Algebra is one of the oldest branches in the history of mathematics that

deals with number theory, geometry, and analysis. The definition of algebra
sometimes states that the study of the mathematical symbols and the rules
involves manipulating these mathematical symbols. Algebra includes almost
everything right from solving elementary equations to the study of
abstractions. Algebra equations are included in many chapters of Maths,
which students will learn in their academics. Also, there are several formulas
and identities present in algebra.

What is Algebra?
Algebra helps solve the mathematical equations and allows to derive
unknown quantities, like the bank interest, proportions, percentages. We can
use the variables in the algebra to represent the unknown quantities that are
coupled in such a way as to rewrite the equations.

The algebraic formulas are used in our daily lives to find the distance and
volume of containers and figure out the sales prices as and when needed.
Algebra is constructive in stating a mathematical equation and relationship
by using letters or other symbols representing the entities. The unknown
quantities in the equation can be solved through algebra.

Some of the main topics coming under algebra include Basics of algebra,
exponents, simplification of algebraic expressions, polynomials, quadratic
equations, etc.

In BYJU’S, students will get the complete details of algebra, including its
equations, terms, formulas, etc. Also, solve examples based on algebra
concepts and practice worksheets to better understand the fundamentals of
algebra. Algebra 1 and algebra 2 are the Maths courses included for
students in their early and later stages of academics, respectively. Like,
algebra 1 is the elementary algebra practised in classes 7,8 or sometimes 9,
where basics of algebra are taught. But, algebra 2 is advanced algebra,
which is practised at the high school level. The algebra problems will involve
expressions, polynomials, the system of equations, real numbers,
inequalities, etc. Learn more algebra symbols that are used in Maths.
Branches of Algebra
As it is known that, algebra is the concept based on unknown values called
variables. The important concept of algebra is equations. It follows various
rules to perform arithmetic operations. The rules are used to make sense of
sets of data that involve two or more variables. It is used to analyse many
things around us. You will probably use the concept of algebra without
realising it. Algebra is divided into different sub-branches such as elementary
algebra, advanced algebra, abstract algebra, linear algebra, and
commutative algebra.

Algebra 1 or Elementary Algebra

Elementary Algebra covers the traditional topics studied in a modern
elementary algebra course. Arithmetic includes numbers along with
mathematical operations like +, -, x, ÷. But in algebra, the numbers are
often represented by the symbols and are called variables such as x, a, n, y.
It also allows the common formulation of the laws of arithmetic such as, a +
b = b + a and it is the first step that shows the systematic exploration of all
the properties of a system of real numbers.

The concepts coming under elementary algebra include variables, evaluating

expressions and equations, properties of equalities and inequalities, solving
the algebraic equations and linear equations having one or two variables,
etc.

Algebra 2 or Advanced Algebra

This is the intermediate level of Algebra. This algebra has a high level of
equations to solve as compared to pre-algebra. Advanced algebra will help
you to go through the other parts of algebra such as:

 Equations with inequalities

 Matrices
 Solving system of linear equations
 Graphing of functions and linear equations
 Conic sections
  Polynomial Equation
 Quadratic Functions with inequalities
 Polynomials and expressions with radicals
 Sequences and series
 Rational expressions
 Trigonometry
 Discrete mathematics and probability

Abstract Algebra
Abstract algebra is one of the divisions in algebra which discovers the truths
relating to algebraic systems independent of the specific nature of some
operations. These operations, in specific cases, have certain properties. Thus
we can conclude some consequences of such properties. Hence this branch
of mathematics called abstract algebra.

Abstract algebra deals with algebraic structures like the fields, groups,
modules, rings, lattices, vector spaces, etc.

The concepts of the abstract algebra are below-

1. Sets – Sets is defined as the collection of the objects that are determined by
some specific property for a set. For example – A set of all the 2×2 matrices, the
set of two-dimensional vectors present in the plane and different forms of finite
groups.
2. Binary Operations – When the concept of addition is conceptualized, it gives
the binary operations. The concept of all the binary operations will be
meaningless without a set.
3. Identity Element – The numbers 0 and 1 are conceptualized to give the idea of
an identity element for a specific operation. Here, 0 is called the identity element
for the addition operation, whereas 1 is called the identity element for the
multiplication operation.
4. Inverse Elements – The idea of Inverse elements comes up with a negative
number. For addition, we write “-a” as the inverse of “a” and for the
multiplication, the inverse form is written as “a -1″.
5. Associativity – When integers are added, there is a property known as
associativity in which the grouping up of numbers added does not affect the sum.
Consider an example, (3 + 2) + 4 = 3 + (2 + 4)

Linear Algebra
Linear algebra is a branch of algebra that applies to both applied as well as
pure mathematics. It deals with the linear mappings between the vector
spaces. It also deals with the study of planes and lines. It is the study of
linear sets of equations with transformation properties. It is almost used in all
areas of Mathematics. It concerns the linear equations for the linear
functions with their representation in vector spaces and matrices. The
important topics covered in linear algebra are as follows:

 Linear equations
 Vector Spaces
 Relations
 Matrices and matrix decomposition
 Relations and Computations

Commutative algebra
Commutative algebra is one of the branches of algebra that studies the
commutative rings and their ideals. The algebraic number theory, as well as
the algebraic geometry, depends on commutative algebra. It includes rings
of algebraic integers, polynomial rings, and so on. Many other mathematics
areas draw upon commutative algebra in different ways, such as differential
topology, invariant theory, order theory, and general topology. It has
occupied a remarkable role in modern pure mathematics.

Algebra, branch of mathematics in which arithmetical operations and

formal manipulations are applied to abstract symbols rather than specific
numbers. The notion that there exists such a distinct subdiscipline of
mathematics, as well as the term algebra to denote it, resulted from a slow
historical development. This article presents that history, tracing the
evolution over time of the concept of the equation, number systems,
symbols for conveying and manipulating mathematical statements, and the
modern abstract structural view of algebra. For information on specific
branches of algebra, see elementary algebra, linear algebra, and modern
algebra.
Emergence of formal equations
Perhaps the most basic notion in mathematics is the equation, a formal
statement that two sides of a mathematical expression are equal—as in the
simple equation x + 3 = 5—and that both sides of the equation can be
simultaneously manipulated (by adding, dividing, taking roots, and so on to
both sides) in order to “solve” the equation. Yet, as simple and natural as
such a notion may appear today, its acceptance first required the
development of numerous mathematical ideas, each of which took time to
mature. In fact, it took until the late 16th century to consolidate the modern
concept of an equation as a single mathematical entity.

Three main threads in the process leading to this consolidation deserve

special attention:

1. Attempts to solve equations involving one or more unknown

quantities. In describing the early history of algebra, the
word equation is frequently used out of convenience to describe
these operations, although early mathematicians would not have
been aware of such a concept.
2. The evolution of the notion of exactly what qualifies as
a legitimate number. Over time this notion expanded to include
broader domains (rational numbers, irrational numbers, negative
numbers, and complex numbers) that were flexible enough to
support the abstract structure of symbolic algebra.
3. The gradual refinement of a symbolic language suitable for
devising and conveying generalized algorithms, or step-by-step
procedures for solving entire categories of mathematical
problems.
These three threads are traced in this section, particularly as they
developed in the ancient Middle East and Greece, the Islamic era, and the
European Renaissance.

Britannica Quiz

Numbers and Mathematics

Problem solving in Egypt and Babylon

The earliest extant mathematical text from Egypt is the Rhind papyrus (c.
1650 BC). It and other texts attest to the ability of the ancient Egyptians to
solve linear equations in one unknown. A linear equation is a first-degree
equation, or one in which all the variables are only to the first power. (In
today’s notation, such an equation in one unknown would be 7x + 3x = 10.)
Evidence from about 300 BC indicates that the Egyptians also knew how to
solve problems involving a system of two equations in two unknown
quantities, including quadratic (second-degree, or squared unknowns)
equations. For example, given that the perimeter of a rectangular plot of
land is 100 units and its area is 600 square units, the ancient Egyptians
could solve for the field’s length l and width w. (In modern notation, they
could solve the pair of simultaneous equations 2w + 2l =100 and wl = 600.)
However, throughout this period there was no use of symbols—problems
were stated and solved verbally. The following problem is typical:

 Method of calculating a quantity,

 multiplied by 1 1/2 added 4 it has come to 10.
 What is the quantity that says it?
 First you calculate the difference of this 10 to this 4. Then 6 results.
 Then you divide 1 by 1 1/2. Then 2/3 results.
 Then you calculate 2/3 of this 6. Then 4 results.
 Behold, it is 4, the quantity that said it.
 What has been found by you is correct.

Note that except for 2/3, for which a special symbol existed, the Egyptians
expressed all fractional quantities using only unit fractions, that is, fractions
bearing the numerator 1. For example, 3/4 would be written as 1/2 + 1/4.

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Babylonian mathematics dates from as early as 1800 BC, as indicated

by cuneiform texts preserved in clay tablets. Babylonian arithmetic was
based on a well-elaborated, positional sexagesimal system—that is, a system
of base 60, as opposed to the modern decimal system, which is based on
units of 10. The Babylonians, however, made no consistent use of zero. A
great deal of their mathematics consisted of tables, such as for
multiplication, reciprocals, squares (but not cubes), and square and cube
roots.

In addition to tables, many Babylonian tablets contained problems that

asked for the solution of some unknown number. Such problems explained a
procedure to be followed for solving a specific problem, rather than
proposing a general algorithm for solving similar problems. The starting
point for a problem could be relations involving specific numbers and the
unknown, or its square, or systems of such relations. The number sought
could be the square root of a given number, the weight of a stone, or the
length of the side of a triangle. Many of the questions were phrased in
terms of concrete situations—such as partitioning a field among three pairs
of brothers under certain constraints. Still, their artificial character made it
clear that they were constructed for didactical purposes.

Greece and the limits of

geometric expression
The Pythagoreans and Euclid

mathematicians of the Greco-Roman world

This map spans a millennium of prominent Greco-Roman mathematicians, from Thales
of Miletus (c. 600 BCE) to Hypatia of Alexandria (c. 400 CE).(more)
A major milestone of Greek mathematics was the discovery by
the Pythagoreans around 430 BC that not all lengths are commensurable,
that is, measurable by a common unit. This surprising fact became clear
while investigating what appeared to be the most elementary ratio between
geometric magnitudes, namely, the ratio between the side and the diagonal
of a square. The Pythagoreans knew that for a unit square (that is, a square
whose sides have a length of 1), the length of the diagonal must be Square
root of√2—owing to the Pythagorean theorem, which states that the square
on the diagonal of a triangle must equal the sum of the squares on the other
two sides (a2 + b2 = c2). The ratio between the two magnitudes thus
deduced, 1 and Square root of√2, had the confounding property of not
corresponding to the ratio of any two whole, or counting, numbers (1, 2, 3,
…). This discovery of incommensurable quantities contradicted the
basic metaphysics of Pythagoreanism, which asserted that all of reality was
based on the whole numbers.

Attempts to deal with incommensurables eventually led to the creation of an

innovative concept of proportion by Eudoxus of Cnidus (c. 400–350 BC),
which Euclid preserved in his Elements (c. 300 BC). The theory of
proportions remained an important component of mathematics well into the
17th century, by allowing the comparison of ratios of pairs of magnitudes of
the same kind. Greek proportions, however, were very different from
modern equalities, and no concept of equation could be based on it. For
instance, a proportion could establish that the ratio between
two line segments, say A and B, is the same as the ratio between two areas,
say R and S. The Greeks would state this in strictly verbal fashion, since
symbolic expressions, such as the much later A:B::R:S (read, A is
to B as R is to S), did not appear in Greek texts. The theory of proportions
enabled significant mathematical results, yet it could not lead to the kind of
results derived with modern equations. Thus, from A:B::R:S the Greeks
could deduce that (in modern terms) A + B:A − B::R + S:R − S, but they
could not deduce in the same way that A:R::B:S. In fact, it did not even
make sense to the Greeks to speak of a ratio between a line and an area
since only like, or homogeneous, magnitudes were comparable. Their
fundamental demand for homogeneity was strictly preserved in all Western
mathematics until the 17th century.

When some of the Greek geometric constructions, such as those that appear
in Euclid’s Elements, are suitably translated into modern algebraic
language, they establish algebraic identities, solve quadratic equations, and
produce related results. However, not only were symbols of this kind never
used in classical Greek works but such a translation would be completely
alien to their spirit. Indeed, the Greeks not only lacked an abstract language
for performing general symbolic manipulations but they even lacked the
concept of an equation to support such an algebraic interpretation of their
geometric constructions.

For the classical Greeks, especially as shown in Books VII–XI of

the Elements, a number was a collection of units, and hence they were
limited to the counting numbers. Negative numbers were obviously out of
this picture, and zero could not even start to be considered. In fact, even
the status of 1 was ambiguous in certain texts, since it did not
really constitute a collection as stipulated by Euclid. Such a numerical
limitation, coupled with the strong geometric orientation of Greek
mathematics, slowed the development and full acceptance of more
elaborate and flexible ideas of number in the West.