8/18/2023

Assignment
OSI Layer and Network Toplogy

______________________________________
Submitted to
Mam Yusra
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Submitted By
S/Lt Isha Saghir PN (12622)
Question No:01
Explain OSI Layers.

OSI Model:
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference tool for understanding
data communications between any two networked systems. It divides the
communications processes into seven layers. Each layer both performs specific
functions to support the layers above it and offers services to the layers below it. The
three lowest layers focus on passing traffic through the network to an end system.
The top four layers come into play in the end system to complete the process.

An Overview of the OSI Model

A networking model offers a generic means to separate computer networking

functions into multiple layers. Each of these layers relies on the layers below it to
provide supporting capabilities and performs support to the layers above it. Such a
model of layered functionality is also called a “protocol stack” or “protocol suite”.
Protocols, or rules, can do their work in either hardware or software or, as with most
protocol stacks, in a combination of the two. The nature of these stacks is that the
lower layers do their work in hardware or firmware (software that runs on specific
hardware chips) while the higher layers work in software. The Open System
Interconnection model is a seven-layer structure that specifies the requirements for
communications between two computers. The ISO (International Organization for
Standardization) standard 7498-1 defined this model. This model allows all network
elements to operate together, no matter who created the protocols and what computer
vendor supports them.

Benefits of the OSI Model

• Helps users understand the big picture of networking
• Helps users understand how hardware and software elements function
together
• Makes troubleshooting easier by separating networks into manageable pieces
• Defines terms that networking professionals can use to compare basic
functional relationships on different networks
• Helps users understand new technologies as they are developed
• Aids in interpreting vendor explanations of product functionality

LAYERS OF OSI MODEL

Following are the 7 layers of OSI Model:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
LAYER 1 - PHYSICAL LAYER

The physical layer of the OSI model defines connector and interface specifications,
as well as the medium (cable) requirements. Electrical, mechanical, functional, and
procedural specifications are provided for sending a bit stream on a computer
network.

Components of the Physical Layer

Components of the physical layer include:
• Cabling system components
• Adapters that connect media to physical interfaces
• Connector design and pin assignments
• Hub, repeater, and patch panel specifications
• Wireless system components
• Parallel SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
• Network Interface Card (NIC)
LAYER 2 - DATA LINK LAYER

Layer 2 of the OSI model provides the following functions:

• Allows a device to access the network to send and receive messages
• Offers a physical address so a device’s data can be sent on the network
• Works with a device’s networking software when sending and receiving
messages
• Provides error-detection capability

Common Networking Components

Common networking components that function at layer 2 include:
• Network interface cards
• Ethernet and Token Ring switches
• Bridges

NICs have a layer 2 or MAC address. A switch uses this address to filter and forward
traffic, helping relieve congestion and collisions on a network segment. Bridges and
switches function in a similar fashion; however, bridging is normally a software
program on a CPU, while switches use Application-Specific Integrated Circuits
(ASICs) to perform the task in dedicated hardware, which is much faster.
LAYER 3 - NETWORK LAYER
Layer 3, the network layer of the OSI model, provides an end-to-end logical
addressing system so that a packet of data can be routed across several layer 2
networks (Ethernet, Token Ring, Frame Relay, etc.). Note that network layer
addresses can also be referred to as logical addresses.

Initially, software manufacturers, such as Novell, developed proprietary layer 3

addressing. However, the networking industry has evolved to the point that it
requires a common layer 3 addressing system. The Internet Protocol (IP) addresses
make networks easier to both set up and connect with one another. The Internet
uses IP addressing to provide connectivity to millions of networks around the
world.

Routers communicate with one another using routing protocols, such as Routing
Information Protocol (RIP) and Open version of Shortest Path First (OSPF), to
learn of other networks that are present and to calculate the best way to reach each
network based on a variety of criteria (such as the path with the fewest routers).
Routers and other networked systems make these routing decisions at the network
layer.

When passing packets between different networks, it may become necessary to

adjust their outbound size to one that is compatible with the layer 2 protocol that is
being used. The network layer accomplishes this via a process known as
fragmentation. A router’s network layer is usually responsible for doing the
fragmentation. All reassembly of fragmented packets happens at the network layer
of the final destination system.

Functions of the Network Layer

Two of the additional functions of the network layer are diagnostics and the
reporting of logical variations in normal network operation. While the network
layer diagnostics may be initiated by any networked system, the system
discovering the variation reports it to the original sender of the packet that is found
to be outside normal network operation.
Some basic security functionality can also be set up by filtering traffic using layer
3 addressing on routers or other similar devices.
LAYER 4 - TRANSPORT LAYER

Layer 4, the transport layer of the OSI model, offers end-to-end communication
between end devices through a network. Depending on the application, the transport
layer either offers reliable, connection-oriented or connectionless, best-effort
communications.

Functions of the Transport Layer

Some of the functions offered by the transport layer include:
• Application identification
• Client-side entity identification
• Confirmation that the entire message arrived intact
• Segmentation of data for network transport
• Control of data flow to prevent memory overruns
• Establishment and maintenance of both ends of virtual circuits

The most common transport layer protocols are the connection-oriented TCP
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the connectionless UDP User Datagram
Protocol (UDP).
LAYER 5 - SESSION LAYER
Layer 5, the session layer, provides various services, including tracking the number
of bytes that each end of the session has acknowledged receiving from the other end
of the session. This session layer allows applications functioning on devices to
establish, manage, and terminate a dialog through a network.

Functions of Session Layer

Session layer functionality includes:
• Virtual connection between application entities
• Synchronization of data flow
• Creation of dialog units
• Connection parameter negotiations
• Partitioning of services into functional groups
• Acknowledgements of data received during a session
• Retransmission of data if it is not received by a device

LAYER 6 - PRESENTATION LAYER

Layer 6, the presentation layer, is responsible for how an application formats the data
to be sent out onto the network. The presentation layer basically allows an
application to read (or understand) the message.
Functions of Presentation Layer
Examples of presentation layer functionality include:
• Encryption and decryption of a message for security
• Compression and expansion of a message so that it travels efficiently
• Graphics formatting
• Content translation
• System-specific translation
LAYER 7 - APPLICATION LAYER

Layer 7, the application layer, provides an interface for the end user operating a
device connected to a network. This layer is what the user sees, in terms of loading
an application (such as Web browser or e-mail); that is, this application layer is the
data the user views while using these applications.

Functions of Application Layer

Examples of application layer functionality include:
• Support for file transfers
• Ability to print on a network
• Electronic mail
• Electronic messaging
• Browsing the World Wide Web
Question No:01
Explain Network Topology.

Network Topology:

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. There are two types of topologies: physical and logical
topology.

Types of Network Topology:

Under mentioned are the types of

Network Topology:
1. Bus Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Ring Topology
4. Mesh Topology
5. Tree Topology
6. Hybrid Topology
 1. BUS TOPOLOGY
• In bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable.
• Bus topology may have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the
same time. Therefore, bus topology either uses CSMA/CD technology or
recognizes one host as bus master to solve the issue.
• It is one of the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device
does not affect the other devices. But failure of the shared
communication line can make all other devices stop functioning.

Advantages:
• It is cost effective
• Cable required is least compared to another network topology
• Used in small networks
• It is easy to understand
Disadvantages:
• Cable fails then whole network fails
• Cable has a limited length

2. STAR TOPOLOGY
Star topology is a network topology in which each network component is
physically connected to a central node such as a router, hub or switch. In a
star topology, the central hub acts like a server and the connecting nodes act
like clients.
Advantages:
• Easy to manage
• Easy to locate problems
• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts
• Easier to expand than a Bus or Ring Topology

Disadvantages:
• Require more cable length than a liner topology
• More expensive because of the cost of the concentrators

3. RING TOPOLOGY
A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to
exactly two other nodes, forming a single continuous pathway for signals
through each node.
Advantages:
• Time to send data is known
• No data collision
• Easy to install
• Fault identification is easy

Disadvantages:
• Unidirectional Traffic
• Requires more cable and network equipment at the start
 4. TREE TOPOLOGY
• Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
• A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected
with each other in hierarchical fashion.
• The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other
nodes are the descendants of the root node.
• There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission.
Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree topology

• Tree topology is mainly used to provide broadband transmission, i.e., signals
are sent over long distances without being attenuated.
• We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we can say that
tree topology is easily expandable.
• In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known as star
networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
• Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
• The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
• It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Disadvantages of Tree topology
• If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to troubleshoot the
problem.
• Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
• A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable
will damage the overall network.
• If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

5. MESH TOPOLOGY
• Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are
interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
• There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
• It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a
central point of communication.
• The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where
communication failures are a critical concern.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
Advantages of Mesh topology:

• The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will
not affect the communication between connected computers.
• Communication is very fast between the nodes.
• Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between other
devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

• A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a
router and more transmission media than other topologies.
• Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and
manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the communication
link failure goes undetected.
• In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of
the network.
6. HYBRID TOPOLOGY

• The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid

topology.
• A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to
transfer the data.
• When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as
Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will
not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in
one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank,
connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.