Introduction to Electrical Engineering (22ESC142)

Notes

Module 5

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 Introduction to Electrical Engineering
Course Code: 22ESC142 CIE Marks 50
Course Type (Theory/Practical Theory SEE Marks 50
/Integrated) Total Marks 100
Teaching Hours/Week (L: T:P: S) 3:0:0:0 Exam Hours 03
Total Hours of Pedagogy 40 hours Credits 03
Course objectives
• To explain the laws used in the analysis of DC and AC circuits.
• To explain the behavior of circuit elements in single-phase circuits.
• To explain the construction and operation of transformers, DC generators and motors and induction
motors.
• To introduce concepts of circuit protecting devices and earthing.
• To explain electric power generation, transmission and distribution, electricity billing, equipment and
personal safety measures.
Module-1 (08 Hrs.)
Introduction: Conventional and non-conventional energy resources; General structure of electrical
power systems using single line diagram approach.
Power Generation: Hydel, Nuclear, Solar & wind power generation (Block Diagram approach).
DC Circuits:
Ohm’s Law and its limitations. KCL & KVL, series, parallel, series-parallel circuits.
Simple Numerical.
Module-2 (08 Hrs.)
A.C. Fundamentals:
Equation of AC Voltage and current, waveform, time period, frequency, amplitude, phase, phase
difference, average value, RMS value, form factor, peak factor. (Only definitions)
Voltage and current relationship with phasor diagrams in R, L, and C circuits. Concept of Impedance.
Analysis of R-L, R-C, R-L-C Series circuits. Active power, reactive power and apparent power.
Concept of power factor. (Simple Numerical).
Three Phase Circuits:
Generation of Three phase AC quantity, advantages and limitations; star and delta connection,
relationship between line and phase quantities (excluding proof).

Module-3(08 Hrs.)
DC Machines:
DC Generator: Faraday’s law, Principle of operation, constructional details, induced emf expression,
Relation between induced emf and terminal voltage. Simple numerical.
DC Motor: Principle of operation, back emf and its significance. Torque equation, types of motors,
characteristics and speed control (armature & field) of DC motors (series & shunt only). Applications
of DC motors. Simple numerical.

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 Module-4(08 Hrs.)
Transformers: Necessity of transformer, principle of operation, Types and construction of single-
phase transformers, EMF equation, losses, variation of losses with respect to load. Efficiency and
simple numerical.
Three-phase induction Motors: Concept of rotating magnetic field, Principle of operation,
constructional features of motor, types – squirrel cage and wound rotor. Slip and its significance simple
numerical.
Module-5 (08 Hrs.)
Domestic Wiring: Requirements, Types of wiring: conduit wiring. Two way and three-way control of
load.
Electricity Bill: Power rating of household appliances including air conditioners, PCs, laptops,printers,
etc. Definition of “unit” used for consumption of electrical energy, two-part electricity tariff, calculation
of electricity bill for domestic consumers.
Equipment Safety measures: Working principle of Fuse and Miniature circuit breaker (MCB), merits
and demerits.
Personal safety measures: Electric Shock, Earthing and its types, Safety Precautions to avoid shock.

Course outcome (Course Skill Set)

At the end of the course the student will be able to:
CO1 Understand the concepts of various energy sources and Electric circuits.
CO2 Apply the basic Electrical laws to solve circuits.
CO3 Discuss the construction and operation of various Electrical Machines.
CO4 Identify suitable Electrical machine for practical implementation.
CO5 Explain the concepts of electric power transmission and distribution, electricity billing,
circuit protective devices and personal safety measures.

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 Module 5:
Domestic Wiring: Requirements, Types of wiring: conduit wiring. Two way and three-way
control of load.
Electricity Bill: Power rating of household appliances including air conditioners, PCs, laptops,
printers, etc. Definition of “unit” used for consumption of electrical energy, two-part electricity
tariff, calculation of electricity bill for domestic consumers.
Equipment Safety measures: Working principle of Fuse and Miniature circuit breaker
(MCB), merits and demerits.
Personal safety measures: Electric Shock, Earthing and its types, Safety Precautions to avoid
shock.

Domestic Wiring:
• A network of wires drawn connecting the meter board to the various energy consuming
loads (lamps, fans, motors etc) through control and protective devices for efficient
distribution of power is known as electrical wiring. Electrical wiring done in residential
and commercial buildings to provide power for lights, fans, pumps and other domestic
appliances is known as domestic wiring.

Fig. 1 Domestic wiring of a house

The electricity from the mains is supplied to the houses using a three-core wiring. They are

• The Live wire

• The neutral wire and
• The earth wires

Live Wire: It is at a high potential of 220 volts. The live wire has red insulation

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Neutral wire: It is at the ground potential of zero volt. The neutral wire has black insulation
covering. From the electric pole situated in our street, two insulated wires L and N come to our
house. In India, the potential difference between the two wire is 220V.

Earth wire: It is a safety measure and does not affect the supply in any way. The green earth wire
is connected to a metal plate deep in the earth.

There are two separate circuits in a house, the lighting circuit with a 5 A fuse and the power circuit
with a 15 A fuse.

Types of wiring:

• Cleat wiring
• CTS wiring or TRS wiring or batten wiring
• Metal sheathed wiring or lead sheathed wiring
• Wooden Casing and capping
• Conduit wiring

Conduit wiring

In this system PVC or VIR insulated cables are run through mild steel pipes called conduits
providing good protection against mechanical injury and fire due to short circuit. They are either
embedded inside the walls or supported over the walls, and are known as concealed wiring or
surface conduit wiring (open conduit) respectively. The conduits are buried inside the walls on
wooden gutties and the wires are drawn through them with fish (steel) wires. The system is best
suited for domestic and commercial installations.

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 Fig. 2 Practical conduit wiring

Advantages:

1. No risk of fire and good protection against mechanical injury.

2. The lead and return wires can be carried in the same tube.
3. Earthing and continuity is assured.
4. Waterproof and troubleshooting is easy.
5. Shock- proof with proper earthing and bonding
6. Durable and maintenance free

Disadvantages:

1. Costliest system of wiring.

2. Requires good skilled workmanship.
3. Erection is quite complicated and is time consuming.
4. Risk of short circuit under wet conditions (due to condensation of water in tubes).

Typical House Wiring Circuits

a) Two-way Control of load (lamp) or Staircase lighting

Two-way control is usually used for staircase lighting. The lamp can be controlled from two
different points: one at the top and the other at the bottom - using two- way switches which
strap wires interconnect. They are also used in bedrooms, big halls, and large corridors.
Switches S1 and S2 are two-way switches with a pair of terminals 1&2, and 3&4 respectively.
When the switch S1 is in position1 and switch S2 is in position 4, the circuit does not form a
closed loop and there is no path for the current to flow and hence the lamp will be OFF. When
S1 is changed to position 2 the circuit gets completed and hence the lamp glows or is ON. Now
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if S2 is changed to position 3 with S1 at position 2 the circuit continuity is broken and the lamp
is off. Thus, the lamp can be controlled from two different points.

Fig. 3 Two – way control of lamp

Table 1. Positioning of switches

b) Three-way Control of load (lamp) or Corridor lighting

In case of very long corridors, it may be necessary to control the lamp from 3 different points. In
such cases, the circuit connection requires two; two-way switches S1and S2 and an intermediate
switch S3. An intermediate switch is a combination of two, two-way switches coupled together.
It has 4 terminals ABCD. It can be connected in two ways

i) Straight connection
ii) Cross connection

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In case of straight connection, the terminals or points AB and CD are connected as shown in Fig.
4 (a) while in case of cross connection, the terminals AB and CD is connected as shown in Fig.
4(b). As explained in two –way control the lamp is ON if the circuit is complete and is OFF if the
circuit does not form a closed loop.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 4 a) Straight connection. b) Cross connection

The condition of the lamp is given in the table depending on the positions of the switches S1, S2
and S3.
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 Table 2. Positioning of switches in straight and cross connection

Electricity Bill:
Power Rating of Household Appliances

S. No Household appliances Min Power Max Power Min Energy Max

(W) (W) (kWh) Energy
(kWh)
1 Air Conditioner 1000 1500 1 1.5
2 Desktop Computer 100 450 0.10 0.45
3 Laptop Computer 40 120 0.04 0.12
4 Refrigerator 100 200 0.1 0.2
5 42 Inch LCD TV 110 130 0.11 0.13
6 Inkjet Printer 20 30 0.02 0.03

Power Consumption of Typical Home Appliances in Watts

The following table shows the estimated value of wattage rating (in Watts) for different and
common household devices, appliances, and equipment.
Table 3. Power ratings of different home appliances

Home Appliance Power in Watt

Fan 80

LED Light Bulb 25

AC – Air Conditioner (1.5 Tons) 1130

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 Refrigerator (236 L) 350

Electric Heater 2000

Water Heater (25 L) 2000

Hair Dryer 1500

Clothes Iron 1400

Microwave Oven 1000

Desktop Computer 150

Laptop Computer 100

TV – Television 120

Vacuum Cleaner (1.5 L) 1600

Washing Machine (7 Kg) 1500

Water Pump (1 hp) 746

A unit (as mentioned on the electricity bills) is represented in kWh or kilowatt hour. This is
the actual electricity or energy used. If you use 1000 Watts or 1 Kilowatt of power for 1 hour
then you consume 1 unit or 1 Kilowatt-Hour (kWh) of electricity. So, the reading on the
electricity meter represents the actual electricity used. Just like the speedometer on your vehicle
that shows the actual distance travelled by the vehicle, electricity meter shows the amount of
electricity that is used. So, a 100-Watt bulb if kept on for 10 hours will consume:

100 x 10 = 1000 Watt-Hour = 1 Kilowatt-Hour (kWh) = 1 units (on your meter).

The unit of electrical energy consumed is 1 kWh.

One kilowatt-hour is the electrical energy consumed by an electrical appliance of power 1 kW

when it is used for one hour.

Thus,

1kWh = 1 kilowatt × 1 hour

= 103 watts × 3600s

= 103 J/s × 3600s

= 3.6×106 J
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Thus, 1kWh = 3.6 × 106 J

Difference Between kWh and kVAh

For domestic tariff, one unit of electric energy consumption is equal to kWh whereas, for
commercial and industrial tariff, the same is in kVAh. The reading of kVAh consumed is higher
than kWh due to power factor. Power factor is the ratio of actual power divided by apparent power.
Every appliance, mostly inductive load consumes reactive power which does not deliver any work
but consumed electricity when billing is done in kVAh. There is always an effort to match kVAh
with kWh and for that capacitor banks are provided.

Electric Utility Bill Calculation

Calculation of Electric Energy Consumption. The following formula is used for electrical energy
consumption.

E=Pxt … (Wh)
E = P x t ÷ 1000 … (kWh)
Consumed Energy = Energy Used in Watts x Time in Hours

Where:
• E = Electrical Energy (Consumed in kWh)
• P = Power in Watts
• t = Time in hours per day
Wh (Watt-hour) is a small unit, so we divide the consumed energy on 1000 to get the value of
energy in kWh instead of Wh.

Example:
Suppose, a consumer consumes 1000 watts load per hour daily for one month. Calculate The
Total Energy bill of the consumer if per unit rate is 9 INR [Take 1 month = 30 Days].
Solution:
1 Unit = 1kWh.
So, the total kWh = 1000 Watts × 24 Hrs × 30 Days = 720000 … Watts / hour.
We want to convert it into electric units, Where 1 Unit = 1kWh.
So, the total consumed units by user: = 720000 / 1000 … (k = kilo =1000).
Total Consumed Units = 720.
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The cost of per unit electricity is 9.
Therefore, the total Cost of Electricity Bill = 720 units × 9 = 6480 INR

TARIFF
The total expenditure incurred by an electric company supplying power to many consumers is
distributed equitably amongst them. With this end in view, the electric company prepares a
schedule of rates for supplying power to different types of consumers. This schedule of rates
is called TARIFF.

a) TWO - PART ELECTRICITY TARIFF

In this type of tariff, the total charge on a consumer is split up into two components:
1. A component proportional to the maximum demand of the consumer
2. A component proportional to number of units of energy consumed.
Expressed as:
Total charge = a kW + b kWh
a = charge levied on each kW of maximum demand
b = charge levied on each kWh of energy supplied

Example:
Assuming a = Rs.2/KW and b = 50 paise/kWh.
A Consumer has a maximum demand of 50 kW and the energy consumed per month is 500
units, determine the monthly electrical charges of the consumer.
Solution: a = 50*2 =100 kW
B = 500 * 0.50 = 25 kWh

Total charges in rupees = a kW + b kWh

= [50*2 + 500 * 0.50] = 100 + 25 = Rs. 350/-

Equipment Safety measures:

1. Electric Fuse:
An Electric Fuse is an Electric device which interrupts the flow of current in an Electric circuit. It
is installed in a circuit to stop the flow of excessive current. A Fuse is usually a short piece of wire.
The Fuse is made up of a material which has high resistivity and low melting point, so that it melts
down due to overheating of the wire during high current flow.

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The thickness of the Fuse wire is determined based on the amount of current flow in the circuit.
Normally an alloy of tin and lead is used as the Fuse wire, as it has high resistivity and low melting
point. If a fault causes a flow of excess Current, then a thin Conductor is used to break the Circuit
by melting or separating it, the thin Conductor used is known as an Electric Fuse.
A Fuse can be sacrificed if anything in the Circuit goes wrong since they are weak points that are
intentionally placed in a Circuit. For example, in order to protect the wiring of the vehicles, a Fuse
panel is placed near the batteries of the Car.
The wire inside the Fuse melts if there is an occurrence of high Current due to a short Circuit or
an overloaded Circuit. As a result of which the Current stops flowing since the wire has broken.
In order to stop the flow of Electricity, the Electric Fuse gives up its life. There is a clear plastic
window in some Fuses from which one can check if they are still good.
Electric Fuse- Working Principle:
The Electric Fuse works based on the heating effect of the electric current. It is composed of a
non-flammable thin metallic wire with a low melting point. If a high amount of electricity is passed
from the Electric Fuse, there is a production of heat which causes the Fuse to melt which leads to
the opening of the Circuit and the blockage of Current shown in Fig. 5. Once a Fuse melts, it can
be changed or replaced with a new Fuse. A Fuse is normally made up of elements like zinc, copper,
aluminium, and silver.
A Fuse acts as a circuit breaker and breaks the circuit in case any fault occurs in the circuit. It acts
as a protector of Electric appliances and as a safety measure for humans. The figure below
represents a Fuse operation, Fuse barrel and Fuse link.

Fig. 5 Working of fuse

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Advantages:
• Fuse is cheapest type of protection in an electrical circuit
• Fuse needs zero maintenance
• Operation of fuse is simple and no complexity is involved
• Fuse can interrupt enormous short circuit current without producing noise, flame, gas, or
smoke
• The operation time of fuse can be made much smaller than operation of circuit breaker. It
is the primary protection device against short circuits
• It affords current limiting effect under short-circuit conditions.
Disadvantage:
• During short circuit or overload once fuse blows off replacing of fuse takes time. During
this period the circuit lost power
• When fuses are connected in series it is difficult to discriminate the fuse unless the fuse
has significant size difference.

2. Miniature circuit breaker (MCB)

MCB is an automatic switch that opens when excessive current flows through the circuit. It can
be reclosed without any manual replacement. In the case of a fuse, once it has been operated, it
must be replaced or rewired, depending on the type of the MCB. Hence, fuse is known as one of
the sacrificial devices. This is the main reason why MCBs are used as an alternative to the fuse in
most of the circuits.
Also, whenever there is a fault in the circuit, the switches in the MCB automatically shut down
and the fault of the device can be easily detected. Practical MCB is shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6 Practical MCB

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Handling MCB is relatively safe, and it quickly restores the supply. MCB – Miniature Circuit
Breaker can be reset quickly and does not demand more maintenance costs. MCB works on a bi-
metal respective principle that protects against overload current and solenoid short circuit current.

MCB - Working Principle:

When the current overflow occurs through MCB – Miniature Circuit Breaker, the bimetallic strip
gets heated and deflects by bending. The deflection of the bi-metallic strip releases a latch. The
latch causes the MCB to turn off by stopping the current flow in the circuit. This process helps
safeguard the appliances or devices from the hazards of overload or overcurrent. To restart the
current flow, MCB must be turned ON manually. Fig. 7 shows the working principle of MCB.

Fig. 7 Working of MCB

Advantages of MCBs:
• MCBs have more sensitive to current then fuse.
• It has quick work against short circuits.
• It works quickly on overloading and under voltage.
• It is reusable hence less maintenance cost and less replacement cost.
• It is very simple to resume the supply.
• It can be easily used circuit control switch when needed.
• Handling MCB is electricity safer than handling fuse, in case of MCB.
• It has reliable.
• MCB provides a better interface.
• MCB performance immediate indication of faculty circuit.
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Disadvantages of MCBs:
• The cost of the MCB is greater than the fuse.
• The cost of the MCB distribution board is greater than the rewireable fuse board.
• The risk of overloading of the circuit due to unqualified of the person operating than
completing removed.

Personal safety measures:

Electric Shock:
An electric shock occurs when a person meets an electrical energy source. Electrical energy
flows through a portion of the body causing a shock. Exposure to electrical energy may result
in no injury at all or may result in devastating damage or death. Burns are the most common
injury from electric shock.

Fig. 8 Components of Electrical Earthing System

Sometimes these shocks can be dangerous and can lead to major hazards. To avoid mis
happenings, it is always advisable to have a proper earthing done to the building. This process
of sharing the charges with the earth is called earthing. Earthing is a simple way for the leakage
of current and hence protects the devices from electrical damage shown in Fig. 8. Grounding
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is also a safety process that protects the entire power system from malfunctioning and is mainly
used to balance the load when the electric system overloads.
When a person encounters the live wire supplying electricity, he receives a shock. The severity
of the shock received depends on the voltage of the wire and the body resistance of the person.
The maximum current a human body can withstand is 30mA. If the body is totally wet, the
body resistance is 1000 ohms, if it is dry, it is about 5000 ohms. Mild shocks produce
nervousness. The damage caused due to an electric shock depends the voltage, the current,
persons health etc.
Precautions:
Insulation of the conductors used must be proper, Meggar tests should be conducted, insulation
must be checked, earth connection should be always maintained in proper condition, use rubber
soled shoes and gloves while working, never touch the two different terminals at the same time,
sockets should be fixed at a height beyond reach of children.
Earthing:
Earthing is connecting the exposed metal parts of the appliances to ground (or earth) by using
a conductor of very low resistance. The earthing procedure is as follows;
• The earthing wire brought out from the equipment is joined to the earthing electrode
through the earthing terminal of the 3-pin socket.
• The earthing electrode may be a galvanized iron (GI) pipe or a rod or a plate or may be
a strip.
• A pit is dug (in the ground) of size 30 cm x 30 cm for at least 2 m depth below the
ground level.
• This pit is half filled with a layer of common salt and charcoal as shown in figure 9.
• Above this the remaining depth is filled by soil till ground level.
• The earthing electrode is embedded in a pit.
Types of Earthing:
There are three types of earthing, they are:
• Pipe earthing
• Plate earthing
a) Pipe earthing: It is the best and most efficient way of earthing and is also easily affordable.
Pipe earthing uses 38mm diameter and 2 metres length pipe vertically embedded in the
ground to work as earth electrodes.

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 • Earth electrode made of galvanized iron (GI) pipe of 38 mm in diameter and length
of 2 m (depending on the current) with 12 mm holes on the surface, is placed upright
at a depth of 4.75 m in a permanently wet ground.
• To keep the value of the earth resistance at the desired level, the area (15 cm)
surrounding the GI pipe is filled with a mixture of salt and coal.
• The efficiency of the earthing system is improved by pouring water through the
funnel periodically.
• The GI earth wires of sufficient cross- sectional area are run through a 12.7 mm
diameter pipe at 60 cm below from the 19 mm diameter pipe and secured tightly at
the top as shown in the figure 9.
• The disadvantage is embedded pipe length must be increased sufficiently with high
order specific resistivity.

Fig. 9 Pipe earthing

b) Plate earthing: In a plate earthing, earthing plate made of copper or G.I. is buried into the
ground at a depth more than 3 metres from the ground level. This earthing plate is embedded
in an alternative layer of coke and salts.
• In this method a copper plate of 60 cm x 60 cm x 3.18 cm or a GI plate of the size
60 cm x 60 cm x 6.35 cm is used for earthing.
• The plate is placed vertically down inside the ground at a depth of 3 m and is
embedded in alternate layers of coal and salt for a thickness of 15 cm.

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 • In addition, water is poured for keeping the earth electrode resistance value well
below a maximum of 5 ohms.
• The earth wire is securely bolted to the earth plate.
• A cement masonry chamber is built with a cast iron cover for easy regular
maintenance. Earthing efficiency increases with increase of plate area and depth of
embedding.
• The disadvantage is that discontinuity of earth plate cannot be observed.

Fig. 10 Plate earthing

Safety Precautions to avoid shock:

Working with electricity can be dangerous, so it’s important to take safety precautions to protect
yourself and others. Here are some other safety tips to keep in mind when working with electricity:
1) Always turn off the power source before starting any electrical work. This includes turning
off the circuit breaker or unplugging the device.
2) Wear personal protective equipment (PPE) such as safety glasses, rubber gloves, and non-
conductive shoes.
3) Use tools that are specifically designed for electrical work and ensure they are in good
condition.
4) Avoid working in wet or damp conditions or with wet hands.

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 5) Do not touch electrical parts or wires with bare hands, use tools or gloves instead.
6) Keep your work area clean and free from any flammable or combustible materials.
7) Always follow proper wiring procedures, and use proper insulation techniques.
8) Do not work on live circuits, even if you are experienced.
9) Make sure that any electrical work is done according to local codes and regulations.
10) If you are unsure of what to do, consult with a qualified electrician or seek professional
advice.
Follow these basic safety rules to avoid an accident and protect your loved ones:
1) Never use a damaged extension cord: Even a slightly damaged extension cord can cause an
accident. Throw it out! Do not hide an extension cord under a carpet. Over time, it may become
damaged and cause a fire.

Fig. 11 Damaged extension cord

2) Never use a defective electrical device: When you notice an electrical device is defective,
you might be tempted to use it anyway. Never take risks with electricity! Either throw it out
or have it repaired. If you decide to repair it yourself, always unplug it first. If it is plugged in,
one wrong move could cause an electric shock. If you are not comfortable with electricity, call
on a professional instead.
3) Pull on the plug and not on the cable to unplug an electrical device: That way, you will
not damage the electric cable. A damaged cable can cause an accident.

Fig. 12 Demonstrating pulling cable

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4) Unplug the toaster before trying to dislodge stuck toast: It is simple and takes only a
second! Always unplug the toaster before dislodging stuck toast. Never insert a utensil into a
plugged toaster; the risks of electric shock are too high.

Fig. 13 Dislodge stuck toast

5) Before changing a lightbulb, switch off the light or unplug the lamp: Switch the light off
before replacing the burnt-out bulb, and make sure no one touches the switch while you’re
working. If the light fixture is not connected to a switch (e.g., a bedside or floor lamp), unplug
it before replacing the bulb. Remember to never handle an electrical device or lightbulb with
wet hands. Water + Electricity = Danger!

Fig. 14 Changing a lightbulb

6) Multi-outlets: get the right power bars: Be careful when using multi-outlet bars. Connecting
too many devices that consume a lot of electricity could lead to overheating. Here are some
solutions to avoid an electrical overload:
• Use a power bar with a built-in circuit breaker that cuts off the power in case of
overload.
• Plug your various devices into different outlets.
• Unplug any devices you are not using.

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 Fig. 15 Multi-outlets
7) Always unplug the iron before filling it with water: The same is true for all small appliances,
including kettles and humidifiers. Water conducts electricity. If the water splashes and goes
into the appliance, it could give you an electric shock.

Fig. 16 Unplugging the iron before filling with water

8) In the bathroom, never use electrical devices if you are wet or the humidity level is high:
The electrical outlets in the bathroom must have a protection system (called a ground fault
circuit interrupter or GFCI) because they are near a source of water. The GFCI cuts power
when water enters a plugged-in device (hairdryer, curling iron, razor, radio, cell phone).

Fig. 17 Devices if wet or the humidity level is high

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9) Be careful when removing the cover plate of a switch or outlet: When you remove the
cover plate of a switch or outlet to paint the walls or apply a wall covering, your chances of
encountering electricity are much higher. Before cutting wallpaper near an electric outlet or a
switch, take the time to turn off the circuit breaker on the distribution panel.

Fig. 18 Cover plate of a switch or outlet

10) Mowing the lawn safely: If you have an electric lawnmower, make sure the cable is in
good condition and be careful not to cut it by mowing over it. For additional safety, use the
lawnmower only when the grass is dry. Make sure to plug your lawnmower into an outlet
with a protection system (e.g., a ground fault circuit interrupter). Finally, wear shoes to
reduce the risk of cuts.

Fig. 19 Mowing the lawn safely

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