Next Energy 5 (2024) 100165

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Next Energy
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Research article

Performance testing of an innovative integrated zenithal daylight guide with

solar water heater under real-weather conditions ]]
]]]]]]
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Mahmoud Eid El-saggan , Ahmed Rekaby, Walid Aniss Aissa, Ahmed M. Reda
⁎

Department of Mechanical Power Engineering, Faculty of Energy Engineering, Aswan University, Aswan 81528, Egypt

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Zenithal Daylight Guides (ZDG) and Solar Water Heaters (SWH) are individual energy-saving solutions utilized
Zenithal daylight guide across diverse building types. This study proposes an innovative integrated power-saving system, uniting ZDG
Solar water heater and SWH into a single model. The integration concept is rooted in leveraging the available space surrounding the
Tubular solar collector daylighting device's pipe to incorporate a solar heater via a serpentine collector. The primary aim of this
Power-saving
amalgamation is to optimize solar energy savings, minimize spatial demands, and alleviate manufacturing ex­
penses. Moreover, the impetus behind this study stems from the recent emergence of daytime power outages in
Egypt, attributed to heightened consumption surpassing production capacities. The ZDG is still not well known
in Egypt. This is the only study until the year 2022/2023 in Aswan, Egypt, that analyzes the performance of this
device under extreme sunlight conditions (with maximum global illumination reaching approximately 118
Klux). Across various seasons, the lighting and thermal efficacy of the current model underwent experimental
testing and analysis to assess its practical utility. The integrated system effectively elevated the water tem­
perature and achieved adequate light transmission, as indicated by the obtained results. The average transmitted
indoor illumination on the work surface reached approximately 2470 lux. The reliance on electrical lighting
could be mitigated for up to 5 hours. On the other hand, the highest water temperature and maximum in­
stantaneous efficiency reached are about 70 °C and 37%, respectively. Throughout the experiments, the pro­
posed solar heater achieved a maximum daily thermal efficiency of 31.5%. The findings are deemed satisfactory
and promising.

1. Introduction cooling, and air conditioning accounts for over 50% of the overall
electricity consumption globally [4]. Subsequently, renewable energy
The steady increase in the world's population, and thus the ac­ futurity, particularly solar energy applied for heating water and
companying economic activities, expanding industrial investment, and lighting, appears promising and is experiencing steady growth.
increasing reliance on technology, have led to a rise in demand for In developing nations such as Egypt, within the framework of
energy, especially electricity (Fig. 1) [1]. Most of the world's electricity Egypt's 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, solar energy has
production (about 17,007.5 TWh or 63.1%) was generated from emerged as a competitive and cost-effective energy source, particularly
burning fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal) (see Fig. 2) [2]. The following the reduction of energy subsidies.
heightened demand has precipitated a gradual decline in traditional Much literature has focused on applications that provide energy-
fossil fuel reserves. Moreover, these reserves are not projected to fulfill saving solutions; like Zenithal Daylight Guides (ZDG) and Solar Water
future consumption needs. Carbon dioxide emissions are forecasted to Heaters (SWH). These guides are used as an alternative to traditional
escalate to 43.2 billion metric tons by 2040 due to the surge in energy light bulbs. These techniques gather sunlight from the outside and
consumption [3]. Consequently, there has been a growing emphasis on transmit it to enclosed spaces away from windows, like closed hallways
energy conservation through the utilization of renewable sources in or warehouses, as well as underground areas, using a highly reflective
recent times. Globally, the energy consumed for water heating and pipe. The SWH is the most popular and old-fashioned energy-saving
lighting in buildings is no less than 7% of total energy consumption [4]. solution. By exploiting the thermal energy converted from sunlight
The thermal electricity consumed for purposes such as water heating, falling on the flat plate collector, FPC, in the SWH, the water is heated

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M.E. El-saggan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nxener.2024.100165
Received 25 February 2024; Received in revised form 22 June 2024; Accepted 8 July 2024
2949-821X/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-nc-nd/4.0/).
M.E. El-saggan, A. Rekaby, W.A. Aissa et al. Next Energy 5 (2024) 100165

Nomenclature Subscripts/Superscripts

A Area, [m2] abs Absorber

Ap Aspect ratio of the light pipe avg Average
Cp Specific heat, [J/kg. °C] i Inlet
D Diameter, [m] o Outlet
Is Irradiance of hourly solar, [W/m2] s Solar
k Heat conductivity, [W/m.°C] t Tube
l Length of the copper tube, [m] ta Tank
L Length of the light pipe, [m] w Water
ṁ Mass flow rate, [kg/s]
͘Q Heat transfer, [W] Abbreviations
Q Volume flow rate, [m3/s]
T Temperature, [°C] FPC Flat Plate Collector
IR Infrared
Greek symbols LCP Laser Cutting Panel
PCM Phase Change Material
α Absorptivity SC Solar Collector
ηth, ins Instantaneous thermal efficiency SWH Solar Water Heater
ρ Density, [kg/m3] TDD Tubular Daylighting Device
ρ Reflectivity TPC Tubular Plate Collector
τ Transmissivity TT Twisted Tape
Ɵ Angle of incidence, [deg] ZDG Zenithal Daylight Guide

causing a reduction in electricity power that is used for this purpose.

Therefore, the above two devices have no impact on the environment or
greenhouse gases.
Recent observations indicate widespread adoption of ZDG and SWH
systems in numerous global regions, facilitating greater energy con­
servation. However, ZDG is still not well known in Egypt, especially in
Upper Egypt. These individual systems entail distinct production or
manufacturing costs and also require separate spatial allocations. This
prompts us to propose a novel integrated energy-saving system that
consolidates ZDG and SWH into a unified model. Furthermore, this
integration holds significant advantages for developing nations, such as
Egypt, where daytime power outages have recently emerged as a sig­
nificant issue due to consumption surpassing production capacities.
Through the serpentine collector, the two devices are combined by
using the empty area around the perimeter of the ZDG and performing
SWH on it. The tubular design of the SWH presented herein bears si­
milarity to conventional FPCs in its components, albeit with a distinct
arrangement. This is the only study until the year 2023 in Aswan,
Egypt, that scrutinizes the performance of the novel system. Therefore,
across various seasons, the lighting and thermal efficacy of the in­
Fig. 1. Total electricity production by region until 2023 [1]. novative current model underwent experimental testing and analysis in
Aswan, Egypt, which has a hot, dry, sunny climate, to assess its prac­
tical utility. Additionally, the passive thermosyphon performance of the
proposed SWH is also evaluated.

2. Zenithal daylighting device

The most widely recognized type of light-guiding device is the

Passive Zenithal Daylighting Guide, also referred to as a Tubular
Daylighting Device (TDD). It serves to channel daylight into interior
spaces where natural light through windows is insufficient or non­
existent. As illustrated in Fig. 3, in a TDD, daylight is collected using an
exterior component, typically a transparent dome; thereafter, it is
conveyed through a highly reflective metal sheeting guide, and finally
diffused using a diffuser or similar light distribution element. Further
variants of guiding systems for daylighting encompass the horizontal
guide systems, in which the collector is built into the building façade,
and zenithal types featuring the active collection [5].
Fig. 2. World gross electricity production by source in 2023 [2]. The adoption and utilization of TDDs in commercial, industrial, and
residential structures are notably proliferating owing to their capacity

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M.E. El-saggan, A. Rekaby, W.A. Aissa et al. Next Energy 5 (2024) 100165

Fig. 3. Schematic and picture representation of the tubular daylighting device (TDD) [5].

to curtail electricity consumption for lighting purposes and alleviate air performance of TDDs during November, representing winter condi­
conditioning demands by diminishing heating loads. Augmenting the tions. Their findings revealed that on cloudy days, the proportion of
quantity and dimensions of windows to facilitate increased interior lighting between the exterior and interior was 14%, while on sunny
daylighting will correspondingly raise internal thermal loads within a days, it reduced to 7%. They also observed that the measured illumi­
building. Conversely, the dome of TDD filters out some infrared rays nance was impacted by the internal surface reflectance [13]. Moreover,
from incident sunlight, effectively mitigating heat buildup attributed to Table 1 presents the key findings of prominent researchers in previous
sunlight exposure, resulting in a decrease in the amount of electricity theoretical and experimental studies concerning TDDs across various
required for this intent. countries.
Since their invention in the early 1980s, the TDDs have been the
subject of extensive research aimed at improving their performance. 3. Solar water heater
Moreover, numerous scientists have conducted experiments on various
components of the system and have integrated additional functional­ The SWHs function by harnessing thermal energy from incident
ities, like ventilation. Shao and Riffat [6] explored the feasibility of solar radiation and transferring it to the water flowing inside the col­
merging TDD technology with natural ventilation and solar heating by lector pipes. Operationally, two methods are employed: passive and
combining the light tube with air-stack and passive heat tubes. Alu­ active, as depicted in Figs. 4 and 5. The passive approach encompasses
minum sheets have traditionally been the material of choice for trans­ thermosyphon SWH and integrated storage, while the active system
mission tubes due to their ability to reflect light with a 96% efficiency. includes closed (indirect) and open (direct) loop cycles [28]. Active
However, more recently, panels with even higher reflectivity, ranging SWH systems rely on forced circulation, facilitated by an electric pump
from 98% to 99%, have superseded aluminum sheets [7]. Edmonds [8] and control system. In contrast, thermosyphon SWH systems leverage
introduced a movable light redirection plate to increase the perfor­ natural circulation, rendering them simple to operate and requiring
mance of the TDD. The transmitted light can be increased up to 6 times minimal maintenance [29]. Consequently, passive thermosyphon SWHs
according to the tilt angle of the panel. Light incident on the surface is are the most widely adopted type of solar water heaters. Therefore, this
reflected or absorbed. Total reflectance quantifies the amount of light paper centers on the passive thermosyphon SWH system, wherein the
reflected by a reflector, irrespective of its direction after reflecting. Flat Plate Collector (FPC) will be substituted with the Tubular Plate
Reflected light comprises diffuse and specular components. Specular Collector (TPC).
reflection arises when light encounters a smooth surface, retaining its
focused beam post-reflection. Conversely, diffuse reflection occurs 3.1. Open literature on SWH efficiency
when light strikes a rough surface, causing it to scatter in multiple di­
rections in accordance with the law of reflection [9]. The optimal de­ In pursuit of enhancing the efficiency of conventional solar collec­
sign for TDD's tube entails achieving a high specular reflectance. tors and advancing novel technologies, numerous research papers have
Koshel and Gupta [10] proposed a set of parameters to define the been published on solar water heater systems featuring various heat
geometry of a transport pipe, including length, diameter, and curvature. improvement methodologies. These researches are summarized in the
Both the reflection efficiency and the reflection pipe design format following paragraphs. Double glazing was used in Slama's study [30] to
employed these parameters. Oakley et al. [11] conducted measure­ increase the efficiency of the SWH, and he achieved an increase in ef­
ments and analysis of 6 TDD units across three distinct buildings. The ficiency of 42% compared to single glazing, which had an efficiency of
findings indicate that the efficiency of TDD is contingent upon its 30%. In Filli et al.'s study [31], a maximum water temperature of
geometric configuration. Notably, TDDs featuring the shortest straight 75 °C and 60% efficiency were achieved, as a result of the use of ABRO
tubes exhibit the highest efficiency, and wider diameters similarly en­ black paint. Srinivas [32] and Kallioğlu et al. [33] demonstrated in their
hance TDD efficiency. Sibley and Peña-García [12] compared two types study that insulating the side and back cover is beneficial in avoiding
of collectors of the TDD, the first is a flat glass, and the latter is a bo­ heat loss and thus the efficiency increases. They concluded that the heat
hemian crystal dome. The results showed that the crystal dome con­ loss was 35% of the lower collector surface. It was experimentally
sistently outperforms the flat glass. Shao et al. evaluated the concluded that a SWH system with a horizontal storage water tank

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M.E. El-saggan, A. Rekaby, W.A. Aissa et al. Next Energy 5 (2024) 100165

Table 1
Synthesis of theoretical and experimental studies pertaining to TDDs from prior research

Author’s [Ref.] Type Location Findings

The spectrum of light transferred by the TDD

Shao and Riffat [6] Experimental England The quantity of IR radiation is approximately three times less and
more evenly distributed in an overcast sky compared to a clear
sky.
Omishore et al. [14] Experimental Czech Republic A noticeable rise in the ZDG tube's surface temperature in reaction
to IR rays penetrating from the dome.
Callow and Shao [15], Numerical and Singapore, England, PMMA (material of the dome) effectively restricts medium and far
Nilsson et al. [16] experimental Sweden, and USA infrared wavelengths while facilitating the transmission of visible
and near-infrared wavelengths.

Influence on inner thermal comfort situations and study of solar heat gain
Harrison et al. [17] Experimental Canada • For a TDD with Ap = 5.55, the intermediate effective thermal
resistance is 0.279 m2.K/W.
• The measurement of the temperature differential between the
interior and exterior air is reflected in this value.
Bencs et al. [18], Perčić et al. [19], Analytical, numerical, Hungary, Germany, and The heat generation from a TDD is lower compared to electrical
Hien et al. [20], Wu and Yue [21] and experimental China lighting.
Williams and Dorville [22] Experimental Jamaica • This is the only experimental investigation conducted under
tropical climate circumstances in the northern hemisphere.
• Substantial daytime temperature differential.
• At night, the TDD acts as a thermal bridge.

Ventilation-stack used around the TDD

Varga and Oliveira [23], Oakley et al. Experimental and Portugal, England, Czech • Interesting combination of light contribution (TDD) and
[24], Šikula et al. [25,26], numerical Republic, and Morocco thermal stack or draft.
Ait-taleb et al. [27] • The reflecting surface's temperature rise is constrained by the
double-ducting.

IR = infrared; TDD = tubular daylighting device; ZDG = Zenithal Daylight Guide.

Fig. 4. Passive solar water heater (SWH) system.

Fig. 6. Parallel pipe solar collector.

Fig. 5. Active solar water heater (SWH) system.

outperforms one with a vertical tank [34]. Smyth [35] and Kalogirou
[36] recommended that the maximum height between the collector top
and the storage tank bottom be 50 cm in order to avoid reverse circu­
lation of the thermosyphon, which occurs especially at night when the
Fig. 7. Serpentine pipe solar collector.
collector is colder than the water in the tank. They also recommended
that connection lines (or serpentine pipes) should be sloped to prevent
the formation of air pockets that lead to cessation of the flow. Due to the temperature distribution is irregular; (ii) Through SC risers, the
the presence of defects in the design of the parallel-tube collector distribution of water or liquids is uneven; (iii) Because the temperature
(Fig. 6), which are [37,38]: (i) On the surface of the absorption plate, of the absorbing plate increases, the heat loss of the solar collector

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M.E. El-saggan, A. Rekaby, W.A. Aissa et al. Next Energy 5 (2024) 100165

Table 2
Previous work based on the PCM used in SWHs

Author’s [Ref.] Type of PCM Melting point temperature, (oC) Thermal efficiency, (%)

Assadeg et al. [43] Silicon-Carbide 30–40 °C The thermal efficiency improved by 2.5–4.2%.
Fazilati and Alemrajabi [44] Commercial grade 55 °C The ηth was enhanced by 16%.
Kayiem and Lin [45] 20-nm copper powder 60.5 °C The thermal efficiency rose by 24%.
Murali et al. [46] Paraffin wax grade 56 56 °C The ηth saw a boost of 10–16%.
Manirathnam et al. [47] Sci and Cuo 53–56 °C The efficiency surged by 22.53%.

PCM = phase change material; SWH = solar water heater.

Table 3
Prior literature outcomes from the usage of TT turbulator in SWHs

Author’s [Ref.] Geometry Running parameters Findings

Kumar and Parsad Twisted-tape Twist ratio of 3, 6, 10, and 12 For a twist ratio of 3, the maximum thermal efficiency
[48] is determined to be 70%.
Jaramillo et al. [49] Twisted-tape Twist ratio = 1, 2, 3, and 4 The maximum ηth is found to be 0.65 for the twist ratio
of 1.
Saravanan et al. [50] TT of square and Twist ratio of 3,4, and 5 The twist ratio of 3 yields the highest thermal efficiency,
V-cut with the maximum instantaneous efficiency reaching
85%.
Puthilibai et al. [51] Aluminum TT The aluminum strips were coiled and had a twist ratio of The TT was used to boost the maximum outflow water
2.5. They measured 1500 mm in height and 12 mm in temperature to 71 ˚C.
breadth.

SWH = solar water heater; TT = twisted tape.

increases during low water flow rate conditions. So, to partially solve Expert software. Solar fraction evaluated SWH model performance, with
these problems, the serpentine configuration (see Fig. 7) was pioneered average values of 74, 64.48, and 13 for residential, commercial, and in­
by Matrawy and Farkas [37,38], particularly to address challenges as­ dustrial models, respectively. Annual energy savings were 111.3 MWh,
sociated with low water flow rates. 1728.6 MWh, and 313.8 MWh for each model, with corresponding re­
Furthermore, Tang et al. [39] determined through experimentation ductions in CO2 emissions of 155.9 tons, 2419.3 tons, and 492.3 tons
that the serpentine-pipe collector's efficiency surpasses that of the annually over a 25-year project lifespan. A technological and environ­
parallel one. Recently, the concepts of phase change materials (PCMs) mental evaluation was performed on flat plate SWHs for household space
and twisted tape (TT) have been greatly utilized in the thermal and heating and domestic hot water. Findings indicate annual heating gen­
efficiency enhancement of SWH systems [40]. PCMs aid in elevating the eration of 132.6 MWh, annual hot water heating generation of 120.4
temperature of the working fluid, typically water. In addition, during MWh, and an annual reduction in CO2 emissions of 68.4 tons [65].
the daytime, this material stores thermal energy and returns it during
the night [41]. On the other hand, to create swirl production and sec­ 3.2. Feasibility study on SWH
ondary flow, the TT is inserted inside the solar collector [42]. Tables 2
and 3 summarize the most important findings of some of the researchers Renewable Energy, RE, solutions present a dichotomy of high initial
as a result of using these PCM and TT improvements. costs juxtaposed with low or free operating expenses. The procurement
Based on the previous review, there is a noticeable uptick in the process for RE solutions involves an iterative feasibility study, parti­
prevalence of flat plate collectors. Consequently, intensive efforts are cularly when considering replacing traditional systems. The decision-
underway to address the challenges linked with expensive devices. making process and payback period for SWH systems are unpredictable
Although the tubular solar collector is not a recent innovation, it has due to regional variations influenced by factors like fuel prices, gov­
undergone significant design enhancements. Unlike the previous ernment subsidies, and incoming sunlight. Despite financial competi­
structural system, which featured a straight absorption tube, the latest tiveness challenges against conventional systems, ongoing research
iteration incorporates a coiled copper channel for water circulation. aims to mitigate initial costs through alternative, cost-effective mate­
Table 4 illustrates various studies conducted on the design of a rials without compromising performance. However, it's imperative not
streamlined, cylindrical solar collector shape across different periods, to overlook the environmental and social benefits of RE solutions,
spanning from the past to contemporary generations. especially given the alarming rise in CO2 emissions from fossil fuel-
Finally, in the following sentences, the latest literature to the best of the based electricity generation. Hence, a holistic assessment, beyond fi­
authors' knowledge regarding the application of SWHs in the building nancial metrics, is crucial in gauging the potential of RE solutions.
sector is listed. It has been reported that the efficiency of a built-in active In India, since the SWH systems are pricey, researchers have been
solar water heating system for a residential building can range between searching for alternative materials for SWH components with more af­
35% and 80%, which is more beneficial than a passive system with an fordable prices and heightened performance. The copper plate of the FPC
efficiency of 30–50% [61]. Chopra et al. [62] designed and manufactured a was replaced with an aluminum plate, and the copper tubes were replaced
solar water heating system for an apartment building occupied by an with galvanized steel tubes. They ultimately concluded that the perfor­
average family of six people. The highest average energy efficiency was mance of the SWH was approximately the same, with an efficiency of 52%
obtained to be 72% and the maximum collector outlet temperature was and a payback period ranging from 2.5 to 4.5 years [66]. In northwest
found to be 76.4 °C. The findings by Wang et al. [63] indicate that in­ China, winter temperatures are usually below 0 °C, so Li et al. [67] con­
creasing the dimensions of the collector can effectively improve the thermal ducted an economic analysis of large flat panel solar collectors integrated
performance of FPCs, and that the performance of large-scale FPCs is better with a heating system. They concluded that CNY 7690.5 could be saved by
than traditional FPCs in parallel for the China residential building. operating the system for the entire heating season with a payback duration
Singh et al. [64] assessed SWH system performance and savings across of approximately 6.6 years. Martinopoulos and Tsalikis [68] carried out an
residential, commercial, and industrial sectors in India using RET Screen economic evaluation of an active solar heating system used for a

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M.E. El-saggan, A. Rekaby, W.A. Aissa et al. Next Energy 5 (2024) 100165

Table 4
Studies conducted in both past and contemporary contexts regarding tubular solar collectors.

Author’s [Ref.] Research type Circulation mode Important remarks

Nahar and Malhotra [52] Experimental Thermosyphon mode The cylindrical heater underwent a year-long testing period, yielding the
following key findings:
• Significant water heating, reaching temperatures between 50 and 60 °C
by day's end.
• Sustained water temperature of 35 °C maintained until the following
morning.
• Enhanced collection area capable of receiving approximately 30% more
incident solar flux compared to flat collectors.
Badran [53] Experimental Thermosyphon mode • The constructed system was configured to operate at a 45° inclination.
• It achieved a peak efficiency of 85%.
Al–Madani [54] Experimental Natural (passive) mode • A temperature differential of 27.8 °C between the inlet and outlet of
the SWH was recorded at a mass flow rate of 9 kg/h.
• The peak value observed during the experimental phase was 41.8%.
• Economic analysis indicates that the cylindrical SWH is more cost-
effective than the flat one.
Ogueke et al. [55] Experimental Forced (active) mode • Tests were conducted on the cylindrical SWH using three distinct mass
flow rates: 10.8, 7.2, and 3.6 kg/h.
• The findings demonstrate that the maximum efficiency recorded during
the testing phase was about 57.1%, 56.2%, and 54%, respectively.
Ogueke and Anyanwu [56] Experimental Natural mode • A comparison of the performance between a cylindrical solar water
heating system with and without a reflective surface was outlined.
• The results are notable, indicating an increase in outlet temperature
from 50 °C to 68 °C and efficiencies from 40% to 70%.
• Additionally, the reflective surface reduced heat loss rates by up to 25%.
Rasekh and Farzaneh-Gord [57] Analytical and Natural (passive) mode • The (2E) Energy-Exergy analytical model was applied to analyze a
experimental solar collector with a circular-cylinder solid wall.
• The model was solved based on multiple data factors.
• Theoretical analyses were found to align closely with experimental
results.
• Optimizing key parameters resulted in energy and exergy efficiencies of
the heater exceeding 50% and 2%, respectively.
Abdullah and Bassiouny [58] Analytical, numerical, Forced and natural • The study thoroughly explores the convective and radiative heat
and experimental modes transfer mechanisms of a flexible cylindrical solar air heater.
• Experimental determination of the Nusselt number between the
absorber and the heated air is conducted, correlating it with the
Reynolds number.
• Comparing experimental results with theoretical models demonstrates a
robust alignment in collector efficiency.
Bait and Si-Ameur [59] Numerical, analytical, Passive and active • The research presents a novel concept integrating a basic distillation
and experimental modes apparatus into the design of a cylindrical solar collector.
• Evaluation of the thermal performance of this innovative configuration
demonstrated a significant enhancement over traditional stills,
achieving an increase in basin water temperature from 70 °C to 80 °C.
• Additionally, the comparative analysis indicated superior operational
efficiency of the cylindrical-collector over the flat-one due to minimized
heat losses.
M. Ahmadlouydarab et al. [60] Experimental Forced (active) mode • The study investigates the energy absorption efficiency of cylindrical
and flat plate solar collectors, comparing different plate areas and
nanofluid concentrations.
• Results show that increasing nanofluid concentration enhances heat
absorption efficiency, with the collector's depth and duration of heat
absorption also playing significant roles.
• The experiment revealed higher efficiencies in 120-minute absorption tests
compared to 240 minutes. For nanofluid concentrations of 0.25%, thermal
efficiencies ranged from 34.23% to 58.00%, while concentrations of 1%
resulted in efficiencies between 39.89% and 63.67%.

SWH = solar water heater.

residential house designed according to the latest Greek regulation on the efficiency of 90%. If assuming that the EWH active period is about 3 hr/
energy performance of buildings. A payback time of up to 4.5 years has day. Accordingly, the EWH will consume about 7.5 kWh daily in elec­
been reported. In Jordan, an evacuated tube SWH was found to have the tric power, and it's annual electric energy consumption will be 2737.5
highest efficiency among the other five collectors tested. A payback period kWh since 7.5 kWh per day x 365 days per year = 2737.5 kWh/year.
of 1.9–4 years has been reported for solar collectors [69]. In Egypt, after According to the average electricity tariff approved by the Egyptian
the reduction of electricity subsidies, the SWH installation became possible Ministry of Electricity and Energy in 2022/2023 (0.0324 $/kWh), the
as the payback time became 2–5 years. In addition to the expected life of electricity consumption annual cost for the EWH will be 88.695 $/year
the SWH of 15 years, hot water will be obtained for 11–12 years at a free (2737.5 kWh/year x 0.0324 $/kWh). Consequently, due to the use of
running cost [70]. Therefore, further studies must be conducted to search the solar collector under study, we can save an annual cost of 88.695 $
for cheaper alternative materials to reduce the solar heater's initial cost. per year. Finally, the uncomplicated payback period for the SWH (cost
Through the following sentences, the payback period of the current of the SWH/annual saving cost) will be 2.38 years. In the end, an
solar heater is calculated. The rating of power (i.e., thermal useful economic comparison can be made between SWH and EWH, as shown
output) of 60 liters of Electric Water Heater, EWH, is 2200 W with an in Table 5.

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M.E. El-saggan, A. Rekaby, W.A. Aissa et al. Next Energy 5 (2024) 100165

Table 5 comprises an acrylic transparent dome that catches sunlight and

Economic considerations regarding EWH and SWH based on the Egyptian transmits it through a highly reflective cylindrical pipe internally to an
market illuminance diffuser. The light tube is encompassed by a copper tubular
Comparison items Electric Water Solar Water collector, with insulation sandwiched between them. Externally, the
Heater (EWH) Heater (SWH) copper collector is coated with black paint to optimize sunlight ab­
sorption, encased with a copper serpentine featuring a black coating,
Initial cost for 60 L ($) 96 211
and surrounded by double-cylindrical-glazing panels to retain the ab­
Running cost per year ($) 88.695 -
Payback time for SWH (years) - 2.38 sorbed heat. Operating on the thermosyphon principle, water flows
through the combined system.
Currency exchange rates on 1 May 2024: (1.00 EGP) ∼ (0.021 USD) ∼ (0.019
EUR) ∼ (0.151 CNY) [71].
4.1. Detailed description of the proposed system

The actual SWH size is 70 cm in height, 45 cm in diameter for the

4. Experimental test-rig tubular absorber, and a diameter of 60 cm for the surrounding-double-
glazing panels. For the TDD, the tube length and diameter are 75 cm and
The experiment was conducted at the College of Energy 40 cm, respectively. A 2.5 cm thick layer of insulation is placed between
Engineering, Aswan University, Aswan City, Egypt, situated at (24°5′N, the TPC and the TDD to protect the light tube from physical and thermal
32°53′E), to evaluate the performance of the innovative integrated stresses and prevent heat losses from the back. The utilized double cy­
system depicted in Figs. 8 and 9. lindrical glazing is made of 1.5 mm transparent acrylic glass sheets with
The present merged system was devised to integrate the passive heat conductivity (k) = 0.17 W/m.°C [72]. It serves as a transparent
tubular daylighting device with natural solar water heating functions. It thermal barrier, inhibiting heat loss through conduction to the

Fig. 8. An image of the test room's overhead integrated experiment system.

Fig. 9. An elaborate schematic illustration showing the parts of the suggested system.

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M.E. El-saggan, A. Rekaby, W.A. Aissa et al. Next Energy 5 (2024) 100165

Fig. 10. Distribution of lighting measurement points within the testing room.

surrounding areas. To facilitate the transmission of solar radiation to the digital annmeters (model 8801A and 8801C) which used a silicon pho­
tubular absorber during peak sunlight hours from 11 AM to 1 PM when tocell diode for the measurements. The outlet collector and storage water
the sun is perpendicular, and to reduce heat losses from the SWH as much temperatures were measured through 4 type-K thermocouples. Three of
as possible, a loft glazing seal composed of transparent acrylic sheeting them are placed vertically inside the storage tank, the first in the upper
was incorporated atop the solar heater, fronting the sky. However, in part, the second in the middle part, and the last in the bottom part. The
reality, there is still a portion of the coil tubes that does not receive solar measurement of the entrance water collector temperature is acquired by
radiation due to the cylindrical nature of the collector. The serpentine- averaging the three temperature readings. Kipp and Zonen-type (model
shaped tube collector in the heater under study was chosen based on the CMP3) pyranometer is used to measure the solar insolation with a range
aforementioned studies that were reviewed, as the tube is made of copper of 0–2000 W/m2. The thermocouples and pyranometer are connected to
with a diameter of 1 cm and a thermal conductivity (k) equal to 401 W/ a data logger of type Omega 3005. A YFS401-type water flow sensor
m.°C [73,74]. In the new model used for SWH, the TPC is used instead of (measuring range: 0–6 L/min) was integrated with the solar heater to
the FPC with the same other components as the FPC, in order to combine it quantify the hot water flow rate. Finally, the surrounding temperature
with the TDD to reduce the used space by the flat collector. The newly was recorded using a digital thermometer (type UT325).
introduced design of the solar heater only uses the TDD area already used The combined current system is built, rinsed, cleaned, and dried. The
for lighting indoor spaces purposes. system components are connected to each other and installed on the roof
As shown in Fig. 8, the upper dome is made of transparent acrylic of the test cell. Next, the storage tank is filled with 60 liters of water from
which allows only the transmission of sunlight (visible light of the solar the tap. The ambient temperatures are monitored using the thermometer
spectrum) and prevents the entry of heat (infrared rays). The light trans­ that has been calibrated. The experiment begins with draining water from
mission tube is made of highly reflective (98%) steel sheets to maximize the storage tank through the integrated SWH and circulating it using the
the efficiency of light transmission internally through the tube. In addition, thermosyphon phenomenon, and the measurements are recorded for an 8-
the TPC and serpentine tube collector are externally coated with black hour sunshine period from 8 AM to 4 PM. The water storage and outlet
paint (Fig. 8) to maximize solar absorbance. Finally, the water storage tank collector temperatures were measured and recorded through the K-type
is insulated with thermal insulation and metal reflective tape to insulate thermocouples connected with the data logger (every 15 minutes and in­
the water from the surrounding temperature. Moreover, the rising and tegrated over 1 hour). For illumination measurements related to the cur­
falling water paths are also isolated. rent TDD, from 8:30 AM until 3:30 PM, the global illumination is mea­
sured by an external digital annmeter placed on the outer ceiling of the
4.2. Measuring gadgets and experimental procedures test room at a height of 2.7 m. Furthermore, the interior lighting dis­
tribution is measured at different measurement points inside the test room
External luminance and interior lighting distribution were measured (Fig. 10) and at a height of 1.1 m from the ground (i.e., approximately the
at different measurement points inside the test room (see Fig. 10) using height of the desk). Table 6 shows the detailed information about diverse

Table 6
The conducted experiments on the proposed merged system

Experiment No. Experiment on TDD Experiment date Experiment season Comments

or SWH

1 SWH 20 June 2022 Summer The surrounding climatic conditions are measured and recorded,
2 21 September 2022 Autumn represented by solar insolation and ambient temperature from 8
3 20 December 2022 Winter AM to 4 PM, in addition to SWH temperatures.
4 23 March 2023 Spring
5 TDD July 20, 2022 Sunny summer conditions Interior lighting is measured at the various measurement points
6 December 23, 2022 Overcast winter conditions inside the test room from 8:30 AM until 3:30 PM, in addition to
global external illuminance.

SWH = solar water heater; TDD = tubular daylighting device.

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M.E. El-saggan, A. Rekaby, W.A. Aissa et al. Next Energy 5 (2024) 100165

Table 7
Gadgets technical specifications used in the experiments

No. Gadget Type/Model Scope Absolute uncertainty

1 Annmeters 8801A and 8801C 1–400,000 Lux ≤10,000Lux: ± 4%rdg+1.0%f. s

≥10,000Lux: ± 5%rdg+1.5%f. s
≥200,000Lux: ± 10%rdg+2.0f. s
2 Data acquisition and thermocouples Omega 3005, Type-K -50 °C to 900 °C ± 0.25 °C
3 Thermometers UT325 -200 °C to 1372 °C ± (0.2% + 0.6 °C)
4 Water flow sensor YFS401 0–6 L/min ± 5% of full scale
5 Pyranometers Kipp and Zonen CMP3 0–2000 W/m2 ± 5% of reading value

measurement scenarios in the current experimental work, noting that the u

experiments were conducted on various solstice days representing the four th, s = s

seasons of the year. Is . As

s (6)
The daily stored heat in the tank, denoted as ͘Ԛstored, is expressed as
4.3. Proposed solar heater performance assessment
follows [77]:
To assess the practical efficacy of the proposed solar heater, it is mta . Cpw . (Ttai + 1 Ttai )
imperative to investigate the impact of solar insolation and ambient =
stored
day t (7)
temperature on its efficiency across various seasons.
The solar heater's instantaneous thermal efficiency, denoted as ηth, Where mta is the mass of water in the storage tank, the superscript index
on the temperature indicates the time step of the measurement for the
ins, is determined using the following equation [75];
average tank temperature. Δt expresses the time step between every two
Useful output heat power , useful measurements of the temperature considered as 3600 s in the present
=
th, ins
Solar insolation input power , solar (1) study.

The useful outlet water heat power and solar insolation inlet power
4.4. Experimental error analysis
are calculated by the following equations;

useful = mw . Cpw . (Two Twi ) (2) The experimental calculations determined through the data reduc­
tion of the measured quantities (described in the previous subsection)
solar = Is . As (3) are subjected to errors. Errors can be classified as either systematic or
°
accidental (random). Systematic errors are the errors associated with
Where ṁw in (kg/s) is the water mass flow rate, Cpw in (J/kg. C) is the the particular instruments or techniques of measurement being used.
specific heat of the water, Twi and Two in (°C) are the water collector Accidental (random) errors are produced by a large number of un­
inlet and outlet temperatures, respectively, Is in (W/m2) is the incident predictable and unknown variations in the experimental situation. In
solar radiation, and As in (m2) is the aperture area of the collector. this subsection, an analysis of the systematic errors will be described.
By substituting into Eq. (2) for volume flow rate Qw = 0.25 L/min Error or uncertainty analysis for the experimental measurements is
which is equivalent to mass flow rate ṁw = 0.0042 kg/s and Cpw = performed and reported regarding absolute and relative uncertainties.
4187 J/kg.°C. Moreover, the collector aperture area, As, in Eq. (3), can For the measured values, the accuracy of the measuring devices is
be calculated from the following equation: adopted as the uncertainty of the quantities. For example, the accuracy
of ± 0.25% of the full scale (0.25 °C for 100 °C as full scale) of the
As = (Dabs . Habs + Dt . lt )
2 (4) thermocouples is used as the absolute uncertainty of the temperature,
whereas the accuracy of ± 5% of the pyranometer is used as the ab­
Where Dabs and Habs in (m) are the absorber diameter and height, re­
solute uncertainty of the solar-radiation flux. Table 7 shows the abso­
spectively, Dt and lt in (m) are the copper tube's external diameter and
lute uncertainty of the measuring instruments used in the current ex­
length, respectively. Then, the instantaneous thermal efficiency (ηth, ins)
perimental work. The relative uncertainties of the measured values
will be;
could then be calculated as the ratio of the absolute uncertainty to the
mw . Cpw . (Two Twi ) reading value of the measured quantity. For the dependent quantities
= 100 (%)
th, ins
Is . (Dabs . Habs + Dt . lt ) that could not be measured and had to be calculated based on measured
2 (5)
quantities, the uncertainty is calculated according to the root-sum-
The thermal efficiency of the solar collectors can be determined over square method presented by Kline and McClintock [78] to combine
some specified time period (s). This allows to calculate the efficiency on individual errors and determine the overall uncertainty. This resulted in
an hourly or daily basis, providing a more comprehensive under­ a range of ± 2.79% to ± 3.87% relative uncertainty for the calculated
standing of the collector's performance throughout a typical use cycle useful thermal gain and ± 3.38% to ± 5.16% for the solar collector
[76]. efficiency on the test days.

9
M.E. El-saggan, A. Rekaby, W.A. Aissa et al. Next Energy 5 (2024) 100165

Fig. 11. Interior daylighting under the diffuser area (P0 and P17) for clear-sky conditions on July 20, 2022.

5. Results and discussions The daily illumination profile at points (P0 and P17) displays the
dome's direct impact; when the sun is around its zenith, its rays pene­
5.1. Tubular daylighting device performance trate straightway into the test room by restricting or reducing the
number of reflections inside the tube (Fig. 11). Otherwise, the illumi­
The testing data were collected on two distinct categories of days: nation increases from approximately 680 and 720 lux for P0 and P17,
the first representing a sunny day (summer in Aswan, 20/7/2022), and respectively, at 8:30 AM to about 3370 and 5270 lux at 10:30 AM. A
the second representing an overcast day (winter, 23/12/2022). The aim significant decrease in the illumination level is also observed from 1:30
is to offer the TDD performance in different seasons and sky types. In PM, at which the illumination values were approximately 3965 and
addition to understand the lighting distribution inside the room. 2380 lux for points 0 and 17, respectively.
The outcomes are offered in two parts: the first is to obtain the in­ To achieve daylight autonomy, we take requirements standards as
ternal illumination daily profile as a function of external global lumi­ reference levels. On the clear sky day, the maximum illumination on the
nance. The second is to analyze the lighting distribution within the test whole working surface amounted to 2465 lux at 12:30 PM, which is
area. Additionally, by using the TDD, we also evaluated daylight au­ more than the standard requirements for use in detailed mechanical
tonomy based on the CIE required levels in various configurations. workshops or operation theaters (1000 lux). The light tube's area under
There are different levels of illumination recommended in the standards the diffuser can ignore the electrical or artificial lighting from 9:30 AM
(EN 12464-1 and ISO 8995/CIE 8008) relying on the area and type of to 2:30 PM (or 5 hours). If used for office work or laboratories, the
use or application [79]. For example, according to the CIE, 500 lux maximum illuminance is much higher than the standard requirement
should be the minimum average illuminance in an office and for fun­ (500 lux). The area under the light tube diffuser can ignore electrical
damental activities (like; typing, reading, and CAD posting). The 1000 lighting for the entire test period, i.e., from 8:30 AM to 3:30 PM.
lux shall be the illumination in an operation theater. Moreover, to en­ The illuminance distribution at different times on the working sur­
sure visual comfort, 750 lux must be maintained in a supermarket. face makes it possible to comprehend the light behavior within the test
room. During the daytime, the lighting is isotropic and not uniform
5.1.1. Outcomes under sunny conditions (Fig. 12). Our previous daily illumination profiles at the grid's certain
The day of July 20 (2022) demonstrates a clear sky with a maximum points showed that the light distribution is directly linked to the solar
global external illuminance of around 118 Klux. These circumstances parameters (solar altitude and azimuth), specifically when the sky is
are summer sunny conditions typical for a clear day in Aswan City. fully clear.
The maximum illumination under the diffuser area (i.e., points 0
and 17) is reached at 11:30 AM to about 14900 lux for (P17) and 9850 5.1.2. Results under overcast conditions
lux at 12:30 PM for (P0), as shown in Fig. 11, with an average illumi­ Currently, we are looking to imagine the phenomena of the photo­
nance on the mesh of nearly to 2220 and 2470 lux for the two times metric for an overcast day (December 23, 2022 - winter). During the
respectively. day measurement, it was observed that the global external lighting

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M.E. El-saggan, A. Rekaby, W.A. Aissa et al. Next Energy 5 (2024) 100165

Fig. 12. Internal daylighting repartition — July 20, 2022 (sunny conditions).

11
M.E. El-saggan, A. Rekaby, W.A. Aissa et al. Next Energy 5 (2024) 100165

Fig. 13. Interior daylighting under the diffuser area (P0 and P17) for overcast-sky conditions on December 23, 2022.

follows the diffused part direction. A maximum illumination is noted at Figs. 15–22, the SWH performance was tested and analyzed against
10:30 AM and may coincide with the cloud's partial clearing in the sky. different weather and temperatures conditions throughout the entire
Otherwise, between 9:30 AM and 2:30 PM, the outdoor global (i.e., year, that is, during different seasons of the year to evaluate its per­
diffuse dominant) illuminance is around 47 Klux. formance in actual practical use.
The maximum illumination beneath the diffuser area (P0 and P17) The first experiment was conducted on the current heater in June
peaks at 10:30 AM, measuring 605 and 635 lux, respectively, with an 2022, as summer conditions are present in that month. The system's
average lighting level on the mesh of 410 lux. The daily lighting profile performance was evaluated during this season, with ambient tem­
at points P0 and P17 distinctly illustrates the predominance of diffuse perature, sun insolation, and resultant water temperatures being re­
illuminance over direct illuminance, as the lighting profile beneath the corded. During this season, as depicted in Fig. 15, it is evident that the
TDD's diffuser mirrors the external lighting profile (Fig. 13). maximum water temperature attained was 69.5 °C. Moreover, the
Towards the autonomy of daylight, on an overcast sky day, the maximum instantaneous thermal efficiency was 34.55% (Fig. 16) at a
maximum illumination on the work-surface amounted to 410 lux at total solar radiation exposure of 7088 Wh per m2 per day and the
10:30 AM, which is below the standard requirements for use in office highest recorded ambient temperature of 44 °C. Looking at Figs. 15 and
work or laboratories (500 lux) or in detailed mechanical workshops or 16, it is noted that as the solar radiation and the difference between the
operation theaters (1000 lux). To respect the standard's minimum re­ water temperature increase, the ratio ((Two-Twi)/Is) increases, which
quirements, a need of electrical or artificial lighting is required. results in an increase in the efficiency of the tubular collector, reaching
We generated plots illustrating the evolution of light distribution a maximum and then decreasing.
inside the test cell at various hours using the methodology described The second experiment was carried out on the solar heater under
above for the clear sky conditions (see Fig. 14). Throughout the day­ study in September 2022, when autumn conditions were dominant.
time, the illumination appears uniform and orthotropic, as the solar During this season, as illustrated in Fig. 17, the ambient tempera­
path's influence on lighting distribution is substantially constrained, ture, solar insolation, and resulting water temperatures were meti­
particularly evident in overcast sky conditions where direct sunlight is culously measured and displayed. Concurrently, the SWH system
absent. The light dispersion within the room appears to approximate a performance was assessed (Fig. 18). From Fig. 17, it is evident that
Lambertian distribution, diverging from conditions observed under the maximum water temperature attained was about 63 °C. Fur­
clear skies. These observations align with the daily illuminance profiles thermore, the maximum instantaneous thermal efficiency for the
at specific points on the mesh. SWH was 35.54% (Fig. 18) at a total insolation of 5592 Wh per m2
per day and the highest recorded ambient temperature of approxi­
5.2. Solar water heater performance mately 39 °C. Upon reviewing Figs. 17 and 18, it becomes apparent
that as solar radiation and the disparity between water temperatures
The efficiency of the TPC used in the current system was experi­ increase, the ratio ((Two-Twi)/Is) rises, thereby resulting in an es­
mentally tested under typical surrounding climatic conditions in Aswan calation of collector efficiency until reaching a peak, followed by a
City. Therefore, in the following paragraphs and as illustrated in subsequent decline.

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M.E. El-saggan, A. Rekaby, W.A. Aissa et al. Next Energy 5 (2024) 100165

Fig. 14. Internal daylighting repartition — December 23, 2022 (overcast conditions).

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M.E. El-saggan, A. Rekaby, W.A. Aissa et al. Next Energy 5 (2024) 100165

Fig. 15. Variation of surrounding climatic conditions and SWH temperatures during the summer on June 20, 2022.

Fig. 16. Variation of SWH thermal efficiency during the summer on June 20, 2022.

Fig. 17. Variation of surrounding climatic conditions and SWH temperatures during the autumn on September 21, 2022.

14
M.E. El-saggan, A. Rekaby, W.A. Aissa et al. Next Energy 5 (2024) 100165

Fig. 18. Fluctuations in SWH thermal efficiency during the autumn on September 21, 2022.

Fig. 19. Variation of surrounding climatic conditions and SWH temperatures during the winter on December 20, 2022.

The third experiment was conducted on the SWH in December 2022, this season, as shown in Fig. 21, it can be seen that the maximum water
i.e., during winter conditions. The surrounding climatic conditions, temperature achieved was about 58 °C. Moreover, the maximum in­
including sun insolation and ambient temperature, were recorded, in stantaneous thermal efficiency for the SWH was 35.07% (Fig. 22) at a
addition to the output water temperatures (Fig. 19). Meantime, the total solar radiation exposure of 5056 Wh per m2 per day and the
efficiency of the heater during this season was also calculated, as illu­ highest recorded ambient temperature of 36.2 °C.
strated in Fig. 20. Considering Fig. 19, it can be seen that the maximum Ultimately, in terms of the initial design of the current integrated
water temperature achieved was 43.7 °C. Moreover, the maximum in­ system, the measured temperatures exhibit a predominantly rea­
stantaneous thermal efficiency for the heater was 36.49% (Fig. 20) sonable and acceptable range. As illustrated in Figs. 23 and 24, the
during the season at a total insolation of 3756 Wh per m2 per day and recorded water temperatures affirm the effective operation of the
the highest recorded ambient temperature of 26.2 °C. solar heater under investigation, with the daily thermal efficiency in
The fourth experiment was carried out on the proposed SWH in experiments (1) and (2), i.e., summer and autumn, reaching 25.4%
March 2023, during the spring season. The surrounding climatic con­ and 28.2%, respectively. In addition, the daily heat storage capa­
ditions, including ambient temperature and solar insolation, were re­ cities of approximately 1395 W and 1884 W, respectively, were at­
corded, in addition to the output water temperatures. Furthermore, the tained within the tank. These results were obtained under average
efficiency of the system during this season was also calculated. During surrounding climatic conditions characterized by solar insolation

15
M.E. El-saggan, A. Rekaby, W.A. Aissa et al. Next Energy 5 (2024) 100165

Fig. 20. Variation of SWH thermal efficiency during the winter on December 20, 2022.

Fig. 21. Variation of surrounding climatic conditions and SWH temperatures during the spring on March 23, 2023.

Fig. 22. Fluctuations in SWH thermal efficiency during the spring on March 23, 2023.

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M.E. El-saggan, A. Rekaby, W.A. Aissa et al. Next Energy 5 (2024) 100165

Fig. 23. A synopsis of mean values for the measurements of the SWH experiments.

the outlet water temperature, the efficiency (whether instantaneous or

daily), and the heat stored inside the water tank during the experi­
mental periods under different locations for the tubular and flat col­
lectors. Since the tubular collector under the current study operates
vertically, its thermal performance has increased significantly com­
pared to the cylindrical collectors reported in the studies of Nahar and
Malhotra [52], Al–Madani [54], and Ogueke and Anyanwu [56]. This is
because the surface azimuth angle changes with the sun's azimuth and
incident angles. Accordingly, the vertical collector worked as a surface
with a tracking system facing the sun. Therefore, it appears superior to
the tubular collectors referred to in previous literary works. The su­
periority in thermal performance obtained in the study by Ogueke and
Anyanwu [56] is due to the investigation site, which is Owerri, Nigeria
(5° 28'N), and its proximity to the equator, where the solar potential is
the highest, in addition to the use of the reflector, which reduced heat
Fig. 24. A recapitulation of daily thermal efficiency and daily stored heat in the loss rates by 30% and thus improved significant efficiency.
tank for all SWH tests. As all previous studies have indicated, the efficiency of the collector
is more affected by the flow rate higher than the temperature differ­
exceeding 621 W/m2 and average ambient temperatures surpassing ence, and the solar heater operates at a higher temperature with a low
33 °C. water flow rate compared to the high flow rate. This is already clear by
The daily thermal efficiency was influenced, reaching 27.6% in looking at the current study in Table 8 compared to the FPC studies by
experiment no. (4) or spring as a result of the decrease in solar in­ Nahar [80], Khalifa [81], and Karaghouli and Alnaser [82]. The reason
solation, which reached 562 W/m2 in that season. Despite the decrease behind the low thermal efficiency in Khalifa's study [81] is due, firstly,
in solar insolation, which reached 417 W/m2 in experiment no. (3) or to the study location (Baghdad, Iraq, 33° 18'N) and the resulting de­
winter, the daily thermal efficiency peaked at 31.5%. This is due to the crease in the total Is, which fell to 6160 Wh/m2/day. Secondly, high
fact that the ratio between (ΔTw,avg and Is,avg) and the difference be­ heat losses as reported in the research.
tween (Tstorage and Tambient) were the most elevated attainables among In the end, through this comparison, it is noted that the current
the four seasons. This means that losses were as low as possible, and design has reasonable efficiency compared to that reported by other
therefore the efficiency became as high as practicable. Additionally, the research groups. In addition to the advantages mentioned above, this
significantly low water temperatures enhanced its heat absorption ca­ design is also characterized by occupying a small space and does not
pacity as much as possible. suffer from heat loss from the side or back walls as is the case with flat
collectors. Moreover, while leveraging the above advantages of vertical
5.3. Validation with open literature TPC, TDD is also beneficial by integrating both into one model.
Accordingly, the objectives of the study were achieved, namely the
Table 8 shows the changes in mass flow rate and the maximum effective use of solar energy for both water heating and lighting while at
values for; the total solar insolation, the water temperature difference, the same time reducing the occupied space.

17
M.E. El-saggan, A. Rekaby, W.A. Aissa et al. Next Energy 5 (2024) 100165

6. Conclusion and perspectives

Location / latitude

Jodhpur, Indian

Jodhpur, Indian
Owerri, Nigeria
Zallaq, Bahrain

Zallaq, Bahrain
Baghdad, Iraq
Aswan, Egypt
The innovative design of the proposed system (ZDG/SWH) is basically

(26° 15'N)

(26° 15'N)

(33° 18'N)
(24◦ 5′N)
(26° 0'N)

(5° 28'N)

(26° 0'N)
a tubular daylighting guidance system combined with the principle of a
solar water heater, but here the plate has become tubular instead of flat.
This integration results in reduced space requirements and lower manu­
facturing costs. In different seasons, the thermal and lighting performance
of the current model underwent rigorous experimental testing and analysis
to comprehensively evaluate system performance. Additionally, detailed
total (kWh/

research procedures are provided to showcase and analyze system per­

m2/day)

7.09

7.62

6.16

6.95
7.6

8.2 formance across varying environmental climates. The results obtained

• 6.21
• 6.8

indicated that the integrated system achieved acceptable success and

Is,

provided an effective practical solution that uses solar energy to provide

power. The important findings are stated as follows:
Qstored (MJ/L/

• The ZDG or TDD can be likened to a black box reflecting the input/
0.105

0.113

0.115

0.075
day)

N/A

N/A

N/A
output load, with one inversion. This allows for uniform scattering
within the test room under overcast skies, and directional scattering
under clear skies in environments with intense solar irradiation.
• It has been observed that with increasing solar radiation and the
Maximum

disparity between water temperatures, the ratio ((Two-Twi)/Is) rises,

ηday (%)

• 30.2
• 25.9

• 30.1
• 60.4
27.8

31.5

32.7

28.3

41.2

leading to an enhancement in tubular collector efficiency, reaching

a peak before gradually declining throughout all seasons of the year.
• The average transmitted indoor illumination on the work surface
reached approximately 2470 lux, satisfying the required lighting
ηins (%)

• 39.5
33.5

37.5
• 31

• 39
• 68
37

35

50

needs. Moreover, electrical lighting can be disregarded for up to

5 hours.
• The highest water temperature and maximum instantaneous effi­
Two = 60.5/ΔTw = 12

ciency reached are about 70 °C and 37%, respectively, demon­

ΔTw = 18/Two = 70

Two = 69/ΔTw = 14

Two = 53/ΔTw = 8
wo

wo

• Without reflector;

strating satisfactory performance.

• ΔT = 20.5/ T
• ΔT = 27.8/ T
Two /ΔTw ( C)

• With reflector;

•
Two = 58
°

Furthermore, under clear skies, it is found that the room's overall

T = 50

Two=67

illumination is almost 5 times higher than the corresponding value

= 55.7

= 66.2

under fully cloudy conditions.

w

wo

• The maximum daily thermal efficiency and greatest daily stored

heat in the tank achieved by the proposed solar heater during the
experiments are 31.5% and 1884 W, respectively. In addition, an
annual cost of about 90 $ can be saved as a result of using the
• 15.6
(kg/h)

14.4

10.8

18.2

52.1

64.8
ṁw

15
•9

heater, and the payback period will be 2.38 years.

This paper seeks to advance the experimental optical investigation

Natural (passive) mode

Thermosyphon manner

Thermosyphon manner

of TDD and passive thermosiphon-type SWH systems. A thermal ex­

Thermosyphon mode

Thermosyphon mode

Thermosyphon mode
Circulation mode

perimental study has commenced to elucidate the impact of TDD on

Natural mode

internal ambient conditions and user thermal comfort in regions char­

Comparison of the current tubular solar water heater with the open literature

acterized by intense solar climates, such as Aswan. On the other hand, a

variable-speed circulating pump along with two solenoid valves and a
control device has been employed to assess the performance of the SWH
system across varying flow rates and facilitate straightforward tem­
perature control.
Collector type

Tubular

Tubular

Tubular

Tubular

Declaration of Competing Interest

Flat

Flat

Flat

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ­
ence the work reported in this paper.
Experimental and
Analytical and

References
Experimental

Experimental

Experimental

Experimental

Experimental
experimental
Study type

analytical

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