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CIE A Level Maths: Pure 3 Your notes

1.2 Polynomials
Contents
1.2.1 Polynomial Division
1.2.2 Factor & Remainder Theorem
1.2.3 Factorisation
1.2.4 Rational Expressions
1.2.5 Top Heavy Rational Expressions

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1.2.1 Polynomial Division

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Polynomial Division
What is a polynomial?
A polynomial is an algebraic expression consisting of a finite number of terms, with non-negative
integer indices only

What is polynomial division?

Polynomial division is a method for splitting polynomials into factor pairs (with or without an
accompanying remainder term)

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At A level you will most frequently use it to factorise polynomials, or when dealing with improper (ie
'top-heavy') algebraic fractions
How do I divide polynomials?
The method used for polynomial division is just like the long division method (sometimes called 'bus
stop division') used to divide regular numbers:

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At A level you will normally be dividing a polynomial dividend of degree 3 or 4 by a divisor in the form (x ±
p)
The answer to a polynomial division question is built up term by term, working downwards in powers of Your notes
the variable (usually x)
Start by dividing by the highest power term
Write out this multiplied by the divisor and subtract

Continue to divide by each reducing power term and subtracting your answer each time

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Continue until you are left with zero

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If the divisor is not a factor of the polynomial then there will be a remainder term left at the end of the
division

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Quadratic Divisor
What are the degrees of the quotient and remainder when a polynomial is divided
by a quadratic divisor?
Suppose a polynomial of degree n is divided by a quadratic divisor
f (x ) r(x )
= q( x ) +
ax 2 + bx + c ax 2 + bx + c
The quotient q will have degree n − 2
The degree of the remainder r will be less than 2
It could be degree 1 (linear)
Or it could be degree 0 (constant)

How do I divide a polynomial by a quadratic divisor?

You use polynomial division!
Step 1
Divide the leading term of the polynomial by the squared term of the divisor
This gives the leading term of the quotient
Step 2
Multiply this term by the divisor
Step 3
Subtract this from the polynomial to get a new polynomial with a lower degree
Continue these steps until you have an expression with a degree lower than 2

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1.2.2 Factor & Remainder Theorem

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Factor Theorem
What is the factor theorem?
The factor theorem is a very useful result about polynomials
A polynomial is an algebraic expression consisting of a finite number of terms, with non-negative
integer indices only

At A level you will most frequently use the factor theorem as a way to simplify the process of factorising
polynomials

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What do I need to know about the factor theorem?

For a polynomial f(x) the factor theorem states that:
If f(p) = 0, then (x - p) is a factor of f(x)
AND
If (x - p) is a factor of f(x), then f(p) = 0

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Exam Tip
In an exam, the values of p you need to find that make f(p) = 0 are going to be integers close to
zero.
Try p = 1 and -1 first, then 2 and -2, then 3 and -3.
It is very unlikely that you'll have to go beyond that.

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Remainder Theorem
What is the remainder theorem? Your notes
The factor theorem is actually a special case of the more general remainder theorem
The remainder theorem states that when the polynomial f(x) is divided by (x - a) the remainder is f(a)
You may see this written formally as f(x) = (x - a)Q(x) + f(a)
In polynomial division
Q(x) would be the result (at the top) of the division (the quotient)
f(a) would be the remainder (at the bottom)
(x - a) is called the divisor
In the case when f(a) = 0, f(x) = (x - a)Q(x) and hence (x - a) is a factor of f(x)– the factor theorem!
How do I solve problems involving the remainder theorem?
If it is the remainder that is of particular interest, the remainder theorem saves the need to carry out
polynomial division in full
e.g. The remainder from (x 2 − 2x ) ÷ (x − 3) is 32 − 2 × 3 = 3
This is because if f(x) = x2- 2x and a = 3
If the remainder from a polynomial division is known, the remainder theorem can be used to find
unknown coefficients in polynomials
g. The remainder from (x 2 + px ) ÷ (x − 2) is 8 so the value of p can be found by solving
22 + p (2) = 8 , leading to p = 2
In harder problems there may be more than one unknown in which case simultaneous equations
would need setting up and solving
The more general version of remainder theorem is if f(x) is divided by (ax - b) then the remainder is
⎛b⎞
f ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝a ⎠
The shortcut is still to evaluate the polynomial at the value of x that makes the divisor (ax - b) zero
but it is not necessarily an integer

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Exam Tip
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Exam questions will use formal mathematical language which can make factor and remainder
theorem questions sound more complicated than they are.
Ensure you are familiar with the various terms from these revision notes

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1.2.3 Factorisation
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Polynomial Factorisation
What is polynomial factorisation?
Factorising a polynomial combines the factor theorem with the method of polynomial division
The goal is to break down a polynomial as far as possible into a product of linear factors

How do I factorise a polynomial?

At A level you will usually be asked to factorise a cubic – i.e. a polynomial where the highest power of x
is 3

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To factorise a cubic polynomial f(x) follow the following steps:

Step 1. Find a value p that makes f(p) = 0

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Step 2. Use polynomial division to divide f(x) by (x - p)

Step 3. Use the result of your division to write

f(x) = (x - p) (ax2 + bx + c)

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Step 4. If the quadratic (ax2 + bx + c) is factorisable, factorise it and write f(x) as a product of three
linear factors (if the quadratic is not factorisable, then your result from Step 3 is the final factorisation)

Exam Tip
The method outlined above can be logically extended to factorise a polynomial of any degree.

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1.2.4 Rational Expressions

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Rational Expressions (Algebraic Fractions)
What are rational expressions?
Rational numbers are numbers that can be written as a fraction (quotient)
Rational comes from ratio – a number is rational if it can be written as a ratio of two integers – ie a
fraction!
A rational expression is an algebraic fraction
The ratio between two algebraic expressions (usually polynomials)

Factor theorem
In order to simplify a rational expression you'll need to remember the factor theorem

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How to simplify a rational expression (algebraic fraction)

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Start by factorising polynomials using factor theorem or algebraic division

x 3 − 7x + 6
Simplify
x 2 + 2x − 3

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cancel any common (linear) factors

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recognise a top-heavy (improper) rational expression, simplify if needed

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1.2.5 Top Heavy Rational Expressions

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Improper Algebraic Fractions
What are top-heavy (improper) rational expressions (or algebraic fractions)?
The degree of the numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of the denominator

How do I simplify top-heavy rational expressions?

Write as a quotient and a remainder

The algebraic equivalent of changing a top-heavy fraction to a mixed number

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Exam Tip
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Remember that simple cases are sometimes the hardest to spot!

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