Unit1 : Construction concepts, Labor and

Equipment Utilization

School of Engineering

Department of Civil Environmental and

Geomatics Engineering
COLLE GE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
 DEFINITIONS

Construction is the activity of putting together different

elements, using a detailed design and plan, to create a
structure for a certain location

Construction is the process of building structures, and it

involves planning, design, and construction work

Construction Technology involves the study of methods of

construction to successfully achieve the structural design
with recommended specifications. It also includes the study
of construction equipment and temporary work required to
facilitate the construction process.
 TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION

 Residential: Building houses for families, which can be

single or multi-family

 Commercial: Building office spaces, storage, and

warehouses
 Industrial: Building factories, power plants, and processing
plants
 Infrastructure: Roads, bridges, Water supply and treatment,
sewage treatment, and other infrastructure
 Construction phases

 Planning: Creating a strategic plan for the project

 Pre-construction: Securing permits, gathering

resources, and designing the project

 Construction: Building the structure

 Post-construction: Maintaining the structure

 Building
A building consists of an assembly of materials and
components, joined together in such a way as to allow the
building to fulfill its primary purpose, that of providing shelter
to its occupants.

The provision of shelter rests on two basic necessities:

 That the building will act as an enclosure for the activities
housed within.

 That the building will protect the occupants, equipment or

goods housed within from the vagaries of the external
climate (rain, wind, sun, snow and frost).
Ifthe building is to act as an enclosure, it must
have external walls and be covered by a roof.

The roof will normally rest on the walls and be

supported by them.
The walls, in turn, will need a firm base or
foundation to be built upon, which will transfer their
weight and that of the roof to the ground beneath.
 BUILDING ELEMENTS CON’T
To make the building useable, the internal space enclosed by the
external walls and roof may need to be subdivided into rooms by the
introduction of horizontal dividers between storeys, the floors, and
vertical dividers between rooms, the internal walls.

Stairs or lifts can provide access between storeys.

Doors can provide access to the building and to each room within the
building.
Daylight and ventilation can be introduced into the building by the
provision of windows in the external walls or the roof.
 All of these parts of the building construction are known as “Building
elements.”
 CON’T
Building elements.

8
 BUILDING LOADS
Buildings must not only be designed to support their own
weight safely, they must also be able to support the weight of
the occupants and any furniture, equipment or goods that are
contained within the building.

The building also needs to be able to withstand other forces

that may be imposed upon it by the wind or snow.

Buildings are therefore designed to carry three specific types

of loading:

Dead loading
Live loading
Superimposed loading
 BUILDING LOADS CON’T

Deadloading: derived from the weight of the materials and

components used in the building construction.

This will alter according to the type of building being

constructed.

Live loading: derived from the weight of all the occupants

using the building, together with the weight of all the furniture,
equipment, and goods that may be contained within the
building.
 BUILDING LOADS CON’T
Liveloading will alter according to the use to which
the building is put.

Superimposed loading: derived from the forces

exerted onto the building by the climatic conditions
prevailing.

This will alter according to the location of the

building, and according to whether it is exposed or
sheltered.
 THE BUILDING TEAM
Building team is essentially team process in which each member has an
important role to play.
 Figure below shows the organisation structure of a typical building team
for a large project, and the function of each member is a must.

12
 Handling of Construction Materials

 Material handling is defined as the process of moving,

protecting, storing, and controlling materials throughout the
project phase

 Material handling and storage is one of the most important

aspects that can determine the success or failure of a
construction project. If done well, it can help reduce costs
and construction-related injuries
 SIGNIFICANCE OF MATERIAL HANDLING AND
STORAGE

 When the site is ready for work to continue, the

transportation of construction material onsite begins.

 Usually, everything that goes into the construction project

must be brought to the site (transport, handle, and store
with care).

 Many times the only way to move this material onsite is by

truck. These vehicles (loaded with concrete blocks, pipes,
equipment, lumber, or any other material) provide a
continuous flow of raw materials and parts that are vital to
the project
 RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH IMPROPER HANDLING

 Improper handling of materials can result in serious injuries

or even fatalities. From:

 Lifting heavy objects incorrectly

 The danger of falling items
 Poorly stacked supplies, the risks are substantial.
 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CONSTRUCTION
MATERIAL HANDLING

 Segregation and Storage: To prevent fires and hazards,

segregate incompatible materials during storage. Keep
solvent waste, flammable liquids, and oily rags in fire
resistant containers until they are removed from the site.

 Secure Stacking: All materials stored in tiers must be

securely stacked, racked, blocked, or interlocked.
Cylindrical materials like steel, poles, and pipes need proper
stacking and blocking to prevent shifting and potential
injuries.
 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CONSTRUCTION
MATERIAL HANDLING CON’T

 Floor Load Limits: Be aware of the maximum safe load limits

for floors used as storage areas. Never exceed these limits
to avoid structural damage and accidents.

 Clear Aisles and Passageways: Keep walkways and

passageways clear and well-maintained to allow the safe
movement of employees and material handling equipment.

 Level Surfaces: When working on different levels, provide

ramps or graded surfaces to prevent vehicle accidents and
material spillage.
Storage of construction materials

 Proper storage of
construction materials is
essential to ensure their
quality and usability
throughout a project.

 Improper storage can lead

to damage, deterioration,
and increased project
costs.
 Storage of construction materials

Essential practices for managing and storing construction materials.

1. Understand Material Requirements

Different construction materials have specific storage needs. Whether
dealing with concrete, wood, steel, or other materials, it’s vital to
understand their unique requirements to prevent damage and ensure
longevity. Refer to manufacturer guidelines for temperature, humidity, and
exposure conditions.
2. Choose the Right Storage Location
Select a storage location that is well-ventilated and protected from extreme
weather conditions. For moisture-sensitive materials, like wood and certain
metals, ensure the storage area is dry and elevated off the ground to avoid
water damage. Indoor storage is ideal for materials that are susceptible to
environmental damage.
Storage of construction materials con’t

3. Implement Proper Stacking Techniques

Correct stacking is crucial for maintaining the integrity of construction

materials. Follow these guidelines:

 Keep Materials Off the Ground: Use pallets or other elevating tools to
prevent contact with soil or moisture.
 Stack Uniformly: Arrange materials evenly to avoid instability and
potential damage. For example, stack lumber in a crisscross pattern
to improve stability.
 Secure Loads: Use straps or bands to secure stacks and prevent
shifting or toppling, especially for materials like pipes and metal
beams.
 Storage of construction materials con’t

4. Organize Materials for Easy Access

Efficient organization reduces handling time and minimizes the risk of

damage. Group materials by type and project use. Clearly label storage
areas and materials to facilitate quick identification and retrieval.
Implement a first-in, first-out (FIFO) system to ensure older materials are
used before newer ones.

5. Maintain a Clean and Safe Storage Area

Regular maintenance of the storage area is essential. Keep the space

free of debris, spills, and clutter. Ensure that all safety protocols are in
place, such as proper lighting and clear walkways. Conduct regular
inspections to identify and address any potential hazards.
 Storage of construction materials con’t

6. Protect Against Environmental Factors

Materials can be adversely affected by temperature extremes, humidity,

and sunlight exposure. Use protective coverings. For sensitive materials,
consider climate-controlled storage solutions.

7. Train Personnel on Best Practices

Ensure that all team members involved in material handling and storage
are trained on best practices. Provide clear guidelines and safety
instructions to minimize errors and promote a culture of safety and
efficiency.
Storage of construction materials con’t

8. Implement Inventory Management

Effective inventory management helps track material quantities, usage,
and reordering needs.

9. Address Damage and Maintenance Promptly

Inspect materials regularly for signs of damage or deterioration. Address
any issues immediately to prevent further damage and ensure that all
materials are in optimal condition for use.

10. Adopt Sustainable Practices

Incorporate sustainable practices into your storage solutions. Use
environmentally friendly materials and methods, and consider recycling or
repurposing unused materials.
 PROPER DISPOSAL OF CONSTRUCTION
MATERIAL

 Properly disposing of waste and used materials is vital for

maintaining a clean and safe worksite.
 Remove scrap lumber, waste material, and rubbish as work
progresses.
 Never drop or toss materials from a building; use enclosed
chutes for such actions.
 Provide containers for waste separation, and make sure they
have covers. Empty containers regularly to prevent
overflowing, which can lead to fire hazards and falling
debris.
CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT
Introduction
 It is a common fact that we find a wide variety of
construction machines on every construction site, which
make construction jobs easy, safe, and quicker.

 Depending on the application, construction equipments are

classified into various categories including the following:

A. Earthmoving equipment
B. Construction vehicles
C. Material handling equipment
D. Construction equipment
27
GROUP A : EARTHMOVING EQUIPMENTS

Earthmoving equipment is used in the construction

industry to :
 Shift large amounts of earth,
 Dig foundations and landscape areas.

Types of earthmoving equipment include hydraulic

excavators, bulldozers, compressors and loaders.
 A1 : Excavators
 Excavators are heavy construction equipment consisting of
a boom, stick, bucket and cab on a rotating platform (known
as the "house“).
 Excavators come in numerous sizes depending on bucket
size, length of boom, length of arm, and operation speed.
Performance of excavator can be measured from the
production cycle. Production cycle is the time that an
excavator took to load the bucket from source, swing,
dump, return back and then dig again. Therefore, faster the
operation speed, the faster will be the one complete cycle
and hence production cycle will increase.
 Excavators are mostly used for digging of soils and for
loading dump trucks.
 A.1.1 Crawler excavator

 The crawler excavator is also known as the “standard

excavator” that is capable to rotate 360 degrees for easy
digging, moving, and dumping materials. These types of
excavators are used in hilly areas where risks of sliding of
machinery are on the verge. Crawler type excavator has low
ground pressure because of spreading of load on large area.
Therefore, it is also used where soil support is weak.
 Pros: Provide greater balance and stability on uneven ground
 Cons: Slower than some other excavators
 A.1.2 Wheeled excavator

 Wheeled excavator runs on wheels and are used for

excavation and loading of dump trucks and most of the
time it is only used for plain ground operations. Because of
the wheel, it is not suitable for hilly areas due to low grip
value to the ground.

 Pros: Fast and easy to maneuver on flat surfaces

 Cons: Perform poorly on uneven terrain
33
 A.1.3 Suction Excavator

 A suction excavator is also known as a vacuum excavator.

 The onboard air fans generate the suction power to draw up
the material through the intake nozzle depositing to the
container at a speed of 320 km per hour.
 They are suitable when the area requires precise and careful
excavating.
 They are not applicable for large-scale works because the
intake nozzle ( suction pipe ) is 30 centimeters or less in
diameter.
 Pros: Suitable when the area requires precise and careful
excavating.
 Cons: Not suitable for large-scale works.
 A.1.4 Long reach Excavator
 Long-reach excavators are similar to crawler excavators but
are featured with longer extendable boom and arm.
 The length of the arm ranges from 12 – 30 meters.
 They can excavate in risky areas being in a safe place and
hard-to-reach areas.
 Use for: Hard-to-reach areas.

 Pros: It has a long extendable arm, which makes it easier to

excavate from a safe distance.

 Cons: The long arm makes it impossible to excavate in tight

spaces.
A.1.5 Hydraulic shovel Excavator

 Also called power shovels, the hydraulic shovel is the most

powerful type of excavator. While it's most commonly used
for mining projects, the hydraulic shovel is suited to handle
any job that requires heavy lifting and hauling of large
rocks, minerals and other heavy objects or materials
 Use for: Mining and heavy digging projects.
 Pros: It has a powerful engine and large bucket capacity.
 Cons: It's larger than necessary for many jobs.
 A.1.6 Dragline Excavator

 The dragline excavator is larger than the standard. More

importantly, it operates differently. The dragline uses a
hoist rope system and a dragline to raise and lower the
bucket and drag it toward the driver.
 This hoist/dragline system makes this excavator ideal for
excavating underwater.
 Use for: Deep pile driving, harbor construction, surface
mining, deep excavation, road excavator, and underwater
operations.
 Pros: Dragline excavators have a digging depth of 65 meters
or more.
 Cons: Its large size and inflexible system make it only
useable for specific jobs.
 A.1.7 Backhoe excavator

 Backhoe excavators are the one that has an excavator

boom on the backside of the machine and the front part of
the machine is installed with a large bucket or blade used
for leveling, moving soils, and other materials.
 They can rotate in 200 degrees.
 Uses: Landscaping, small demolitions, breaking asphalt,
loading materials, etc.
 Pros: Can perform multiple tasks.
 Backhoe Excavator cont’

 A backhoe, also called a

rear actor or back actor, is
a piece of excavating
equipment or digger
consisting of a digging
bucket on the end of a two-
part articulated arm. They
are typically mounted on
the back of a tractor or
front loader.
44
A.1.8 Truck-Mounted Excavator

 Truck-mounted excavators
are the ones that are mounted
on truck chassis and they can
run at higher speeds on roads.
 Require large space and firm
ground to function properly.
A2 : Loaders

 A loader is a heavy equipment/

machine often used in
construction, primarily used to
Load material (such as asphalt,
demolition debris, dirt, snow,
feed, gravel, raw minerals,
recycled material, rock, sand,
and woodchips) into or onto
another type of machinery
(such as a dump truck,
conveyor belt, feed-hopper, or
railcar).
 A2.1 : Skid steer loaders

 A skid loader or skid-steer loader is a

small rigid frame, engine-powered
machine with lift arms used to attach
a wide variety of labor-saving tools or
attachments.
 Though sometimes they are equipped
with tracks, skid-steer loaders are
typically four-wheel vehicles with the
wheels mechanically locked in
synchronization on each side, and the
left-side drive wheels can be driven
independently of the right-side drive
wheels.
 A.2.2 wheeled loading shovel

A shovel's work cycle, or

digging cycle, consists of
four phases:

 Digging
 Swinging
 Dumping
 Returning
 Wheeled loading shovels

 A power shovel (also stripping

shovel or front shovel or electric
mining shovel) is a bucket-
equipped machine, usually
electrically powered, used for
digging and loading earth or
fragmented rock and for mineral
extraction.

 Power shovels are used

principally for excavation and
removal of overburden in open-
cut mining operations, though it
may include loading of minerals,
such as coal. They are the
modern equivalent of steam
shovels, and operate in a similar
 A.2.3 : Crawler Loaders
 The crawler loader combines
the stability of the crawler
tractor with the abilities of a
wheel loader.
 However, to construct a
reliable crawler loader it
requires more than simply
attaching a loader bucket onto
a crawler tractor. It must be
designed with its specific
purpose in mind to ensure it
has the strength to withstand
heavy excavating.
 Crawler Loaders

 The introduction of hydraulic

excavators diminished the market
for the crawler loader because it
was unable to match the
excavator's lifting power and
flexibility.
 However, crawler loaders are
capable of maneuvering across the
entire construction site under its
own power, whereas most hydraulic
excavators require towing or
transport. While crawler tractors
are still being manufactured today
for niche markets, they reached
their peak of popularity in the
1960s.
 A3 : Graders
 A grader, also commonly referred
to as a road grader, a blade, a
maintainer, or a motor grader, is a
construction machine with a long
blade used to create a flat surface.
 Typical models have three axles,
with the engine and cab situated
above the rear axles at one end of
the vehicle and a third axle at the
front end of the vehicle, with the
blade in between.
 Graders Con’t

 In civil engineering, the grader's purpose

is to "finish grade" (refine, set precisely)
the "rough grading" performed by heavy
equipment or engineering vehicles such
as scrapers and bulldozers.

 Graders are commonly used in the

construction and maintenance of dirt
roads and gravel roads.

 In the construction of paved roads they

are used to prepare the base course to
create a wide flat surface for the asphalt
to be placed on. Graders are also used to
set native soil foundation pads to finish
grade prior to the construction of large
buildings.
 A4 : bulldozers
 A bulldozer is a crawler
(continuous tracked tractor)
equipped with a substantial
metal plate (known as a blade)
used to push large quantities
of soil, sand, rubble, or other
such material during
construction or conversion
work and typically equipped at
the rear with a claw-like device
(known as a ripper) to loosen
densely-compacted materials.
Bulldozer con’t
 A5 : Trenchers
 Trenchers, or ditchers as they are
sometimes called, are similar to
excavators in the sense that they
penetrate the earth, breaking soil
and rock, and remove it from the
ground. They differ from excavators
in that the soil is removed in one
continuous movement. Trenchers
are specifically used for digging
trenches for pipes, but other
machines have been improvised in
the past to serve this purpose.
 Trenchers Con’t

 Trenchers can come in two

types: ladder trenchers and
wheel trenchers, and can dig
trenches at speeds that other
machines cannot compare to.
GROUP B : CONSTRUCTION VEHICLES

Engineering or Construction vehicles are heavy-

duty vehicles, specially designed for executing
construction (Civil engineering) tasks, most
frequently, ones involving earth moving.
B1: Dumpers
 A dumper is a vehicle
designed for carrying bulk
material, often on building
sites.
 Modern dumpers have
payloads of up to 10 tones
and usually steer by
articulating at the middle of
the chassis.
 B2 : Tippers
A truck or lorry the rear
platform of which can be
raised at the front end to
enable the load to be
discharged by gravity also
called tip truck.
B2 : Tippers

 Tippers are suited for the rough

and tumble of mining &
quarrying operations, as well as
for carrying bulk loads in
construction and infrastructure
industries. Complete
maneuverability, high
performance and long-term
endurance are common to all
trucks, resulting in lower
operating costs.
 B3 : Trailers

 A trailer is generally an
unpowered vehicle pulled by
a powered vehicle.

 Commonly, the term trailer

refers to such vehicles used
for transport of goods and
materials.
GROUP C : MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENTS

Material handling equipment is any machine or tool that

is used to transport, process, store, or package materials
 C1 : Mobile and tower cranes

 A crane is a type of machine,

generally equipped with a
hoist, wire ropes or chains,
and sheaves, that can be used
both to lift and lower materials
and to move them horizontally.
 It is mainly used for lifting
heavy things and transporting
them to other places.
 C1 : cranes

 It uses one or more simple

machines to create
mechanical advantage and
thus move loads beyond the
normal capability of a man.
 Cranes are commonly
employed in the transport
industry for the loading and
unloading of freight, in the
construction industry for the
movement of materials and in
the manufacturing industry for
the assembling of heavy
equipment.
 C2 : conveyors
 A conveyor system is a common
piece of mechanical handling
equipment that moves materials
from one location to another.
Conveyors are especially useful in
applications involving the
transportation of heavy or bulky
materials. Conveyor systems allow
quick and efficient transportation for
a wide variety of materials, which
make them very popular in the
material handling and packaging
industries.
C2 : Conveyors Cont’
 C3 : Forklifts

 A forklift truck (also called a lift

truck, a fork truck, a forklift, or a
tow-motor) is a powered industrial
truck used to lift and transport
materials.

 Forklift trucks are available in many

variations and load capacities. In a
typical warehouse setting most
forklifts used have load capacities
between one to five tons. Larger
machines, up to 50 tons lift
capacity are used for lifting heavier
loads,
C3 : Cherry pickers
GROUP D : CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENTS
 D1 : tunneling and handling
equipments

 A tunnel boring machine (TBM) also

known as a "mole", is a machine used
to excavate tunnels with a circular
cross-section through a variety of soil
and rock strata. They can bore
through anything from hard rock to
sand. Tunnel diameters can range
from a meter (done with micro-TBMs)
to 19.25 m to date. Tunnels of less
than a meter or so in diameter are
typically done using trenchless
construction methods or horizontal
directional drilling rather than TBMs.
 D2 : concrete mixers
 A concrete mixer (also commonly called
a cement mixer) is a device that
homogeneously combines cement,
aggregate such as sand or gravel, and
water to form concrete. A typical
concrete mixer uses a revolving drum to
mix the components. For smaller volume
works portable concrete mixers are often
used so that the concrete can be made at
the construction site, giving the workers
ample time to use the concrete before it
hardens.
 D3 : concrete mixing truck

 Special concrete transport trucks (in–

transit mixers) are made to transport and
mix concrete up to the construction site.
They can be charged with dry materials
and water, with the mixing occurring during
transport. With this process, the material
has already been mixing. The concrete
mixing transport truck maintains the
material's liquid state through agitation, or
turning of the drum, until delivery.
 D.4 : compactors
 A compactor is a machine or
mechanism used to reduce the size of
waste material or soil through
compaction.

 In construction, there are three main

types of compactor: the plate
compactor, the "Jumping Jack" and the
road roller.
 The roller type compactors are used
for compacting crushed rock as the
base layer underneath concrete or
stone foundations or slabs.
 compactors

 The plate compactor has a large

vibrating base plate and is suited for
creating a level grade

 while the jumping jack compactor

has a smaller foot. The jumping jack
type is mainly used to compact the
backfill in narrow trenches for water
or gas supply pipes etc. Road rollers
may also have vibrating rollers.
 D.5 : pavers
 A paver (paver finisher, asphalt
finisher, paving machine) is an
engineering vehicle used to lay
asphalt on roadways. It is normally
fed by a dump truck.
 A separate machine, a roller, is
then used to press the hot asphalt
mix, resulting a smooth, even
surface. The sub-base being
prepared by use of a grader to trim
crushed stone to profile after
rolling.
77
Pavers

78
 D6 : Spraying and plastering
machines

 Plaster spraying allows a plasterer to

skim a drywall more than five times
faster than using a hand float to apply
it.
 Although classic gypsum-based
plaster can be sprayed if it is "spray
grade," most plaster sprayers prefer
the organic-based pre-mixed plaster
packaged in a plastic bag because the
plaster spraying machine does not
need to be cleaned out after the job is
finished, providing that plaster is kept
moist.
 Spraying and plastering machines

 Worm-drive pump
Most commonly, sprayers have a
worm-drive pump that pumps the
plaster up to a spray gun that has a
large nozzle, usually 4 to 8 mm, that
extrudes the plaster into a chamber
on the end of the gun
 Piston pump
Newer types of plaster sprayer have
a piston pump, which has sufficient
pressure to spray smooth
(untextured) plaster without
compressed air.