Module No.

1
Heat and Temperature
PHYSICS 311

Course Description

This course is a second course in Physics which focused on selected topics such as electricity,
magnetism and modern physics.

This course deals with the studies of the basic principles of electricity and magnetism courses
often entitled Physics 322. The course is designed to cover introductory electricity and magnetism
(charge, current, potential, fields, AC and DC circuits, Maxwell’s equations, and electromagnetic waves)
at a level appropriate for future scientist and engineers. The course includes a laboratory component and it
emphasizes problem solving techniques.

Total Learning Time: ____________________

Prerequisites: Physics 311

Overview
This module covers topics from the introduction until the application of concepts of heat and
temperature. It will help you identify the different physicists whose contributions are in the field of
thermodynamics.
Matter – whether solid, liquid, gas or plasma, is made up of particles too small for us to see. These
particles are constantly moving, jiggling and bouncing around. We do not know what is happening in the
molecular level of matter but we do know that the flame from a candle is hot and thereby we are not allowed
to touch it. Similarly, boiling water is hot. Ice on the other hand is cold and melts when placed on the table
after some time. These observation and experiences give us an idea about heat or thermal energy. We need to
understand that our bodies act like a heat engine having its own mechanism to adapt during hot or cold
weather. The foods that we eat play an important role in our everyday activities because it is where we get the
energy expended into useful work and the energy needed by the body to survive.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. construct a timeline citing important concepts, laws, principles, inventions, and inventors
in Thermodynamics
2. define temperature scientifically
3. enumerate the different temperature scales
4. convert temperature readings and temperature differences

Indicated Learning Content

1. Timeline in Thermodynamics
2. Thermodynamics
3. Temperature
4. Thermometer
5. Temperature Scales

Centigrade Scale Fahrenheit Scale Kelvin Scale

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 Discussion
Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics comes from the Greek words 2hermos and dynamikos which mean heat and movement,
respectively. The science of thermodynamics is under the divisions of Classical Physics which deals with
the interaction between heat and how it can be converted to work.

Thermodynamics has as its basic concern the

transformation of heat into mechanical energy.
Thermodynamics thus plays a central role in
technology, because almost all the “raw”
energy available for our use is in the form of
heat.

Important Events in Thermodynamics

1. In the olden times, heat is thought as an invisible, weightless substance known as caloric fluid.
2. 1650 – Otto von Guericke builds the first vacuum pump
3. 1669 – J.J. Becher puts forward a theory of combustion involving combustible earth
4. 1679 – Denis Papin designed a steam digester which inspired the development of the piston-and-
cylinder steam engine.
5. 1698 – Thomas Savery patents an early steam engine
6. 1694–1734 – Georg Ernst Stahl names Becher’s combustible earth as phlogiston and develops the
theory
7. Galileo was the first to develop a thermometer which has an inverted flask that contained air with a
little water in its long neck along with marking scales wherein as the enclosed air gets hotter it
expands and when it get colder, water rises.
8. 1724 – Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit devised the Fahrenheit scale
9. 1738 – Daniel Bernoulli publishes Hydrodynamica, initiating the kinetic theory
10. 1742 – Anders Celsius devised the Celsius scale
11. 18th century, the existence of caloric fluid was disproved by Count Benjamin Thompson Rumford, an
American military expert. He concluded that heat is from friction and seemed limitless
12. 1804 – Sir John Leslie observes that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a
polished surface, suggesting the importance of black body radiation
13. 1824 – Sadi Carnot analyzes the efficiency of steam engines using caloric theory; he develops the
notion of a reversible process and, in postulating that no such thing exists in nature, lays the
foundation for the second law of thermodynamics, and initiating the science of thermodynamics
14. 1842 – Julius Robert von Mayer makes a connection between work, heat, and
the human metabolism based on his observations of blood made while a ship’s surgeon; he calculates
the mechanical equivalent of heat
15. 1843, James Prescott Joule an English physicist proved that a measurable amount of mechanical
energy could always be transformed into definite amounts of heat and concluded that heat is a form of
energy and calculated the mechanical equivalent of heat.
16. 1847 – Hermann von Helmholtz publishes a definitive statement of the conservation of energy,
the first law of thermodynamics
17. 1848 – William Thomson extends the concept of absolute zero from gases to all substances and an
alternative statement for the 2nd Law and devised the Kelvin scale

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18. 1850 – Rudolf Clausius gives the first clear joint statement of the first and second law of
thermodynamics, abandoning the caloric theory, but preserving Carnot’s principle
19. 1854 – William John Macquorn Rankine introduces his thermodynamic function, later identified
as entropy
20. 1872 – Ludwig Boltzmann states the Boltzmann equation for the temporal development of distribution
functions in phase space, and publishes his H-theorem
21. 1906 – Walther Nernst presents a formulation of the third law of thermodynamics
Temperature

Summer in our country can be unbearably hot. We usually crave for a glass of cold water or a bowl of
halo-halo to relieve us from the heat. But what is heat? And when do we know that a body is hot?

A body can have high temperature but little heat to give off, or it may have a low temperature but can give
off a great amount of heat. Thermal energy is the total potential energy and kinetic energy of the
molecules of a body. Heat is the term used to describe the quantity of thermal energy absorbed or given
off by a body. On the other hand, temperature is the measure of the kinetic energy of the molecules of the
body.

When we speak of the degree of hotness and coldness of a body, we are actually referring to its
temperature. The terms hot and cold are relative.

The heat absorbed by a material may cause a change in the material’s temperature. Substances like
mercury expand faster than glass. Mercury and alcohol are the substances commonly used to fill the
capillary tube found inside a clinical the thermometer.

Thermometer

Thermometers are devices used to measure temperature. The most

common thermometer is the mercury- glass type. When the
temperature increases, the mercury expands inside the capillary
tube, and the temperature is read against a scale adjacent to the tube.

There are several temperature scales used today. The most familiar
is the Celsius (formerly Centrigrade) scale which uses two reference points:
freezing point of pure water set at 0oC and the boiling point of water is set at 100
o
C

Temperature Scale

Thermal energy is defined as the total potential and kinetic energy of atoms or molecules of a body.

The three most common temperature scales are Fahrenheit, Celsius,

and Kelvin. Temperature scales are created by identifying two
reproducible temperatures. The freezing and boiling temperatures of
water at standard atmospheric pressure are commonly used. (Rankine
scale is not commonly used anymore.)

Remember that: temperature measurements require the word or symbol

for degree when expressed in the Fahrenheit or Celsius scale. However,
The three main temperature
when expressing the difference between two temperature readings, the unit
used is Celsius degree (C0) or Fahrenheit degree (F0).

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To convert from one temperature scale to another, use the following equations below:
5
Fahrenheit to Celsius Scale : 𝑇𝐶 = 9 ( 𝑇𝐹 − 32) or TC X 1.8 + 32
9
Celsius to Fahrenheit Scale : 𝑇𝐹 = (5 𝑇𝐶 ) + 32 or TC – 32 / 1.8

Kelvin to Celsius: 𝑇𝐶 = 𝑇𝐾 − 273.15

Celsius to Kelvin: 𝑇𝐾 = 𝑇𝐶 + 273.15

Sample Problems:
Example 1. In some parts of Siberia, the temperature often plunges to 90 degrees Fahrenheit below zero.
How many degrees Celsius and Kelvin is this temperature?
Solution:
Given is TF = - 90 0F
Required: TC and TK
5 TK = TC + 273.15
TC = 9 (𝑇𝐹 − 32)
5 = -67.78 +273.15
= (−90 − 32) = 205.37 K
9
= - 67.78 0C

Example 2. A temperature of 10 0C represents 10 Celsius degrees above the freezing point of water. What
is its equivalent in 0F?
Solution:
Given is TC = 10 0C
Required: TF
9 = (1.8 x 10) + 32
𝑇𝐹 = (5 𝑇𝐶 ) + 32
9 = (18) + (32)
= (5 × 10℃) + 32 = 50

Example 3. The measured minimum and maximum temperatures during a fine December day were 270C
and 300C respectively. What is the temperature range for this day?
Solution: The two measured temperatures are 270C and 300C. To get the temperature range ΔT, simply
get the difference between the two given temperatures.

ΔT = 300C - 270C = 3 C0

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 Laboratory Activities

Timeline in Thermodynamics
Name:______________________Year & Section:___________Date:______Rating:_____
Timeline in Thermodynamics

I. Objectives:
1. Make a timeline of the main events in the history and development in Thermodynamics
2. Describe the various concepts, principles, gadgets or equipment invented
3. Cite the importance of these concepts, principles, gadgets or equipment in today’s modern
world.
4. Appreciate the outstanding contributions of different physicists in the field of
thermodynamics by citing its relevance in one’s life.

II. Materials:
Any reference materials for historical developments in Thermodynamics, extra sheet of bond
papers

III. Procedure:
1. Using reference materials, make a summary and time line of the development of
concepts, principles, gadgets / equipment and discoveries. Add extra sheet/s if
necessary.

IV. Data and Observation

Table 1: Time Line for Historical Developments in Concepts, Gadgets/ Equipment/ Discoveries
Date Electronic Gadgets / Discover/ Inventor Importance
Equipment/Concepts

Guide Questions
1. Enumerate and describe some concepts, principles, gadgets / equipment which use the concepts
and principles of thermodynamics.

_______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________.

2. Who among the physicists is your favorite? Why?

V. Conclusion
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________.
VI. Enrichment
In today’s modern and technologically advanced world, given the chance to make, invent or
develop a device, what would it be and why?

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 Exercise/Drill

Describe the following temperature scale signs.

1. 0C -
2. 0F -
3. 0K -

Evaluation

Part I. Matching Type: Match Column A with Column B. Write the letter of the correct answer on the
space provided before each number.
Column A Column B
____1. popularly known as Count Rumford, discovered that heat is a
a. Otto von Guericke
form of energy
____2. Made statistical interpretation of the second law of
b. Ernest Rutherford
thermodynamics
____3. Computed the mechanical equivalent of heat c. Anders Celsius
____4. He gave the 1st mathematical version of the concept of entropy d. Benjamin Thompson
____5. Predicts that black holes will radiate particles with a black
body e. William Thomson

____6. First law of thermodynamics f. Hermann von Helmholtz

____7. Father of Thermodynamics g. Ludwig Boltzmann
st
____8. Built the 1 vacuum pump h. Denis Papin
____9. Develop the centigrade scale in measuring temperature i. James Prescott Joule
____10.Connection between work, heat, and the human metabolism j. Rudolf Clausius
____11. Design the steam digester k. Stephen Hawking
____12. Extend the concepts of absolute zero from gases to all
substances l. Julius Robert von Mayer

____13. Patents on early steam engine m. Nicolas Sadi Carnot

____14. Theory of combustion n. Alessandro Volta
____15. Formulation of the 3rd law of thermodynamics o. Walther Nernst
p. Josiah Willard Gibbs
r. Thomas Savery
s. J.J. Becher
Part II. Solve the following problems and show your solution.

1. What is the 900C in 3. What is the 700F in 5. What is the 100K in

Fahrenheit? Celsius? Fahrenheit?

2. What is the 900C in 4. What is the 900F in 6. What is the 100K in

Kelvin? Kelvin? Celsius?

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 Additional Reading

Please read the kinds of thermometer at https://www.ashtonshospitalpharmacy.com/different-types-of-

thermometer/

References

a. Books

1. General Physics 1 (2017). Arevalo, Ryan. Diwa Learning Systems, Inc.

2. Frontiers in Science & Technology (2002). IV.Lozano, L. V., Farrol H. C., Alastre M. T., Diwa
Learning System Inc.

3. The World of Physics (2003). Deauna M.C. et al., SIBS Publishing House, Inc.

4. Breaking Through Physics(2009). Santisteban, Celeste Joan C., Baguio, Saranay M. C & E
Publishing Inc.,

b. Website

1. https://www.google.com/search?q=3+temperature+scales&rlz=1C1GCEB_enPH886PH886&s
xsrf=ALeKk01Bq4zaf3u0Ehxl-
mL3j6rUtb04YA:1593335615058&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=75pkIC1LbxzI7M%252
CvoX2V42W6SwtaM%252C_&vet=1&usg=AI4_-kTJL-TqMDYxMmLAsg0b-
TkkvY9nyw&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi-
iN_alaTqAhXBfd4KHeffCZcQ_h0wAXoECAoQBg&biw=1350&bih=640#imgrc=75pkIC1Lb
xzI7M
2. http://www.eoht.info/page/timeline+of+thermodynamics
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_thermodynamics

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