Introduction to Material science

4.Composites
 9.1 Introduction
• Modern technological applications viz. aerospace,
underwater, and transportation require materials
with unusual combinations of properties that
cannot be met by conventional metal alloys,
ceramics, and polymeric materials.
• Usually strong materials are relatively dense;
also, increasing the strength or stiffness generally
results in a decrease in crash strength.
• A composite is any multiphase material that
exhibits a significant proportion of the properties
of both constituent phases such that a better
combination of properties is realized.
• For example, pearlitic steels have a
microstructure consisting of alternating layers
of α ferrite and cementite.
• The ferrite phase is soft and ductile, whereas
cementite is hard and very brittle.
• The combined mechanical characteristics of
the pearlite (reasonably high ductility and
strength) are superior to those of either of the
constituent phases.
• Some of the examples of the natural
composites are wood and bone.
• wood consists of strong and flexible cellulose
fibers surrounded and held together by a
stiffer material called lignin.
• Bone is a composite of the strong yet soft
protein collagen and the hard, brittle mineral
apatite.
• Many common composite materials composed of
just two phases; one is termed the matrix, which
is continuous and surrounds the other phase
known as dispersed phase.
• The properties of composites are a function of
the properties of the constituent phases, their
relative amounts, and the geometry of the
dispersed phase.
• “Dispersed phase geometry” means the shape of
the particles and the particle size, distribution,
and orientation (shown in the 9.1).
Fig. 9.1 Schematic representations of the various geometrical and
spatial characteristics of particles of the dispersed phase that may
influence the properties of composites: (a) concentration, (b) size,
(c) shape, (d) distribution, and (e) orientation.
• Classification of composite materials is shown
in the following Figure.
• The three main divisions: particle-reinforced,
fiber-reinforced, and structural composites.
• The dispersed phase for particle-reinforced
composites is equiaxed (i.e., particle
dimensions are approximately the same in all
directions);
• for fiber-reinforced composites, the dispersed
phase has the geometry of a fiber (i.e., a large
length-to-diameter ratio).
• Structural composites are combinations of
composites and homogeneous materials.
 9.2 Particle-Reinforced Composites
• Large-particle and dispersion-strengthened
composites are the two sub-classifications of
particle-reinforced composites.
• The distinction between these is based upon
strengthening mechanism.
• The term “large” is used to indicate that particle–
matrix interactions cannot be treated on the
atomic or molecular level;
• For most of these composites, the particulate
phase is harder and stiffer than the matrix.
• These reinforcing particles tend to control
movement of the matrix phase.
• In reality, the matrix transfers some of the
applied stress to the particles.
• The degree of improvement of mechanical
behaviour depends on strong bonding at the
matrix–particle interface.
• For dispersion-strengthened composites,
particles are normally much smaller, with
diameters between 0.01 and 0.1 μm (10 and 100
nm).
• Particle–matrix interactions that lead to
strengthening occur on the atomic or molecular
level.
• The matrix bears the major portion of an applied
load, the small dispersed particles obstruct the
motion of dislocations.
• Thus the hardness improves.
 Large Particle Composites
• Some polymeric materials to which fillers have been added
are really large-particle composites.
• Fillers are the materials most often added to polymers to
improve tensile and compressive strengths, abrasion
resistance, toughness, thermal stability etc.
• Materials used as particulate fillers include wood flour
(finely powdered sawdust), silica flour and sand, glass, clay,
talc, limestone, and even some synthetic polymers.
• Particle sizes range all the way from 10 nm to macroscopic
dimensions.
• Another familiar large-particle composite is concrete, which
is composed of cement (the matrix), sand and gravel (the
particulates).
Fig. 9.3 Photomicrograph of a WC–Co cemented carbide.
Light areas are the cobalt matrix; dark regions, the
particles of tungsten carbide. 100 x
Dispersion Strengthened Composites

• Metals and metal alloys may be strengthened

and hardened by the uniform dispersion of
several volume percent of fine particles of a
very hard and inert material.
• The dispersed phase may be metallic or
nonmetallic.
• The strengthening mechanism involves
interactions between the particles and
dislocations within the matrix.
• The high-temperature strength of nickel alloys
may be enhanced significantly by the addition
of about 3 vol% of thoria (ThO2) as finely
dispersed particles; this material is known as
thoria-dispersed (or TD) nickel.
• The same effect is produced in the aluminum–
aluminum oxide system.
 9.3 Fiber-Reinforced Composites

• Technologically, the most important composites

are those in which the dispersed phase is in the
form of a fiber.
• Fiber-reinforced composites utilize low-density
fiber and matrix materials.
• Fiber-reinforced composites are sub-classified by
fiber length.
• For short fiber, the fibers are too short to produce
a significant improvement in strength.
 Influence of Fiber Length
• The mechanical characteristics of a fiber-
reinforced composite depend not only on the
properties of the fiber, but also on the degree to
which an applied load is transmitted to the fibers
by the matrix phase.
• Important to the extent of this load transmittance
is the magnitude of the interfacial bond between
the fiber and matrix phases.
• Under an applied stress, this fiber–matrix bond
ceases at the fiber end, yielding a matrix
deformation pattern as shown schematically in
Figure 9.4.
 Fig. 9.4 The deformation pattern in the matrix
surrounding a fiber that is subjected to an applied
tensile load
 Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration
• The arrangement or orientation of the fibers
relative to one another, the fiber concentration,
and the distribution all have a significant
influence on the strength and other properties of
fiber-reinforced composites.
• With respect to orientation, two extremes are
possible:
– A parallel alignment of the longitudinal axis of the
fibers in a single direction, and
– A totally random alignment. Continuous fibers are
normally aligned (Figure 9.5a), whereas discontinuous
fibers may be aligned, (Figure 9.5b), or randomly
oriented (Figure 9.5c).
Fig. 9.5 Schematic representation of (a) continuous and aligned,
(b) discontinuous and aligned, and (c) discontinuous and
randomly oriented fiber-reinforced composites
 The Matrix Phase
• The matrix phase of fibrous composites may
be a metal, polymer, or ceramic.
• In general, metals and polymers are used as
matrix materials because some ductility is
desirable;
• for ceramic-matrix composites, the reinforcing
component is added to improve fracture
toughness.
• For fiber-reinforced composites, the matrix
phase serves several functions. Firstly,
• it binds the fibers together
• acts as the medium by which an externally
applied stress is transmitted and distributed to
the fibers
• only a very small proportion of an applied load
is sustained by the matrix phase
• The second function of the matrix is
• to protect the individual fibers from surface
damage as a result of mechanical abrasion or
chemical reactions with the environment.
• Such interactions may introduce surface defects
capable of forming cracks, which may lead to
failure
• Finally, the matrix separates the fibers and, by
virtue of its relative softness and plasticity,
prevents the propagation of brittle cracks from
fiber to fiber
• in other words, the matrix phase serves as a
barrier to crack propagation.
 Polymer-Matrix Composites
• Polymer-matrix composites (PMCs) consist of a
polymer resin (The term “resin” is used in this
context to denote a high-molecular-weight
reinforcing plastic) as the matrix, with fibers as
the reinforcement medium.
• These materials are used in much variety of
composite applications
• Easy to fabricate and less expensive.
• In this section the various classifications of PMCs
are discussed according to reinforcement type
(i.e., glass and carbon).
Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Composites

• Fiberglass is either continuous or discontinuous,

contained within a polymer matrix
• The diameters of the fiber glass normally range
between 3 and 20 m.
• Glass is popular as a fiber reinforcement material
for several reasons:
• It is easily drawn into high-strength fibers from
the molten state.
• As a fiber it is relatively strong, and when
embedded in a plastic matrix, it produces a
composite having a very high specific strength.
• When coupled with the various plastics, it
possesses a chemical inertness that renders the
composite useful in a variety of corrosive
environments.
• Many familiar fiberglass applications are :
automotive and marine bodies, plastic pipes,
storage containers, and industrial floorings. The
transportation industries are utilizing increasing
amounts of glass fiber-reinforced plastics in an
effort to decrease vehicle weight and boost fuel
efficiencies.
Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Composites

• The reasons for Carbon as reinforcement in

polymer-matrix composites are as follows:
• Carbon fibers have the highest specific modulus
and specific strength of all reinforcing fiber
materials.
• They retain their high strength at elevated
temperatures.
• At room temperature, carbon fibers are not
affected by moisture or a wide variety of
solvents, acids, and bases.
• Fiber and composite manufacturing processes
have been developed that are relatively
inexpensive and cost effective.
• Carbon-reinforced polymer composites are
currently being used extensively in sports and
recreational equipment (fishing rods, golf
clubs), filament-wound rocket motor cases,
pressure vessels, and aircraft structural
components, (e.g., as wing, body, stabilizer,
and rudder components).
 Hybrid Composites
• A relatively new fiber-reinforced composite is the
hybrid, which is obtained by using two or more
different kinds of fibers in a single matrix;
• hybrids have a better all around combination of
properties than composites containing only a
single fiber type.
• A variety of fiber combinations and matrix
materials are used, but in the most common
system, both carbon and glass fibers are
incorporated into a polymeric resin.
• The carbon fibers are strong and relatively stiff
and provide a low-density reinforcement;
however, they are expensive.
• Glass fibers are inexpensive and lack the stiffness
of carbon.
• The glass–carbon hybrid is stronger and tougher,
has a higher impact resistance, and may be
produced at a lower cost than either of the
comparable all-carbon or all-glass reinforced
plastics.
• The main applications of hybrid composites are
lightweight land, water, and air transport
structural components, sporting goods, and
lightweight orthopedic components.
 9.4 Structural Composites

• A structural composite is normally composed of

both homogeneous and composite materials
• the properties depend not only on the properties
of the constituent materials but also on the
geometrical design of the various structural
elements.
• Laminar composites and sandwich panels are
two of the most common structural composites.
 Laminar Composites

• A laminar composite is composed of two-

dimensional sheets or panels that have a
preferred high-strength direction such as are
found in wood and continuous and aligned
fiber-reinforced plastics.
• The layers are stacked and subsequently
cemented together such that the orientation
of the high-strength direction varies with each
successive layer (Figure 9.6).
Fig. 9.6 The stacking of successive oriented,
fiber-reinforced for a laminar composite
• For example, adjacent wood sheets in plywood
are aligned with the grain direction at right angles
to each other.
• Laminations may also be constructed using fabric
material such as cotton, paper, or woven glass
fibers embedded in a plastic matrix.
• Thus a laminar composite has relatively high
strength in a number of directions in the two-
dimensional plane;
• however, the strength in any given direction is, of
course, lower than it would be if all the fibers
were oriented in that direction.
• One example of a relatively complex laminated
structure is the modern ski (see the illustration in
the Figure 9.7).
Fig. 9.7 One relatively complex composite structure is the modern ski. In
this illustration, a cross section of a high-performance snow ski, are
shown the various components. The function of each component is
noted, as well as the material that is used in its construction.
 Sandwich Panels
• Sandwich panels, considered to be a class of
structural composites, are designed to be light-
weight beams or panels having relatively high
stiffnesses and strengths.
• A sandwich panel consists of two outer sheets, or
faces, that are separated by and adhesively
bonded to a thicker core (Figure 9.8).
• The outer sheets are made of a relatively stiff and
strong material, typically aluminum alloys, fiber-
reinforced plastics, titanium, steel, or plywood.
Fig. 9.8 Schematic diagram showing the cross section of
a sandwich panel
• The core material is lightweight.
• Core materials typically fall within three
categories: rigid polymeric foams (i.e.,
phenolics, epoxy, polyurethanes), wood (i.e.,
balsa wood), and honeycombs.
• A “honeycomb” structure—thin foils that have
been formed into interlocking hexagonal cells,
with axes oriented perpendicular to the face
planes;
• Figure 9.9 shows a cutaway view of a
honeycomb core sandwich panel.
Fig. 9.9 Schematic diagram showing the construction of
a honeycomb core sandwich panel
• The honeycomb material is normally either an
aluminum alloy or aramid polymer.
• Strength and stiffness of honeycomb
structures depend on cell size, cell wall
thickness, and the material from which the
honeycomb is made.
• Sandwich panels are used in a wide variety of
applications including roofs, floors, and walls
of buildings and in aerospace and aircraft
materials.