed at point B, to what height the water will rise above this point?

(c) Calculate the effective pressure at point C.

(d) Calculate the effective pressure at point B.

(e) Calculate the effective pressure at point A.

GEO TECH Page 56

 Introduction
Definitions
Soil
• It is defined as the uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed organic matter
(solid particles) with liquid and gas in the empty spaces between the solid particles.
• Soil is a three-phase system composed of solid, liquid (water), and gas (air).
• It is also used as a construction material in various civil engineering projects, and it
supports structural foundations

Soil Mechanics
• It is the branch of science that deals with the study of the physical properties of soil and
the behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of forces

Soil Engineering
• It is the application of the principles of soil mechanics to practical problems

Geotechnical Engineering
• It is the sub-discipline of civil engineering that involves natural materials found close to
the surface of the earth.
• It includes the application of soil mechanics to the design of foundations, retaining
structures, and earth structures.

History
• For years, the art of geotechnical engineering was based on only past experiences
through a succession of experimentation.
• Based on those experimentations, many structures were built – some of which have
crumbled, while others are still standing.
• In some cases, the foundation pressure exceeded the load-bearing capacity of the soil
causing extensive structural damage.
• One of the most famous examples of problems related to soil-bearing capacity is the
Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy
• Leaning Tower of Pisa
○ one of the most famous examples of problems related to soil bearing capacity.
○ The structure weighs about 15,700 metric tons and is supported by a circular base
having a diameter of 20 m.
○ The tower has tilted in the past to the east, north, west and, finally, to the south.
Recent investigations showed that a weak clay layer exists at a depth of about 11 m
below the ground surface compression, which caused the tower to tilt.
○ It recently has been stabilized by excavating soil from under the north side of the
tower. As the ground gradually settled to fill the resulting space, the tilt of the tower
eased.
○ The tower now leans 5 degrees.
• Karl Terzaghi
○ is known as the father of modern soil mechanics.
○ His research work focused on the behavior of soils and settlement of clays and on
the failure due to piping in sand under dams.

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 the failure due to piping in sand under dams.
○ 1925-1929 – He worked as a professor in Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
○ October 1929 – He returned to Europe to accept a professorship at the Technical
University of Vienna.
○ 1939 – He returned to United States to become a professor at Harvard University.
○ The publication Erdbaumechanik is primarily the result of his research.

Roles of Geotechnical Engineers

• Subsurface investigation
○ Collection of soil samples from the site, using bores and test pits
○ Analysis of samples to determine the ground’s stress bearing capability and stability
• Field test
○ Identification of issues like erosion and settlement that will pose a safety risk to the
proposed project
• Computer analysis
○ Analysis of results of subsurface investigations and field tests with dedicated
software
○ Development of earthworks and foundations suitable to the site condition

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 Origin of Soil and Grain Size
Rock Cycle and the Origin of Soil
• In general, soils are formed by weathering of rocks. The size of the individual varies over a
wide range. Many of the physical properties of soil are dictated by the size, shape, and
chemical composition of the grains.
• On the basis of their mode of origin, rocks can be divided into three basic types:
1. Igneous Rock
- Igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of molten magma ejected from the
earth’s mantle.
- After ejection by either fissure eruption or volcanic eruption, some of the molten
magma cools on the surface of the earth.
- Granite, gabbro, and basalt are some of the common types of igneous rocks.
2. Sedimentary Rock
- These rocks can be further classified into: detrital and chemical
1. Detrital sedimentary rock
- formed by compaction of the weathered deposits of gravel, sand, silt,
and clay.
- Formed through mechanical processes.
- Examples: conglomerate, sandstone, mudstone, shale 2.
2. Chemical sedimentary rock
- formed by chemical processes.
- One of the example is dissolution which happens when it rains and the
stone is affected by the acidity of the water.
- Examples: limestone, rock salt, dolomite, gypsum
3. Metamorphic Rock
- Metamorphism is the process of changing the composition and texture of rocks
(without melting) by heat and pressure.
- During metamorphism, new minerals are formed. Examples of metamorphic
rocks are: gneiss, schist, anthracite, and quartzite.
• The diagram shows the formation cycle of different types of rock and the processes
associated with them. This is called the rock cycle.

Soil-Particle Size
• Soils generally are called gravel, sand, silt or clay, depending on the predominant size of
particles within the soil. To describe soils by their particle size, several organizations have
developed particle-size classifications
• In this table, the MIT system is presented for illustration purposes only.
Grain size (mm)

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 Grain size (mm)
Name of organization Gravel Sand Silt Clay
Massachusetts Institute of >2 2 to 0.06 to <0.002
Technology (MIT) 0.06 0.002
U.S. Department of Agriculture >2 2 to 0.05 to <0.002
(USDA) 0.05 0.002
American Association of State 76.2 to 2 to 0.075 to <0.002
Highway and Transportation Officials 2 0.075 0.002
(AASHTO)
Unified Soil Classification System (U.S. 76.2 to 4.75 to Fines (i.e., Fines (i.e.,
Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Bureau 4.75 0.075 silts and silts and
of Reclamation, and American clays) <0.075 clays) <0.075
Society for Testing and Materials)

Mechanical Analysis of Soils

• Mechanical analysis is the determination of the size range of particles present in a soil,
expressed as a percentage of the total dry weight. Two methods generally are used to find
the particle-size distribution of soil:
1. Sieve Analysis
- used for particle sizes larger than 0.075 mm in diameter.
- This consists of shaking the soil sample through a set of sieves that have
progressively smaller openings.
- U.S. standard sieve numbers and the sizes of openings are given in the table on
the right.

Sieve No. Opening (mm) Sieve No. Opening (mm)

4 4.75 35 0.500
5 4.00 40 0.425
6 3.35 50 0.355
7 2.80 60 0.250
8 2.36 70 0.212
10 2.00 80 0.180
12 1.70 100 0.150
14 1.40 120 0.125
16 1.18 140 0.106
18 1.00 170 0.090
20 0.850 200 0.075
25 0.710 270 0.053
30 0.600
- To conduct a sieve analysis, one must first oven -dry the soil.
- Then, soil is shaken through a stack of sieves with openings of decreasing size
from top to bottom. A pan is also placed below the stack. Procedure takes up to
10 mins.
- Steps of Sieve Analysis
1. Determine the mass of soil retained on each sieve (i.e., M 1, M2, … Mn) and in
the pan (i.e., Mp).
2. Determine the total mass of the soil: M1 + M2 + … + Mi + … + Mn + Mp = ∑M
3. Determine the cumulative mass of soil retained above each sieve. For the ith
sieve, it is M1 + M2 + ⋯ + Mi
4. The mass of soil passing the ith sieve is ∑M - ( M1 + M2 + … + Mi )
5. The percent of soil passing the ith sieve (or percent finer) is

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 5. The percent of soil passing the ith sieve (or percent finer) is

- The calculations are plotted on semilogarithmic graphing paper with percent

finer as the ordinate (arithmetic scale) and sieve opening size as the abscissa
(logarithmic scale). This plot is referred to as the particle-size distribution curve.
- In logarithmic scale 10, 1, and 0.1 is of equal distance.

2. Hydrometer Analysis
- used for particle sizes smaller than 0.075 mm in diameter.
- Hydrometer analysis is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains in
water. When a soil specimen is dispersed in water, the particles settle at different
velocities, depending on their shape, size, weight, and the viscosity of water.
- Stoke’s Law:

Where:
v - velocity
ρs - density of soil particles
ρw - density of water
µ - viscosity of water
D - diameter of soil particles

Particle-Size Distribution Curve

1. Effective Size
○ This parameter is the diameter in the particle size distribution curve corresponding to
10% finer. The effective size of a granular soil is a good measure to estimate the
hydraulic conductivity and drainage through soil.
2. Uniformity Coefficient

Where: D60 - diameter corresponding to 60% finer

3. Coefficient of Curvature
○ Also known as Coefficient of Concavity or Coefficient of Gradation.

Where: D30 - diameter corresponding to 30% finer

4. Sorting Coefficient

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 Where:
D75 - diameter corresponding to 75% finer
D25 - diameter corresponding to 25% finer

Types of Particle-Size Distribution Curves:

1. Poorly Graded / Uniformly Graded – This represents a type of soil in which most of the soil
grains are the same size such as Curve I.
2. Well Graded – Curve II represents a soil in which the particle sizes are distributed over a wide
range.
Note: A well-graded soil has a greater than about 4 for gravels and 6 for sands, and a
between 1 and 3 (for gravels and sands).
3. Gap Graded – Curve III represents a soil which has a combination of two or more uniformly
graded fractions.

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Sample Problem 1
The following are the results of a sieve analysis. Make the necessary calculations and draw a
particle-size distribution curve.
U.S sieve no. Mass of soil retained
on each sieve (g)
4 0
10 40
20 60
40 89
60 140
80 122
100 210
200 556
Pan 12

U.S sieve Opening Mass of soil retained on Cumulative mass retained Percent
no. (mm) each sieve (g) above each sieve (g) Finer
4 4.75 0 0 100
10 2.00 40 0+40=40 94.5
20 0.850 60 40+60=100 86.3
40 0.425 89 100+89=189 74.1
60 0.250 140 189+140=329 54.9
80 0.180 122 329+122=451 38.1
100 0.150 210 451+210=661 9.3
200 0.075 56 661+56=717 1.6
Pan - 12 717+12=729 0

Step 1: fine the sum of mass:

Step 2: Solve for cumulative mass retained above each sieve.

Step 3: Solve for Percent Finer for each row using this:

Step 4: Graph the following data:

Sample Problem 2
For the particle size-distribution curve shown in Sample Problem 1, determine the following:

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 For the particle size-distribution curve shown in Sample Problem 1, determine the following:
a. D10, D30, and D60
b. Coefficient of uniformity, Cu
c. Coefficient of gradation, Cc

a. Using interpolation [calculator tricks], go to statics choose lnx, input opening as x and
percent finer as y. click AC then option choose Regression, pick x hat. Put the percent you
needed before the x hat.
D10 = 0.151 mm
D30 = 0.171 mm
D60 = 0.288 mm
b.

c.

Sample Problem 3
• For the sieve analysis data in Sample Problem 1, determine the percentages of gravel, sand,
silt, and clay-size particles present. Use the Unified Soil Classification System.

Name of organization Gravel Sand Silt Clay

Unified Soil Classification System (U.S. 76.2 to 4.75 to Fines (i.e., Fines (i.e.,
Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Bureau of 4.75 0.075 silts and silts and
Reclamation, and American Society for clays) <0.075 clays) <0.075
Testing and Materials)

Based on the Table from Problem 1, Percent Finer of 4.75 is 100, hence 100-100=0 % gravel.
For 0.075, the percent finer is 1.6, hence 100-1.6=98.4 % sand. For <0.075, 1.6 % silt and clay.

Particle Shape
• The shape of particles influence the physical properties of a given soil. However, not much
attention is paid to particle shape because it is more difficult to measure. The particle shape
generally can be divided into three major categories:
1. Bulky
- Angular
- Subangular
- Subrounded
- Rounded
2. Flaky - most are clays
3. Needle Shaped - mostly corral deposits.

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GEO TECH Page 65
 Weight-volume relationship
Weight-Volume Relationship
• In natural occurrence, soils are three-phase systems consisting of soil solids, water, and
air.
• The figure shows an element of soil of volume V and weight W as it would exist in a
natural state.

• To develop the weight-volume relationships, we must separate the three phases (solid,
water, and air) as shown in the figure. Thus, the volume of a given soil sample can be
expressed as:

Where:
Vs - volume of soil solids
Vv - volume of voids
Vw - volume of water in the voids
Va - volume of air in the voids

• Assuming that the weight of the air is negligible, we can give the total weight of the
sample as

Where:
Ws - weight of soil solids
Ww - weight of water

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• The volume relationships commonly used for the three phases in a soil element are:
1. Void Ratio
- Void ratio (e) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of
solids.

2. Porosity
- Porosity (n) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume.

3. Degree of Saturation
- The degree of saturation (S) is defined as the ratio of the volume of water to
the volume of voids.

- This is commonly expressed as a percentage.

• Relationship between void ratio and porosity

• Modifying the equation, we'll have:

• The common terms used for weight relationships are:

1. Moisture Content
- Moisture content (w) is also referred to as water content and is defined as the
ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids in a given volume of soil.

2. Unit Weight
- Unit weight ( ) is the weight of soil per unit volume.

• Dry Unit Weight

○ Often, to solve earthwork problems, one must know the weight per unit volume of
soil, excluding water. This weight is referred to as the dry unit weight, .

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 ○ The dry unit weight can also be related to unit weight and moisture content.

Derivation:

• Density and Dry Density

○ Instead of unit weight, sometimes it is more convenient to work with mass densities
of soil.

Where:
- density of soil (kg/m3)
M - total mass of the soil sample (kg)
V - total volume of the soil sample (m3)

Where:
- density of soil (kg/m3)
Ms - total mass of the soil sample (kg)
V - total volume of the soil sample (m3)

• Relationship among Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture Content, and Specific Gravity

Derivation:

Note: Gs - specific gravity of soil solids

• Saturated Unit Weight

○ If the soil sample is saturated – that is, the void spaces are completely filled with
water = 1 100% , the following can be derived:

• Relative Density
The term relative density is commonly used to indicate the in situ denseness or

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 ○ The term relative density is commonly used to indicate the in situ denseness or
looseness of granular soil. It is defined as

Where:
Dr - relative density, usually given as a percentage
e - in situ void ratio of the soil
emax - void ratio of the soil in the loosest state
emin - void ratio of the soil in the densest state

○ The values of may vary from a minimum of 0% for very loose soil to a maximum
of 100% for very dense soils. Soils engineers qualitatively describe the granular soil
deposits according to their relative densities, as shown in the table.

Relative Density (%) Description of soil deposit

0-15 Very loose
15-50 Loose
50-70 Medium
70-85 Dense
85-100 Very Dense

Sample Problem 1
For a moist soil sample, the following are given:
○ Total volume: = 1.2 3
○ Total mass: = 2350
○ Moisture content: = 8.6%
○ Specific gravity of soil solids: = 2.71

Determine the following:

a. Moist density
b. Dry density
c. Void ratio
d. Porosity
e. Degree of saturation
f. Volume of water in the soil sample

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.
Solve for Vv:

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Sample Problem 2
In its natural state, a moist soil has a volume of 0.33 ft3 and weighs 39.93 lb. The oven-dry
weight of the soil is 34.54 lb. If = 2.67, calculate the moisture content, moist unit
weight, dry unit weight, void ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation.

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

Sample Problem 3
The following data are given for a soil:
○ Porosity: = 0.40
○ Specific gravity of the soil solids: = 2.68
○ Moisture content: = 12%

Determine the mass of water to be added to 10 m 3 of soil for full saturation.

Solve for existing volume of water in the soil:

Solve for the additional volume of water for the soil to be saturated:

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 Solve for the additional mass of water for the soil to be saturated:

Sample Problem 4
For a given sandy soil, = 0.75 and = 0.4. Let = 2.68. In the field, the soil is
compacted to a moist density of 112 lb/ft3 at a moisture content of 12%. Determine the
relative density of compaction.

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 Plasticity
Introduction
• Plasticity of the soil is defined as its property by virtue of which it undergoes deformation
without cracking, fracturing or rupturing.
• In the early 1900s, a Swedish scientist named Atterberg developed a method to describe the
consistency of fine-grained soils with varying moisture contents.
• At a very low moisture content, soil behaves more like a solid. When the moisture content is
very high, the soil and water may flow like a liquid.
• Hence, on an arbitrary basis, depending on moisture content, the behavior of soil can be
divided into four basic states – solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid.

Atterberg Limits
• Shrinkage limit – moisture content, in percent at which the transition from solid to semisolid
state takes place.
• Plastic limit – moisture content at the point of transition from semisolid to plastic state.
• Liquid limit – moisture content at the point of transition from plastic to liquid state.

Liquid Limit
• A schematic diagram of a liquid limit device is shown in the figure.
• This device consists of a brass cup and a hard rubber base. The brass cup can be dropped
onto the base by a cam operated by a crank.

• To perform the liquid limit test, one must place a soil paste in the cup. A groove is then cut at
the center of the soil pat with the standard grooving tool. By the use of the crank -operated
cam, the cup is lifted and dropped from a height of 10 mm.

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• The moisture content, in percent, required to close a distance of 12.7 mm along the bottom of
the groove after 25 blows is defined as the liquid limit.

• It is difficult to adjust the moisture content in the soil to meet the required 12.7 mm closure of
the groove in the soil pat at 25 blows. Hence, at least three tests for the same soil are
conducted at varying moisture contents, with the number of blows, N, required to achieve
closure varying between 15 and 35.
• The moisture content of the soil, in percent, and the corresponding number of blows are
plotted in semilogarithmic paper.
• The relationship between moisture content and log N is approximated as a straight line. This
line is referred to as the flow curve.
• The moisture content corresponding to N=25, determined from the flow curve, gives the
liquid limit of the soil.

• The slope of the flow line is defined as the flow index and may be written as

Where:
IF - flow index
w1 - moisture content of soil, in percent, corresponding to N 1 blows
W2 - moisture content of soil, in percent, corresponding to N 2 blows

• Another method of determining liquid limit is the fall cone method.

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 • Another method of determining liquid limit is the fall cone method.
• In this test, the liquid limit is defined as the moisture content at which a standard cone of
apex angle 30° and weight of 0.78 N will penetrate a distance = 20 in 5 seconds when
allowed to drop from a position of point contact with the soil surface.

• Due to the difficulty in achieving the liquid limit from a single test, four or more tests can be
conducted at various moisture contents to determine the fall cone penetration, d.
• A semi-logarithmic graph can then be plotted with moisture content (w) versus cone
penetration d.
• The plot results in a straight line. The moisture content corresponding to = 20 is the
liquid limit.
• The flow index can be defined as

Where:
w1, w2 - moisture contents at cone penetrations of d1 and d2, respectively.

Plastic Limit
• The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content in percent, at which the soil crumbles,
when rolled into threads of 4.2 mm in diameter.
• The plastic limit test is performed by repeated rollings of an ellipsoidal-sized soil mass by
hand on a ground glass plate.
• Similar with liquid limit determination, the fall cone method can be used to obtain the plastic
limit. This can be achieved by using a cone of similar geometry but with a mass of 2.35 N. The
moisture content corresponding to a cone penetration of = 20 is the plastic limit.

Plasticity Index

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Plasticity Index
• The plasticity index (PI) is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit of a soil,
or

• It is important in classifying fine-grained soils. It is fundamental to the Casagrande plasticity

chart, which is currently the basis for the Unified Soil Classification System.

Sample Problem 1
Following are the results from the liquid and plastic limit tests for a soil. Liquid limit test:
Number of blows, N Moisture content (%)
15 42
20 40.8
28 39.1
Plastic limit test: PL = 18.7%
a. Draw the flow curve and obtain the liquid limit
b. What is the plasticity index of the soil?
c. Determine the flow index.

a. The flow curve can only be plotted using excel. However, the equation for Liquid Limit can be
obtained using the lnx equation on statistics mode. Input N to x and Moisture content to y.
Click AC then go to option then select Regression. Click on a and b. Substitute the value to
this equation:

y = bln(x) + a

a = 54.662
b = -4.658
x = 25 (for LL)

LL= -4.658*ln(25)+54.662 = 39.67%

b. PI = LL - PL = 39.67 - 18.7 = 20.97%

c. To determine the flow index or the slope of the flow curve, we need to use the equation
displayed on the chart.

y = -4.658ln(x) + 54.662

Assume two values of x, and determine their corresponding y values.

@ = 22, = −4.658 ln 22 + 54.662 = 40.26

@ = 28, = −4.658 ln 28 + 54.662 = 39.14

Shrinkage Limit
• Soil shrinks as moisture is gradually lost from it. With continuing loss of moisture, a point will
be reached where more loss of moisture will result in no further volume change.
• The moisture content, in percent, at which the volume of the soil mass ceases to change is
defined as the shrinkage limit.

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 Where:
M1 - mass of the wet soil pat in the dish at the beginning of the test (g)
M2 - mass of the dry soil pat (g)
Vi - initial volume of the wet soil pat (cm3)
Vf - volume of the oven-dried soil pat (cm3)
ρw - density of water (g/cm3)

Shrinkage Ratio
• Another parameter that can be determined from a shrinkage limit test is the shrinkage ratio,
which is the ratio of the volume change of soil as a percentage of the dry volume to the
corresponding change in moisture content, or

• By derivation, the following can also be obtained:

Sample Problem 2
Following are the results of a shrinkage limit test:
○ Initial volume of soil in a saturated state = 24.6 cm3
○ Final volume of soil in a dry state = 15.9 cm3
○ Initial mass in a saturated state = 44.0 g
○ Final mass in a dry state = 30.1 g

a. Determine the shrinkage limit of the soil.

b. Determine the shrinkage ratio.

a.

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 b.

Liquidity Index and Consistency Index

• The relative consistency of a cohesive soil in the natural state can be defined by a ratio called
the liquidity index, which is given by

Where:
w - in situ moisture content of soil

• Another index that is commonly used for engineering purposes is the consistency index,
which may be defined as

Where:
w - in situ moisture content of soil

Sample Problem 3
Refer to Sample Problem 1 and determine the liquidity index when the in situ moisture
content is 26%.

Plasticity Chart
• Casagrande studied the relationship of the plasticity index to the liquid limit of a wide variety
of natural soils. On the basis of the test results, he proposed a plasticity chart as shown in the
figure.
• An empirical A-line with an equation PI=0.73(LL-20) separates the inorganic clays from the
inorganic silts.
○ Inorganic clay values lie above the A-line
○ Inorganic silts lie below the A-line
○ Organic silts plot below the A-line and with LL ranging from 30 to 50
○ Organic clays plot below the A-line and LL greater than 50
• Note that a U-line with an equation PI = 0.9(LL - 8) lies above the A-line. The U-line is
approximately the upper limit of the relationship of the plasticity index to the liquid limit for
any currently known soil.

Activity
• Skempton (1953) observed that the plasticity index of a soil increases linearly with the
percentage of clay-size fraction (% finer than 2 by weight) present.
• He defined a quantity called activity, which is the slope of the line correlating PI and % finer
than 2 . This may be expressed as

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GEO TECH Page 78
 Classification of Soils
Introduction
• Classification systems provide a common language to concisely express the
general characteristics of soils, which are infinitely varied, without detailed
descriptions.
• Most of the soil classification systems that have been developed are based on
simple index properties such as particle-size distribution and plasticity.
• Soil Classification Systems:
1. USDA
2. AASHTO
3. USCS

Textural Classification
• Sometimes called triangular classification.
• In a general sense, texture of soil refers to its surface appearance. Soil texture is
influenced by the size of the individual particles present in it.
• In the textural classification system, the soils are named after their principal
components, such as sandy clay, silty clay, and so forth.
• The figure on the right shows the textural classification system developed by the
US Department of Agriculture (USDA).
• This classification is based on these particle size limits:
○ Sand size: 2.0 to 0.05 mm in diameter
○ Silt size: 0.05 to 0.002 mm in diameter
○ Clay size: smaller than 0.002 mm in diameter

• For example, if the particle-size distribution of soil A shows 30% sand, 40% silt,
and 30% clay-size particles, its textural classification can be determined by
proceeding in the manner indicated by the arrows in the figure. This soil falls into
the zone of clay loam.

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• Note that this chart is based on only the fraction of soil that passes through the
No. 10 sieve (2 mm)
• Hence, if the particle-size distribution of a soil is such that a certain percentage of
the soil particles is larger than 2 mm in diameter, a correction will be necessary.
• For example, if soil B has a particle-size distribution of 20% gravel, 10% sand, 30%
silt, and 40% clay, the modified textural compositions are:

Sand Size:

Silt Size:

Clay Size:

USDA classification: Clay

Because of the large percentage of gravel, it may also be called
gravelly clay.

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----
Sample Problem 1:
Classify the following soils according to the USDA textural classification system.

Particle-size distribution (%) A B C D

Gravel 10 21 0 12
Sand 20 12 18 22
Silt 41 35 24 26
Clay 29 32 58 40

Step 1: Calculate the modified percentages of sand, silt, and clay as follows:

Modified % Sand:
Modified % Silt:
Modified % Clay:

Thus, the following table results:

Particle-size distribution (%) A B C D

Sand 22.2 15.2 18 25
Silt 45.6 44.3 24 29.5
Clay 32.2 40.5 58 45.5

Step 2: With the modified composition calculated, determine the zone into which
each soil falls. The results are as follows:

Classification of Soil
A - Gravelly clay loam
B - Gravelly silty clay
C - Clay
D - Gravelly Clay
----

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----
• Although the textural classification of soil is relatively simple, it is based entirely on
the particle-size distribution. The amount and type of clay minerals present in
fine-grained soils dictate to a great extent their physical properties.
• Hence, the soils engineer must consider plasticity, which results from the
presence of clay minerals, to interpret soil characteristics properly. Because
textural classification systems do not take plasticity into account, they are
inadequate for most engineering purposes.
• Two more elaborate classification systems take into consideration the particle-size
distribution and Atterberg limits.
• The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
is used mostly by state and county highway departments.
• Geotechnical engineers generally prefer the Unified Soil Classification System
(USCS)

AASHTO Classification System

• The AASHTO classification in present use is given on the right. According to this
system, soil is classified into seven major groups: A-1 through A-7.
• Soils classified under groups A-1, A-2, and A3 are granular materials. On the other
hand, soils under groups A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7 are silt-clay materials.

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• This classification system is based on the following criteria:
1. Grain size
a. Gravel: fraction passing the 75-mm sieve and retained on the No. 10 (2-
mm) U.S. sieve
b. Sand: fraction passing the No. 10 (2-mm) U.S. sieve and retained on the
No. 200 (0.075-mm) U.S. sieve
c. Silt and clay: fraction passing the No. 200 U.S. sieve
2. Plasticity
- The term silty is applied when the fine fractions of the soil have a
plasticity index of 10 or less.
- The term clayey is applied when the fine fractions have a plasticity
index of 11 or more.
3. If cobbles and boulders (size larger than 75 mm) are encountered, they are
excluded from the portion of the soil sample from which classification is
made. However, the percentage of such material is recorded.
• To classify a soil according to the table, one must apply the test data from left to
right. By process of elimination, the first group from the left into which the test
data fit is the correct classification.
• To evaluate the quality of a soil as a highway subgrade material, one must also
incorporate a number called the group index (GI) with the groups and subgroups
of the soil. This index is written in parenthesis after the group or subgroup
designation.

Where:
F200 - percentage passing through the No. 200 sieve
LL - Liquid Limit
PI - Plasticity Index
- The first term is the partial group index determined from the liquid
limit.
- The second term is the partial group index determined from the
plasticity index.

• The following are some rules for determining the group index:
1. If the equation for GI yields a negative value, it is taken as 0.
2. The group index calculated is rounded off to the nearest whole number.
Example: GI = 3.4 is rounded off to 3, GI = 3.5 is rounded off to 4
3. There is no upper limit for the group index.
4. The group index of soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and
A-3 is always 0.
5. When calculating the group index for soils that belong to groups A-2-6 and
A-2-7, use the partial group index for PI, or

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 • In general, the quality of performance of a soil as a subgrade material is inversely
proportional to the group index.

----
Sample Problem 2:
• The results of the particle-size analysis of a soil are as follows:
○ Percent passing the No. 10 sieve = 100
○ Percent passing the No. 40 sieve = 80
○ Percent passing the No. 200 sieve = 58

The liquid limit and plasticity index of the minus No. 40 fraction of the soil are 30
and 10, respectively. Classify the soil by the AASHTO system.

Since 58% of the soil is passing through the No. 200 sieve, it falls under silt-clay
classifications. Proceeding from left to right, it falls under group A-4.

Hence, the classification of the soil is: A-4(3)

Sample Problem 3
• Ninety-five percent of a soil passes through the No. 200 sieve and has a liquid limit
of 60 and plasticity index of 40. Classify the soil by the AASHTO system.

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 Since 95% of the soil is passing through the No. 200 sieve, it falls under silt-clay
classifications.

Therefore, the soil is either A-7-5 or A-7-6.

To determine its classification.

We have to compare the given plasticity index with − 30.
− 30 = 60 − 30 = 30
= 40 > 30

Hence, the soil is classified as A-7-6.

Lastly, group index has to be computed.

The complete and final classification of the soil is: A-7-6(42)

Sample Problem 4
• Classify the following soil by the AASHTO Classification System:
○ Percentage passing No. 10 sieve = 90
○ Percentage passing No. 40 sieve = 76
○ Percentage passing No. 200 sieve = 34
○ Liquid limit (-No. 40 fraction) = 37
○ Plasticity index (-No. 40 fraction) = 12

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 The percentage passing through the No. 200 sieve is less than 35, so the soil is a
granular material.

It is classified as A-2-6. According to the rules presented earlier, if the soil is of type
A-2-6, the following equation for group index must be used:

Hence, the classification of the soil is: A-2-6(0)

----

Unified Soil Classification System

• This system classifies soils into two broad categories:
1. Coarse-grained soils that are gravelly and sandy in nature with less than 50%
passing through the No. 200 sieve. The group symbols start with a prefix of G
or S.
2. Fine-grained soils are with 50% or more passing through the No. 200 sieve.
The group symbols start with the following prefixes:
- M – inorganic silt
- C – inorganic clay
- O – organic silts and clays
- Pt – peat, muck, and other highly organic soils
• Other symbols used for the classification are:
○ W – well graded
○ P – poorly graded
○ L – low plasticity (liquid limit less than 50%)
○ H – high plasticity (liquid limit equal to or greater than 50%)
• Examples:
○ SW - well-graded sand
○ SC - clayey sand
CL - low plasticity clay

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 ○ CL - low plasticity clay
• For proper classification according to this system, some or all of the following
information must be known:
1. Percent of gravel – that is, the fraction passing the 76.2-mm sieve and
retained on the No. 4 sieve (4.75-mm opening)
2. Percent of sand – that is, the fraction passing the No. 4 sieve (4.75-mm
opening) and retained on the No. 200 sieve (0.075-mm opening)
3. Percent of silt and clay – that is, the fraction finer than the No. 200 sieve
(0.075-mm opening)
4. Uniformity coefficient (Cu ) and the coefficient of gradation (Cc )
5. Liquid limit and plasticity index of the portion of soil passing the No. 40 sieve
• The group symbols for coarse-grained gravelly soils are GW, GP, GM, GC, GC-GM,
GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM, and GP-GC.
• The group symbols for fine-grained soils are CL, ML, OL, CH, MH, OH, CL-ML, and Pt.

----
Sample Problem 5:
• For a given soil, the following are known:
○ Percentage passing No. 4 sieve = 70
○ Percentage passing No. 200 sieve = 30
○ Liquid limit = 33
○ Plastic limit = 12

Classify the soil using the Unified Soil Classification System.

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The percentage passing No. 200 sieve is 30% which is less than 50%, so it is a
coarse-grained soil.
Coarse fraction = 100 – 30 = 70%
Gravel fraction = 100 – 70 = 30%

Since < 50, it is a sandy soil.

Since more than 12% is passing No. 200 sieve, it is either SM or SC.

With LL = 33 and PL = 12, it plots above the A-line. Also, the plasticity index is
greater than 7.

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 Thus, the group symbol is SC.
----
Plasticity Chart for Coarse-Grained Soil

----
Sample Problem 6:
• For a given soil, the following are known:
○ Percentage passing No. 4 sieve = 80
○ Percentage passing No. 200 sieve = 52
○ Liquid limit = 30
○ Plastic limit = 8

Classify the soil using the Unified Soil Classification System.

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 The percentage passing No. 200 sieve is 52% which is more than 50%, so it is a
fine-grained soil.

Since the liquid limit is 30% which is less than 50%, it is classified as one of the
following: ML, CL, and OL.

We need to use the plasticity chart to identify its classification.

= − = 30 − 8 = 22 ; x = 30 | y = 22

Since it plots above the A-line, the classification is CL

Sample Problem 7
• Classify the following soil using USCS:
○ % passing sieve No. 4 = 86%
○ % passing sieve No. 200 = 12%
○ D10 = 0.10 mm, D60 = 0.90 mm, D30 = 0.32 mm
○ LL = 36%
○ PL = 26%

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The percentage passing No. 200 sieve is 12% which is less than 50%, so the soil is
coarse-grained.

Since = 15.91% < 50, it is a sandy soil

Next, the percentage of fines (percent passing No. 200 sieve) will be the basis to
determine whether it is a clean sand or sands with fines.

Since there is exactly 12% passing sieve No. 200, a dual symbol is required.

1 < 1.14 < 3

Since it has met both the requirements above, one of the dual symbols is SW

Next, we need to determine whether it is SM or SC.

@LL = 36, PI = 0.73 (36 - 20) = 11.68 > 10

When it is plotted on the plasticity chart, it is located below the A-line. Hence, the
second symbol is SM.

The final classification of the soil is SW-SM.

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 The final classification of the soil is SW-SM.
----
Plasticity Chart for Fine-Grained Soil

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 Soil Compaction
Introduction
• In the construction of highway embankments, earth dams, and many other engineering
structures, loose soils must be compacted to increase their unit weights.
• Compaction increases the strength characteristics of soils, which increase the bearing
capacity of foundations constructed over them. Compaction also decreases the amount
of undesirable settlement of structures and increases the stability of slopes of
embankments.
• Smooth-wheel rollers, sheepsfoot rollers, rubber-tired rollers, and vibratory rollers are
generally used in the field for soil compaction.

• Compaction, in general, is the densification of soil by removal of air, which requires

mechanical energy. The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of its dry
unit weight.
• The dry unit weight after compaction first increases as the moisture content increases.
Note that at a moisture content = 0, the moist unit weight is equal to the dry unit
weight , or

• When the mois ture content is gradually increased and the same compactive effort is
used for compaction, the weight of the soil solids in a unit volume gradually increases. For
example, at = 1,
= 2
• However, the dry unit weight at this moisture content is given by

• Beyond a certain moisture content = 2, any increase in the moisture content tends to
reduce the dry unit weight. The moisture content at which the maximum dry unit weight
is attained is generally referred to as the optimum moisture content.

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Standard Proctor Test
• The laboratory test generally used to obtain the maximum dry unit weight of compaction
and the optimum moisture content is called the Proctor compaction test.
• In the Proctor test, the soil is compacted in a mold that has a volume of 944 cm3 . The
diameter of the mold is 101.6 mm.
• The soil is mixed with varying amounts of water and then compacted in three equal
layers by a hammer that delivers 25 blows to each layer.
• The hammer has a mass of 2.5 kg and has a drop of 305 mm.
• For each test, the moist unit weight of compaction, , can be calculated as

Where:
W - weight of the compacted soil in the mold
Vm - volume of the mold (944 cm3)

• With the known moisture content determined from laboratory, the dry unit weight can
be calculated as

Where:
w(%) - percentage of moisture content

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 mold Hammer

• The procedure for the standard Proctor test is elaborated in ASTM Test Designation
D-698 (ASTM, 2007 ) and AASHTO Test Designation T-99 (AASHTO, 1982 ).

• The values of can be plotted against the corresponding moisture contents to obtain
the maximum dry unit weight and the optimum moisture content for the soil.

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 Compaction curve for a silty-clay soil

Sample Problem 1
The laboratory test results of a standard Proctor test are given in the following table:

Volume of Mold (ft3) Weight of moist soil in mold (lb) Moisture content, w(%)
1/30 3.78 10
1/30 4.01 12
1/30 4.14 14
1/30 4.12 16
1/30 4.01 18
1/30 3.90 20

Determine the maximum dry unit weight of compaction and the optimum moisture
content.

Volume of Weight of moist Moisture (lb/ft3) d (lb/ft3)

Mold (ft3) soil in mold (lb) content,
w(%)
1/30 3.78 10 113.4 103.09
1/30 4.01 12 120.3 107.41
1/30 4.14 14 124.2 108.95
1/30 4.12 16 123.6 106.55
1/30 4.01 18 120.3 101.95
1/30 3.90 20 117 97.5

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 When is plotted against and the best fit curve is drawn, we can see that the
maximum dry unit weight ( )= / and the optimum moisture content is .
%.

Effect of Compaction Effort

• The compaction energy per unit volume used for the standard Proctor test can be given
as

• The following are observations regarding compaction effort:

1. As the compaction effort is increased, the maximum dry unit weight of compaction
is also increased.
2. As the compaction effort is increased, the optimum moisture content is decreased
to some extent.

Modified Proctor Test

• The standard Proctor test was modified to represent better field conditions. This revised
version is referred to as the modified Proctor test. For conducting the modified Proctor
test, the same volume of mold is used. However, the soil is compacted in five layers by a
hammer that has a mass of 4.54 kg. The drop of the hammer is 457 mm. The number of
hammer blows for each layer is kept at 25 as in the case of the standard Proctor test.
• The compaction energy for this type of compaction test can be calculated as 2700 .
• Because it increases the compactive effort, the modified Proctor test results in an
increase in the maximum dry unit weight of the soil. The increase in the maximum dry
unit weight is accompanied by a decrease in the optimum moisture content.

Specifications for Field Compaction

• In most specifications for earthwork, the contractor is instructed to achieve a compacted
field dry unit weight of 90 to 95% of the maximum dry unit weight determined in the
laboratory by either the standard or modified Proctor test. This is a specification for
relative compaction, which can be expressed as

• For the compaction of granular soils, specifications sometimes are written in terms of the
required relative density or the required relative compaction.

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 required relative density or the required relative compaction.

Where:

Sample Problem 2
The maximum and minimum dry unit weights of a sand were determined in the
laboratory to be 18.31 kN/m3 and 15.25 kN/m3, respectively.
a. What is the relative compaction in the field if the relative density is 64%?
b. What is the dry unit weight in the field?
c. What is the moist unit weight in the field if its moisture content is 28%?

a.

b.

c.

Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction

• The standard procedures for determining field unit weight of compaction include:
1. Sand cone method
- The sand cone device consists of a glass or plastic jar with a metal cone
attached to it. The jar is filled with uniform dry Ottawa sand.
- In the field, a small hole is excavated in the area where the soil has been
compacted. After excavation, the cone with the sand-filled jar attached to it is
inverted and placed over the hole. Sand is allowed to flow out of the jar to fill
the hole and the cone.

W1 - combined weight of the jar, cone, and the sand filling the jar
W2 - weight of the moist soil excavated from the hole
W3 - dry weight of the moist soil excavated

Where: w(%) is the moisture content of soil excavated

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 Where: w(%) is the moisture content of soil excavated
W4 - combined weight of the jar, cone, and the remaining sand in the jar
W5 - weight of sand to fill the hole and cone - W1 - W4

- To determine the volume of the excavated hole:

Where:
Wc - weight of sand to fill the cone only
- dry unit weight of Ottawa sand
*both are determined from the calibration in the lab
- To determine the dry unit weight of compaction:

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2. Rubber balloon method
- The procedure for the rubber balloon method is similar to that for the sand
cone method; a test hole is made and the moist weight of soil is removed
from the hole and its moisture content are determined.
- However, the volume of the hole is determined by introducing into it a rubber
balloon filled with water from a calibrated vessel, from which the volume can
be read directly.

3. Nuclear method
- Nuclear density meters are often used for determining the compacted dry
unit weight of soil. It uses a radioactive isotope source. The instrument
measures the weight of wet soil per unit volume and the weight of water
present in a unit volume of soil.

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Sample Problem 3
The following are the results of a field unit-weight determination test performed by
means of the sand cone method:

○ Calibrated dry density of Ottawa sand = 1570 kg/m3

○ Calibrated mass of Ottawa sand to fill the cone = 0.545 kg
○ Mass of jar + cone + sand (before use) = 7.59 kg
○ Mass of jar + cone + sand (after use) = 4.78 kg
○ Mass of moist soil from hole = 3.007 kg
○ Moisture content of moist soil = 10.2%

Determine the dry unit weight of compaction in the field.

Mass of sand used to fill the hole and cone = 7.59kg -4.78kg = 2.81kg
Mass of sand used to fill the hole = 2.81kg - 0.545kg = 2.265kg

Suitability Number
• The grain-size distribution of the backfill material is an important factor that controls the
rate of densification. Brown (1977) has defined a quantity called the suitability number for
rating backfill as

Where:
D50 - diameter (in mm) through which 50% of the material passes
D20 - diameter (in mm) through which 20% of the material passes
D10 - diameter (in mm) through which 10% of the material passes

• The smaller the value of SN, the more desirable the backfill material. Following is a backfill
rating system proposed by Brown:

Range of SN Rating as backfill

0-10 Excellent

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 0-10 Excellent
10-20 Good
20-30 Fair
30-50 Poor
>50 Unstable

Sample Problem 4
• Following are the details for the backfill material used in a vibroflotation project:
○ D10 = 0.36 mm
○ D20 = 0.52 mm
○ D50 = 1.42 mm
Determine the suitability number SN . What would be its rating as a backfill material?

Rating: Excellent

Sample Problem 5
• A proposed embankment fill requires 8000 m3 of compacted soil. The void ratio of the
compacted fill is specified as 0.7. Four borrow pits are available as described in the
following table, which lists the respective void ratios of the soil and the cost per cubic
meter for moving the soil to the proposed construction site. Make the necessary
calculations to select the pit from which the soil should be bought to minimize the cost.
Assume to be the same at all pits.

Borrow Pit Void Ratio Cost ($/m3)

A 0.84 12
B 0.78 10
C 0.96 7
D 1.3 9

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GEO TECH Page 103
 Movement of water through soils
Introduction
• Soils are permeable due to the existence of interconnected voids through which water
can flow from points of high energy to points of low energy. It is necessary for estimating
the quantity of underground seepage under various hydraulic conditions, for
investigating problems involving the pumping of water for underground construction,
and for making stability analyses of earth dams and earth-retaining structures that are
subject to seepage forces.

Bernoulli's Equation
• From fluid mechanics, according to Bernoulli’s equation, the total head is given by

Where:
h - total head
u - pressure
v - velocity
g - acceleration due to gravity
- unit weight of water
z - vertical distance of a given point above or below a datum plane
• The figure shows the relationship among pressure, elevation, and total heads for the flow
of water through soil. Open standpipes called piezometers are installed at points A and B.
• The pressure head at a point is the height of the vertical column of water in the
piezometer installed at that point.

• The loss of head between two points, A and B, can be given by

• The head loss, Δh, can be expressed in a nondimensional form as

Where:
i - hydraulic gradient
L - distance between points A and B
• The term containing the velocity head can be neglected because the seepage velocity is
small, and the total head at any point is

• In general, the variation of the velocity v with the hydraulic gradient i is as shown in the
figure. It is divided into three zones:
1. Laminar flow zone (Zone I)
2. Transition zone (Zone II)

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 2. Transition zone (Zone II)
3. Turbulent flow zone (Zone III)

• In most soils, the flow of water through the void spaces can be considered laminar; thus,
I
○ In fractured rock, stones, gravels, and very coarse sands, turbulent flow conditions
may exist, and the equation above may not be valid.

Darcy's Law
• In 1856, Darcy published a simple equation for the discharge velocity of water through
saturated soils, which may be expressed as

Where:
v - discharge velocity, which is the quantity of water flowing in unit time
through a unit gross cross-sectional area at right angles to the direction
of flow
k - hydraulic conductivity (otherwise known as coefficient of
permeability)
• In the previous equation, v is the discharge velocity of water based on gross cross-
sectional area of the soil. However, the actual velocity of water (that is, the seepage
velocity) through the void spaces is greater than v.

Where:
vs - seepage velocity (interstitial velocity)
v - discharge velocity
n - porosity

Hydraulic Conductivity
• Hydraulic conductivity is generally expressed in cm/s or m/s in SI units and in ft/min or
ft/day in English units.
• The value of hydraulic conductivity (k) varies widely for different soils. Some typical values
for saturated soils are given in the following table.
Soil type k (cm/s) k (ft/min)
Clean gravel 100-1.0 200-2.0
Coarse sand 1.0-0.01 2.0-0.02
Fine sand 0.01-0.001 0.02-0.002

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 Silty clay 0.001-0.00001 0.002-0.00002
Clay <0.000001 <0.000002

Laboratory Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity

• There are two standard laboratory tests used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of
soil.
1. Constant-head test
- The water supply at the inlet is adjusted in such a way that the difference of
head between the inlet and the outlet remains constant during the test
period. After a constant flow rate is established, water is collected in a
graduated flask for a known duration.
- The total volume of water collected may be expressed as

Where:
Q - volume of water collected (cm3)
A - area of cross section of the soil specimen (cm 3)
t - duration of water collection (s)

Because

Where:
L - length of soil specimen (cm)
h - head difference (cm)

2. Falling-head test
- A typical arrangement of the falling-head permeability test is shown in the
figure. Water from a standpipe flows through the soil. The initial head
difference 1 at time = 0 is recorded, and water is allowed to flow through the
soil specimen such that the final head difference at time = 2 is 2.
- The rate of flow of the water through the specimen at any time can be given
by

Where:
q - flow rate (cm3/s)
a - cross-sectional area of the standpipe (cm2)
A - cross-sectional area of the soil specimen (cm2)

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 A - cross-sectional area of the soil specimen (cm2)
- Rearranging the equation,

- Integrating the left side with limits of time from 0 to t and the right side with
limits of head difference from h1 to h2 gives

Where:
h1 - head difference at t1 (s)
h2 - head difference at t2 (s)
L - length of soil specimen (cm)

Sample Problem 1
A constant-head permeability test gives the following values:
○ L = 30 cm
○ A = area of the specimen = 177 cm2
○ Constant-head difference, h = 50 cm
○ Water collected in a period of 5 min = 350 cm3

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 Calculate the hydraulic conductivity in cm/sec.

Sample Problem 2
For a falling-head permeability test, the following values are given:
○ Length of specimen = 8 in.
○ Area of soil specimen = 1.6 in2
○ Area of standpipe = 0.06 in2
○ Head difference at time t = 0 = 20 in.
○ Head difference at time t = 180 sec = 12 in.

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 Calculate the hydraulic conductivity of the soil in in./sec.

Relationships for Hydraulic Conductivity-Granular Soil

• For fairly uniform sand, Hazen (1930) proposed an empirical relationship for hydraulic
conductivity in the form

Where:
c - a constant that varies from 1.0 to 1.5
D10 - the effective size, mm

Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil

• In a stratified soil deposit where the hydraulic conductivity for flow in a given direction
changes from layer to layer, an equivalent hydraulic conductivity can be computed.
• The equivalent hydraulic conductivity in the horizontal direction ( ) is

• This is applicable if the flow is parallel to the layers.

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 • The equivalent hydraulic conductivity in the vertical direction kv(eq) is

Sample Problem 3
A layered soil is shown in the figure. Given:
○ H1 = 2m
○ H2 = 3m
○ H3 = 4m
○ k1 = 10-4 cm/s
○ k2 = 3.2 x 10-2 cm/s
k3 = 4.1 x 10-5 cm/s

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 ○ k3 = 4.1 x 10-5 cm/s

Estimate the ratio of equivalent hydraulic conductivity,

Sample Problem 4
The figure shows three layers of soil in a tube that is 100 mm x 100 mm in cross section.
Water is supplied to maintain a constant-head difference of 300 mm across the sample.
The hydraulic conductivities of the soils in the direction of flow through them are as
follows:
Soil k(cm/sec)
A 10-2
B 3 x 10-3
C 4.9 x 10-4

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 Find the rate of water supply in cm3/hr.

Transmissibility

Using the example above,

Permeability Test in the Field by Pumping from Wells

Aquifers
• Unconfined Aquifer - has no confining rock (impervious) layers on top of it.
• Confined Aquifer - a water bearing layer confined between less pervious (or impervious)
layers.

Unconfined Aquifer
• In the field, the average hydraulic conductivity of a soil deposit in the direction of flow
can be determined by performing pump tests from wells. The figure shows a case where
the top permeable layer, whose hydraulic conductivity has to be determined, is
unconfined and underlain by an impermeable layer. During the test, water is pumped
out at a constant rate from a test well that has a perforated casing.

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 • Several observation wells at various radial distances are made around the test well.
Continuous observations of the water level in the test well and in the observation wells
are made after the start of pumping, until a steady state is reached. The rate of discharge
from pumping, can be written as

Confined Aquifer
• The average hydraulic conductivity for a confined aquifer can also be determined by
conducting a pumping test from a well with a perforated casing that penetrates the full
depth of the aquifer and by observing the piezometric level in a number of observation
wells at various radial distances.

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Sample Problem 5
A 300 mm diameter test well penetrates 27 m. After 24 hours of pumping at 69 liters/sec,
the water level in an observation well at a distance of 95 m from the test well is lowered
0.55 m. The other observation well at a distance of 35 m from the test well has a
drawdown of 1.10 m.

a. What is the rate of flow in m3 /day?

b. Compute the coefficient of permeability of the aquifer in m/day.
c. Compute the transmissibility of the aquifer in m2 /day.

a.

b.

c.

Sample Problem 6
A layer of sand 6 m thick underlies a 5 m thick layer of clay stratum and overlies a bed of
shale (impervious). A pumping well, sunk to the base of sand yielded 0.010 m3 /sec.
Observation wells placed at 15 m and 30 m from the well indicated groundwater levels
2.5 m and 3 m above the depressed water level in the test well, respectively. Determine
the coefficient of permeability of soil (in m/hr).

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The problem is about confined aquifer because the clay layer is considered impermeable
layer and the shale is a type of rock. The sand layer also exists between these two layers.

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 Soil Stresses
Introduction
• In many instances, the flow of water through soils is not in one direction only, nor is it
uniform over the entire area perpendicular to the flow. In such cases, the groundwater
flow is generally calculated by the use of graphs referred to as flow nets.

Flow Line
• The continuity equation in an isotropic (uniform characteristics) medium represents two
orthogonal (perpendicular) families of curves – that is, the flow lines and the equipotential
lines.
• A flow line is a line along which a water particle will travel from upstream to the
downstream side in the permeable soil medium.

Equipotential Line
• An equipotential line is a line along which the potential head at all points is equal.
• Thus, if piezometers are placed at different points along an equipotential line, the water
level will rise to the same elevation in all of them.

Flow Net
• A combination of a number of flow lines and equipotential lines is called a flow net. Flow
nets are constructed for the calculation of groundwater flow and the evaluation of heads
in the media. One must draw the flow and equipotential lines in such a way that
1. The equipotential lines intersect the flow lines at right angles.
2. The flow elements formed are approximate squares.
• Drawing a flow net takes several trials. For the flow net shown, the following four
boundary conditions apply:
Condition 1: The upstream and downstream surfaces of the permeable layer (lines
ab and de) are equipotential lines.
Condition 2: Because ab and de are equipotential lines, all the flow lines intersect
them at right angles.
Condition 3: The boundary of the impervious layer – that is, line fg – is a flow line, and
so is the surface of the impervious sheet pile, line acd.
Condition 4: The equipotential lines intersect acd and fg at right angles.

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 • The figure shows an example of a completed flow net. In the figure, is the number of
flow channels in the flow net, and is the number of potential drops.
• In any flow net, the strip between two adjacent flow lines is called a flow channel.
• The strip between two adjacent equipotential lines represents a potential drop.

Seepage Calculation from Flow Net

• The rate of seepage through the flow channel per unit length can be calculated as
follows. Because there is no flow across the flow lines,

• From Darcy's law, the flow rate is equal to kiA. Thus, the equation above can be written as

• Since the flow elements are drawn as approximate squares, the drop in the piezometric
level between any two adjacent equipotential lines is the same. This is called the
potential drop. Thus,

Where:
H - head difference between the upstream and downstream sides
Nd - number of potential drops

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 • If the number of flow channels in a flow net is equal to , the total rate of flow through
all the channels per unit length can be given by

Where:
k - hydraulic conductivity (m/s)
H - head difference between the upstream and downstream sides (m)
Nf - number of flow channels
Nd - number of potential drops

Sample Problem 1
A flow net for flow around a single row of sheet piles in a permeable soil layer is shown in
the figure. Given that kx = kz = k = 5 x 10-3 cm/sec, determine

a. How high (above the ground surface) the water will rise if piezometers are placed at
points a and b.
b. The total rate of seepage through the permeable layer per unit length
c. The approximate average hydraulic gradient at c.

a. The head loss of each potential drop is

At point a, we have gone through one potential drop. Hence, the water in the piezometer
will rise to an elevation of

At point b, we have five potential drops. So, the water in the piezometer will rise to an
elevation of

b. The total rate of seepage can be given as

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 b. The total rate of seepage can be given as

c. The average hydraulic gradient at c can be given as

Note: The average length of flow has been scaled

In Situ Stresses
• To analyze problems (such as compressibility of soils, bearing capacity of foundations,
stability of embankments, and lateral pressure on earth retaining structures), we need to
know the nature of distribution of stress along a given cross section of the soil profile.

Stresses in Saturated Soil Without Seepage

• The figure shows a column of saturated soil mass with no seepage of water in any
direction. The total stress at the elevation of point A is

Where:
σ - total stress at the elevation of point A
γw - unit weight of water
γsat - saturated unit weight of the soil
H - height of water table from the top of the soil column
HA - distance between point A and the water table

• The total stress can also be expressed in terms of neutral stress or pore water pressure (u)
and effective stress ( ′)

Where:
σ' - [Hγw + (HA - H) γsat] - HAγw
- (HA - H)(γsat - γw)
- (Height of the soil column) xy'
u - HAγw - neutral stress or pore water pressure

Note: γ' γsat - γw - submerged unit weight of the soil or buoyant unit
weight or effective unit weight

• The total stress, , given by the previous equation can be divided into two parts:
1. A portion is carried by water in the continuous void spaces. This portion acts with
equal intensity in all directions.
2. The rest of the total stress is carried by the soil solids at their points of contact. The
sum of the vertical components of the forces developed at the points of contact of
the solid particles per unit cross-sectional area of the soil mass is called the effective
stress.

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 • This can be seen by drawing a wavy line, a-a, through point A that passes only through
the points of contact of the solid particles. Let 1, 2, 3, … , be the forces that act at the
points of contact of the soil particles.
• The sum of the vertical components of all such forces over the unit cross-sectional area is
equal to the effective stress ′, or

• If as is the cross-sectional area occupied by solid-to-solid contacts (that is, as = a1 + a2 + a3 +

+ an), then the space occupied by water equals (Ā - as). Hence,

• The value as' is extremely small and can be neglected. Thus, the equation can be
approximated by

• In summary, effective stress is approximately the force per unit area carried by the soil
skeleton.

Sample Problem 2
A soil profile is shown in the figure. Calculate the total stress, pore water pressure, and
effective stress at points A, B, and C.

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 At point A,
Total stress,
Pore water pressure,
Effective stress,

At point B,

At point C,

Stresses in Saturated Soil with Upward Seepage

• If water is seeping, the effective stress at any point in a soil mass will differ from that in
the static case. It will increase or decrease, depending on the direction of seepage.
• The figure on the right shows a layer of granular soil in a tank where upward seepage is
caused by adding water through the valve at the bottom of the tank.
• The loss of head caused by upward seepage between the levels of A and B is h.
○ At A,
- Total Stress:
- Pore water pressure:
- Effective Stress:
○ At B,
- Total Stress:
- Pore water pressure:
- Effective Stress:
○ At C,
- Total Stress:
- Pore water pressure:
- Effective Stress:
• Note that is the hydraulic gradient caused by the flow, and therefore,

• If the rate of seepage and thereby the hydraulic gradient gradually are increased, a

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 • If the rate of seepage and thereby the hydraulic gradient gradually are increased, a
limiting condition will be reached, at which point

Where:
i - hydraulic gradient (for zero effective stress)

• Under such a situation, soil stability is lost. This situation generally is referred to as boiling,
or a quick condition.

Stresses in Saturated Soil with Downward Seepage

• The water level in the soil tank is held constant by adjusting the supply from the top and
the outflow at the bottom.
• At A,
○ Total Stress:
○ Pore water pressure:
○ Effective Stress:
• At B,
○ Total Stress:
○ Pore water pressure:
○ Effective Stress:
• At C,
○ Total Stress:
○ Pore water pressure:
○ Effective Stress:

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Seepage Force
• It was shown that with no seepage, the effective stress at a depth z measured from the
surface of the soil layer in the tank is equal to ′ . Thus, the effective force on an area A is

• If there is an upward seepage of water in the vertical direction through the same soil
layer, the effective force on an area A at a depth z can be given by

• Hence, the decrease in the total force because of seepage is

• The volume of the soil contributing to the effective force equals , so the seepage force
per unit volume of soil is

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• The seepage force per unit volume is equal to and the force acts in the same direction
as the direction of flow. This statement is true for any flow in any direction.

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 Consolidation
Introduction
• A stress increase caused by the construction of foundations or other loads compresses
soil layers.
• The compression is caused by:
a. Deformation of soil particles
b. Relocations of soil particles
c. Expulsion of water or air from the void spaces
• The soil settlement caused by loads may be divided into three broad categories:
1. Elastic settlement (or immediate settlement), which is caused by the elastic
deformation of dry soil and of moist and saturated soils without any change in
moisture content.
2. Primary consolidation settlement, which is the result of a volume change in
saturated cohesive soils because of expulsion of water that occupies the void
spaces.
3. Secondary consolidation settlement, which is the result of the plastic adjustment of
soil fabrics. It is an additional form of compression that occurs at constant effective
stress.
• The total settlement of a foundation is given as

Where:
ST - Total settlement
Sc - Primary consolidation settlement
Ss - Secondary consolidation settlement
Se - Elastic settlement

Consolidation of Soil
• Soil volume reduction is due to the expulsion of water upon application of external
load/stress.

Consolidation Damages
• Consolidation can cause cracks in walls, foundations, etc.

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Consolidation vs Compaction
Compaction Consolidation
Applicable to unsaturated soils Applicable to saturated soils
Decrease in air voids Decrease in water voids (air voids do
not exist)
Applicable for both fine-grained and coarse- Only applicable for fine-grained soils
grained soils
Instantaneous process Time-dependent process
May be accomplished by rolling, tamping, or In general, caused by static loading
vibration

Consolidation of Soil
• Magnitude of consolidation/settlement
○ Expressed in terms of compression index (Cc)
• Rate of consolidation/settlement
○ Expressed in terms of coefficient of consolidation (Cv)

Compression Index
• The compression index for the calculation of field settlement can be determined by
graphic construction as shown in the figure after one obtains the laboratory test results
for void ratio and pressure.

Where:
e - void ratio at effective pressure, Po
e' - void ratio at effective pressure, ΔP + Po

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 • Skempton (1944) suggested the following empirical expression for the compression index
for undisturbed clays:

Where:
LL - Liquid limit

Swelling Index
• The determination of the swelling index is important in the estimation of consolidation
settlement of overconsolidated clays. In most cases, the value of the swelling index is 1/4
to 1/5 of the compression index.

Definitions of Clays
• There are two basic definitions of clay based on stress history:
1. Normally Consolidated
- The present effective overburden pressure (also known as effective in-situ
stress) is the maximum the soil has ever experienced.
2. Overconsolidated
- The present effective overburden pressure Po is less than that which the soil
experienced in the past. The maximum effective past pressure is called the
preconsolidation pressure Pc.

Primary Consolidation Settlement

• Normally Consolidated Clays
○ The primary settlement (S) for normally consolidated clays is as follows:

Where:
Cc - Compression index
eo - Initial void ration
Δe - Change in void ration (initial - final)
H - Thickness of the soil layer
Po - Present effective overburden pressure
ΔP - Increase in effective overburden pressure
• Overconsolidated Clays (Po < Pc)
○ The primary settlement (S) for overconsolidated clays is as follows:
- Case 1: Po + ΔP ≤ Pc

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 - Case 2: Po + ΔP > Pc

Where:
Cc - Compression index
Cs - Swell index
eo - Initial void ratio
H - thickness of the soil layer
Po - Present effective overburden pressure
ΔP - Increase in effective overburden pressure
Pc - Preconsolidation pressure

Sample Problem 1
A soil profile is shown in the figure. If a uniformly distributed load, ∆ , is applied at the
ground surface, what is the settlement of the clay layer caused by primary consolidation
if:
a. The clay is normally consolidated
b. The preconsolidation pressure (Pc) = 190 kN/m2
c. Pc = 170 kN/m2

Use Cs ≈ 1/6 Cc.

a. Solve for the present effective overburden pressure at the middle of the clay layer.

Since the clay is normally consolidated, the following equation is used:

Such that Cc :

b. Compare ΔP + Po with Pc to determine which equation to use

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 b. Compare ΔP + Po with Pc to determine which equation to use

Since ΔP + Po < Pc, the following equation will be used:

Such that Cs :

c. Compare ΔP + Po with Pc to determine which equation to use

Since ΔP + Po > Pc, the following equation will be used:

Such that Cs :

Coefficient of Consolidation

Where:
Hdr - height of drainage path/ thickness of one layer if drained 1 side/ half of
thickness if drained both sides
Tv - time factor (nondimensional)
t - time of consolidation

For U = 0 to 60%,

For U > 60%,

Where:
U - average degree of consolidation (%)

• The average degree of consolidation for the entire depth of the clay layer at any time t
can be written as:

Where:
Sc(t) - settlement of the layer at time t
Sc - ultimate settlement of the layer from primary consolidation

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 Sc - ultimate settlement of the layer from primary consolidation

Sample Problem 2
Under a given surcharge, a 5 m thick clay layer has a consolidation settlement of 305
mm. Assume Cv = 0.004 cm2/s. How long will it take (in days) for 50% consolidation to
occur if the layer is drained at the top only? Tv = 0.197

Sample Problem 3
The time required for 50% consolidation of a 25-mm-thick clay layer (drained at both top
and bottom) in the laboratory is 2 min. 20 sec. How long (in days) will it take for a 3-m-
thick clay layer of the same clay in the field under the same pressure increment for each
50% consolidation? In the field, there is a rock layer at the bottom of the clay.

Solve for the coefficient of consolidation based on the laboratory results

Use the Cv to obtain the time of consolidation in the field

Coefficient of Compressibility
• It is the rate of change of void ration (e) with respect to the applied effective pressure (p)
during compression.

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 Where:
e1 - initial void ratio
e2 - final void ratio
p1 - initial effective stress
p2 - final effective stress

Coefficient of Volume Compressibility

• It is the volume decrease of a unit volume of soil per unit increase of effective pressure
during compression.

Where:
av - coefficient of compressibility
eave - initial void ratio

Coefficient of Permeability

Where:
k - hydraulic conductivity or coefficient of permeability (m/s)
mv - coefficient of volume compressibility (m2/kN)
Cv - coefficient of consolidation (m2/s)
- unit weight of water (kN/m3)

Sample Problem 4
For a normally consolidated laboratory clay specimen drained on both sides, the
following are given:

Po = 3000 lb/ft2
Po + ΔP 6000 lb/ft2
Thickness of clay specimen = 1 in.
Time for 50% consolidation = 2 min
e = e1 = 1.1
e = e2 = 0.9

a. Determine the hydraulic conductivity (ft/min) of the clay for the loading range.
b. How long (in days) will it take for a 6-ft clay layer in the field (drained on one side) to

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 b. How long (in days) will it take for a 6-ft clay layer in the field (drained on one side) to
reach 60% consolidation?

a.
Such that mv:

Cv:

b.

Calculation of Consolidation Settlement under a Foundation

• To estimate the one-dimensional settlement of a foundation, we can use the previous
equations for settlements. However, the increase of effective stress ∆P should be the
average increase in the pressure below the center of the foundation.
• The increase in effective pressure on the clay layer is not constant with depth. It
decreases with increase in depth measured from the bottom of the foundation. Using
Simpson’s Rule, we can estimate the value of ∆Pave as:

Where:
ΔPtop = increase in the effective stress at the top of the layer
ΔPmid = increase in the effective stress at the middle of the layer
ΔPbot = increase in the effective stress at the bottom of the layer

• An early method is to use a 2:1 slope as shown in the figure.

Sample Problem 5
The square footing shown in the figure carries a load of 5200 kN. Assume that the stress
below the footing is distributed at a slope of 1H:2V. The clay layer is overconsolidated with

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 below the footing is distributed at a slope of 1H:2V. The clay layer is overconsolidated with
OCR = 2.

a. Determine the preconsolidation pressure at the midheight of the clay layer

b. Determine the increase in pressure at the midheight of the clay layer
c. Determine the settlement of the overconsolidated clay layer

a.
Such that Po:

b.
By similar triangles,

c. Determine which case it falls for overconsolidated clay. Compare P o + ΔP and Pc.
However, instead of ΔP, we'll replace it with ΔPave.

By similar triangles,

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By similar triangles,

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