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Ch1 Vibrations

The document discusses the fundamentals of mechanical vibrations, including their historical significance, basic concepts, and classification. It emphasizes the importance of vibrations in engineering applications, particularly in relation to resonance and experimental testing. The text also outlines the vibration analysis procedure and introduces key elements such as springs, mass, and damping in vibrating systems.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
10 views55 pages

Ch1 Vibrations

The document discusses the fundamentals of mechanical vibrations, including their historical significance, basic concepts, and classification. It emphasizes the importance of vibrations in engineering applications, particularly in relation to resonance and experimental testing. The text also outlines the vibration analysis procedure and introduces key elements such as springs, mass, and damping in vibrating systems.

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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Mechanical Vibrations

Sixth Edition

Chapter 1
Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), an Italian


astronomer, philosopher, and professor of
mathematics at the Universities of Pisa and
Padua, in 1609 became the first man to point
a telescope to the sky. He wrote the first
treatise on modern dynamics in1590. His
works on the oscillations of a simple
pendulum and the vibration of strings are of
fundamental significance in the theory of
vibrations.

1.1 Preliminary Remarks


1.2 Brief History of the Study of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration
1.3 Importance of the Study of Vibration

Vibrations is part of our every day life.

Hearing – sound waves


Seeing – light waves
Walking, speech, etc
Figure 1-6: Nature of Wind-Induced
Vibrations significantly influences
Vibration Experienced by Tacoma Narrows
machine design and structural Bridge before its Failure
engineering applications.
The Tacoma Narrows bridge
When the natural frequency of vibration of opened on July 1, 1940, and
a system coincides with the frequency of collapsed on November 7, 1940,
an external force, resonance can occur due to wind induce vibrations
causing extreme deflections.

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Fundamentals of Vibration
Because of the effect of vibrations,
experimental testing has become a
required procedure in the develop of
engineering systems.

Figure 1-7: Vibration Testing of the


Space Shuttle Enterprise

Humans play an integral role in


vibration analysis. Vibration and noise
can be an annoyance and even
damage property.

Vibration of an instrument panel can


cause malfunctions or make it difficult
to read the information displayed.
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Fundamentals of Vibration
1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration

Motion that repeats itself after an interval of time is called vibration or


oscillation. The theory of vibration deals with the study of oscillatory
motions and the forces that cause them.

Systems with vibrations include the following elements:


- means to store potential energy, spring
- means to store kinetic energy, mass/inertia
- means to dissipate energy, damper

Example system – simple pendulum


At position 1 the bob has a potential energy
which converts to kinetic energy at 2 due to
the gravitational torque. It continues to
position 3 where its KE is converted back to
PE. Figure 1-10: A simple pendulum
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Fundamentals of Vibration
Degrees of Freedom – the
minimum number of independent
coordinates required to completely
determine the positions of all parts
of the system.

In Fig. 1-11, one DOF is needed to Figure 1-11: Single-Degree-of-Freedom


describe each of the systems. Systems

In Fig. 1-12, two DOFs are needed


to describe each of the systems.

In 1-12 (c), either X and θ or x, y


and X because x and y are
constrained by x2 + y2 = l2. Figure 1-12: Two-Degree-of-Freedom
Systems

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Fundamentals of Vibration
In the figure to the right, 3 DOFs
are required. Note the constraint

For continuous systems, an infinite


number of DOFs are required for
modeling – ie. the cantilevered
beam.
Figure 1-13: Three–Degree-of-
The coordinates that describe the Freedom Systems
motion are the generalized
coordinates.
Finite systems – discrete or lumped
parameter
Infinite DOF systems are call
continuous or distributed systems. Figure 1-14: A Cantilever Beam (an
Infinite Number of DOF System)
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Fundamentals of Vibration
1.5 Classification of Vibration
Free vibration – vibrates on own after initial disturbance
Forced vibration – subject to an external force – resonance can occur
Undamped vibration – no energy loss - i.e. no friction
Damped vibration – includes energy loss
Linear vibration – all elements in the system behave linearly
Non-linear vibration – one or more of the elements behave nonlinearly
Deterministic vibration – magnitude of excitation is know at any time
Random vibration – magnitude of excitation cannot be predictied

Figure 1-15: Deterministic and Random Excitations


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Fundamentals of Vibration
1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure

Step 1: Mathematical Modeling – capture the


salient features of the system. Can be linear or
non-linear – linear are easy to deal with but
non-linear may capture important dynamic
features.

Initial models can be refined to capture


additional complexities.

Figure 1-16: Modeling of a Forging Hammer


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Fundamentals of Vibration
1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure

Step 2: Determine Governing Equations – once the model is defined use


principles of dynamics to derive the equations that describe the vibrations.
A set of ordinary differential equations (for discrete systems) or PDEs (for
continuous systems) is obtained using a number of methods: Newton’s 2nd
Law, D’Alembert’s Principle or Conservation of Energy.

Step 3: Solution of Governing Equations – to fined the response of the


system, we can use standard DE methods, Laplace transform, or
numerical methods. Numerical methods are typically employed for PDEs.

Step 4: Interpretation of the Results – with the displacements, velocities


and accelerations obtained, these results must be evaluated to determine
if the system meets the requirments.

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Introduction

Figure 1-17: Motorcycle with a Rider-a Physical System and Mathematical Model (1 of 3)

Figure 1-17: Motorcycle with a Rider-Physical Figure 1-17: Motorcycle with a Rider-a Physical
System and Mathematical Model (2 of 3) System and Mathematical Model (3 of 3)

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Fundamentals of Vibration
1.7 Spring Elements

A spring is a mechanical link – typically


has no mass or damping. Any deformable
body can be considered a spring.

A spring can be represented as shown to


the right. It is linear if it can be described
with F = k x where k is the spring
constant. When the spring is stretched or
compressed, a restoring force of –F or +F
tries to bring the stretched or compressed
spring back to its original state.

A plot of F and x yields a straight line and


the work done is deforming the spring is
stored as potential energy.
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Fundamentals of Vibration
Nonlinear springs

In real situations, springs often exhibit non


linear behavior – especially when the
deflections are large. The following
relationship is often used for this type of
response.

With b = 0 the behavior is linear, when b > 0,


the spring is said to be hard and when b < 0,
the spring is said to be soft.

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Fundamentals of Vibration
Other non linear springs

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Introduction

Figure 1-24: Spring Constant of a Rod


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Fundamentals of Vibration

Figure 1-25: Spring Constant of a Cantilever Beam

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration
Combination of springs

Multiple springs are often used in one system and can be combined to
obtain a single equivalent spring.

Springs in parallel – Consider the springs in the figure below. When a load is
applied, the system undergoes a static deflection and a free body diagram
(c) provides the equation

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Fundamentals of Vibration
For keq denoting the equivalent spring constant for the two springs, for the
same static deflection,

The equivalent spring constant can then be shown as

Springs in series – considering the two


springs in series, under a load W, the
two springs undergo an elongation of

Since both springs see the same load

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Fundamentals of Vibration
For keq denoting the equivalent spring constant for the two springs, for the
same static deflection,

The equivalent spring constant can then be shown as

Springs in series – considering the two


springs in series, under a load W, the
two springs undergo an elongation of

Since both springs see the same load

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Introduction

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Fundamentals of Vibration
1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements

For this course, mass elements are assumed to be a rigid body and can
gain or lose kinetic energy.

We often use mathematical models to


represent vibrating systems and there are
often multiple possibilities. In the
next example, a building is subjected to
an earthquake. Assuming the frame mass
is negligible compared to the floor mass,
the system can be modeled as a multi DOF
system. The elasticity of the vertical
columns are modeled with springs.

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Fundamentals of Vibration
1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements

For the example below, there are three mass attaching to a pivoting bar.
The equivalent mass of the system can be assumed to be anywhere so
we assume it to be located at m1. The velocities of the other mass are (for
small angles)

By equating the kinetic energies

We find

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration
1.9 Damping Elements

In many systems, vibrational energy is converted to heat or sound and


ultimately reduces the response. The mechanism for this conversion
is damping. A damper has not mass or elasticity and exists when there
is a relative velocity between the ends of the damper. Damping is
typically modeled as

Viscous Damping – most common, vibration in a fluid medium (air,


gas, water), dissipation occurs due to resistance to motion from fluid
and is proportional to velocity

Coulomb damping or friction – constant in magnitude, opposite in


direction, caused by rubbing surfaces

Material/Hysteretic damping – when material is deformed, energy is


absorbed or dissipated by the material caused by friction between
internal planes. Stress strain diagrams shows a hysteresis loop.
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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration

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Fundamentals of Vibration
1.10 Harmonic Motion

If motion repeats it self after equal periods of


time (i.e. simple pendulum), it is called periodic
motion. The simplest form of harmonic motion
is periodic motion. The motion imparted by the
Skotch yoke mechanism on the mass is
harmonic motion. When the crank rotates at a
constant angular velocity the end of the link at
S and mass are displaced from its position
by x in a sinusoidal manner

The velocity and acceleration are

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Fundamentals of Vibration
It is easy to see that the acceleration is directly proportional to the
displacement. Vibration where the acceleration is proportional to the
displacement and directed towards the mean position is called simple
harmonic motion.

The harmonic motion can be


represented using vector OP of
Magnitude A rotating at a constant
Ω. The projection of the tip of the
Vector X = OP on the vertical axis is

and its projection on the horizontal axis


is

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Fundamentals of Vibration
It is convenient to represent harmonic motion using a complex number
representation. The vector 𝑋𝑋⃑ in the xy plane can be represented as

Where a and b represent the x and y components of 𝑋𝑋⃑ and are the real
⃑ With A as the absolute value of vector 𝑋𝑋⃑ and θ is
and imaginary parts of 𝑋𝑋.
the argument between the vector and the x-axis, then

where

This can also be expressed as

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Fundamentals of Vibration
Complex Algebra

Complex numbers are often represented without vector


notation where a and b are the real and imaginary parts.
Typical math operation are achieved using the usual rules of algebra.
With

The sum and differences are

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Fundamentals of Vibration
Operations on Harmonic Functions

The rotating vector 𝑋𝑋⃑ can be written as

Differentiation yields

Thus, displacement, velocity and acceleration can be written as

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Fundamentals of Vibration
Operations on Harmonic Functions

It can be seen that the acceleration


vector leads velocity by 90 degrees
and velocity leads the displacement
vector by 90 degrees.

Harmonic functions can be added


vectorially with the magnitude and
angle given as

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Fundamentals of Vibration
Definitions:

Cycle - The movement of a vibrating body from its undisturbed or


equilibrium position to its extreme position in one direction, then to the
equilibrium position, then to its extreme position in the other direction, and
back to equilibrium position.

Amplitude - The maximum displacement of a vibrating body from its


equilibrium position

Period of oscillation - The time taken to complete one cycle


of motion

Frequency of oscillation - The number of cycles per unit time


ω is called the circular frequency to distinguish it from the
linear frequency

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Fundamentals of Vibration
Phase angle – consider two vibration motions

Here the second motion, 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂2, leads the first motion, 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂1, by the phase
angle Φ

Natural frequency - If a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to vibrate


on its own, the frequency with which it oscillates without external forces is
known as its natural frequency.

Beats - When two harmonic motions, with frequencies close to one


another, are added, the resulting motion exhibits a phenomenon known as
beats.

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Fundamentals of Vibration
1.11 Harmonic Analysis

Many vibrations are not harmonic but they are periodic, as shown in the
figure below.

Any periodic function of time can be represented by Fourier series as an


infinite sum of sine and cosine terms.

If x(t) is periodic with a period, Tau,


it can be represented by the Fourier
series.
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Fundamentals of Vibration
2𝜋𝜋
where 𝜔𝜔 = is the fundamental frequency and an and bn are constant
𝜏𝜏
coefficients. To find the coefficients, multiply the original x(t) by cosine and
sine and integrate.

The Fourier series can also be represented in terms of complex numbers.

where

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Fundamentals of Vibration
x(t) can be written as

By defining the complex Fourier coefficients as

x(t) can be written as

where

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