Soils in India

Soil
Soil is a renewable natural resource. It supports various living organisms and is a medium of plant growth.
Topsoil is the uppermost layer of the Earth. It consists of humus. Factors such as variation of temperature,
parent rock, decomposers and running water affect the formation of soil.
Fertile soil is essential for agricultural production. It has the following characteristics:
 It has enough moisture to supply essential nutrients to plants.
 It should have sufficient depth to enable the plants to grow their roots.
 It is rich in nutrients such as nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus.
 It contains organic matter.
The fertility of soil can be improved by adding fertilisers.

Classification of Soil
Based on its formation, soil can be classified into the following categories:
Sedimentary or Residual Soil: When soil is formed in its original position by fragmentation of the parent
rock, it is called in situ or residual soil. This includes black soil, red soil, laterite soil and desert soil.
Transported Soil: These soils are formed after being
transported and deposited by various agents of erosion such
as water and wind. This includes alluvial soil.
Soil in India can be classified based on their texture,
thickness, age, chemical and physical properties.

Alluvial Soil
 It is formed by the deposition of sediments brought down
by the rivers. Very fine particles of soil called alluvium are
deposited by the rivers in plains.
 It is also called riverine soil because it is mainly found in
the river basins. It consists of sand, clay and silt known as
loam.
 It has been deposited by the three Himalayan river
systems—the Ganga, the Indus and the Brahmaputra. It is
also found in deltas formed by rivers Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna and Kaveri.
Map of India showing the regions of alluvial soil
 Alluvial soil is classified into two types—khadar and
bhangar.

Characteristics of Alluvial Soil

 It is formed by the deposition of sediments by the rivers as it flows from its upper to its lower course.
 While in the upper plains of the river valleys, the soil is coarse; it has fine soil particles in the lower
river valleys.
 While the alluvial soil is dry, porous, sandy and faint yellow in the lower Ganga Valley, it becomes
compact, less coarse and moist in West Bengal and Bangladesh.
 It is fertile as it is rich in minerals such as lime and potash. It is suitable for the growth of kharif and
rabi crops.
 It is however deficient in nitrogen and humus. Only the alluvial soil of the Ganga delta is rich in humus.
 The alluvial soil is alkaline in drier areas.

Differences between bangar and khadar soils

Bangar Soil Khadar Soil
It is old alluvial soil. It is new alluvial soil.
It has higher concentration of kankar It has less concentration of kankar nodules.
nodules.
It is comparatively less fertile. It is more fertile as it is deposited every year
during the monsoon floods.

Black Soil
This soil is also known as regur soil or black cotton soil (it is
suitable for the growth of cotton). It is a residual soil as it is
formed at the place of its origin.
Characteristics of Black Soil
 It is clayey and is finely textured soil.
 Because it is formed from weathered lava rocks, it is black.
 It has about 50% of clayey material and hence is highly water
retentive.
 When the soil becomes wet, it expands making ploughing
difficult. During the dry season, the black soil shrinks and
develops cracks which help in air circulation.
 The soil is suitable for the cultivation of cotton, jowar,
sugarcane, wheat, linseed and gram. Besides, it is suitable
for the growth of oilseeds, pulses, cereals, tobacco and
vegetables.
 Its subsoil has moisture content even during rainy season.

Red Soil Map of India showing the regions of black soil

Ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks of the Peninsular
Plateau fragmented to form the red soil. This soil differs from
place to place on the basis of the parental rocks. They are red as they contain large amounts of iron
oxide. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
Characteristics of Red Soil
 It is porous and contains large quantities of iron oxide.
 It is shallow, loose and aerated.
 It is deficit in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and organic matter. Small quantities of soluble salt are
present in it.
 Because it is not very fertile, fertilisers are added to it.
 The soil requires irrigation.
 Red soil is suitable for the cultivation of rice, ragi, tobacco, groundnut and potatoes.
Laterite Soil
 It is formed because of the atmospheric weathering of rocks caused by high temperature and high
rainfall. This residual soil is formed by leaching because of tropical rains.
 Leaching is a process in which the nutrients of the soil percolate down into the soil because of heavy
rainfall. This makes the topsoil infertile. This is also called desilication.
 There are two types of laterite soils—upland laterites and lowland laterites. The former are formed
over hills and uplands. When these soils are transported by streams of rivers to lowlands, it is called
lowland laterites.

Characteristics of Laterite Soil

 It is red because of the presence of iron oxide formed during leaching.
 It has a coarse texture and is porous.
 It is deficient in lime, magnesium and nitrogen.
 It is not fertile as it does not retain moisture.
 It is acidic because of the leaching of alkalis.

Mountain Soil
The mountain soil is found in the hilly mountainous regions. This includes peat, meadow, forest and hill
soils.
Desert soil: It is sandy soil. It is formed because of weathering of rocks in the desert regions.
Saline and alkaline soils: It has large amount of salts and alkalis. It is formed when the tidal water
accumulates in areas located near the coasts because of poor drainage.
Marshy soil: This soil is found in waterlogged areas, especially in coastal regions or near the deltas. It
contains iron and organic matter.

Distribution of soils in India

Alluvial soil Inland Alluvium: Plains of Indus, the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers. It extends from
Punjab to Bangladesh and Assam. It is also found in Haryana, Uttarakhand, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and some parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan.
Deltaic Alluvium: Deltas of Rivers Ganga–Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna
and Kaveri.
Coastal Alluvium: Coastal strips of Peninsular India and in the plains of Gujarat.

Black Soil Deccan lava traps including parts of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and some parts of Tamil Nadu.
Red Soil Parts of Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Bundelkhand, Odisha, Meghalaya,
Mizoram, Manipur and Nagaland. It is found in the Plateau regions of Peninsular India.
Laterite Soil Highland areas of the Peninsular Plateau. It is found in some parts of Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and
Tamil Nadu.
Soil Erosion

The wearing away (due to the action of winds) and washing down of soil cover (due to running water) is
known as soil erosion.

Soil Erosion by Water

Gully Erosion: This occurs during heavy rainfall when running water cuts through the soil making deep
channels. The land thus becomes unsuitable for cultivation and is known as bad land.
Rill Erosion: It occurs when runoff water forms small channels running down the slope. It is an
intermediate stage between sheet and gully erosion.
Sheet Erosion: The washing away of the topsoil because of flowing of water as a sheet over large areas
is known as sheet erosion.
Leaching: When soil is bare of any vegetation, nutrients present in the soil percolate below the soil
because of heavy rainfall. It makes soil infertile.
Stream Bank Erosion: It occurs when streams of rivers change their course by cutting one bank and
depositing the silt on the other bank of the river.
Sea or Shore Erosion: The powerful waves of the sea dash against the coast and break the cliff rocks.
The fragmented material is then removed by the retreating sea waves. Eastern and western coasts have
experienced this kind of soil erosion.

Soil Erosion Due to Human Action

 Deforestation has resulted in soil erosion. Absence of any vegetation on the land leads to washing
away of the soil.
 Overgrazing by domestic animals also leads to soil erosion.

Soil Erosion by Winds

 When the wind blows away the topsoil, it is known as wind erosion.
 When a bare land is exposed to high speed winds, smaller soil particles are removed in bouncing and
hopping manner along the surface of the ground. This is known as saltation.
 The rolling and sliding of larger soil particles along the ground surface is known as soil creep.

Heavy population
pressure on land

Heavy Deforestation
downpour of
rain
Causes for soil
pollution in India
Topography

Bad farming techniques

Overgrazing
In India, the following regions are affected by soil erosion:
 Badlands of Chambal and Yamuna rivers
 Western Himalayan region
 Chotanagpur Plateau region
 Tapti Sabarmati valley region in Gujarat
 Regur soil area of Maharashtra
 Dry areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana

Methods to Prevent Soil Erosion

Soil can be conserved in the following ways:
 Contour Ploughing: When one ploughs along the contour lines, it is called contour ploughing. It
decreases the flow of water down the slopes and thus helps in soil conservation.
 Terrace Farming: When steps are cut out on the slopes of the hills making
terraces, it reduces soil erosion.
 Strip Cropping: When strips of grass are grown between the strips of crops,
they are known as strip cropping. It breaks down the speed of winds.
 Shelter Belts: When trees are planted in a row, it breaks the force of the
winds. This method has proved very useful in the station of dunes in the
deserts of western India. Terrace farming
 Plugging of Gullies: The gullies made in the soil are plugged with
deposition of silt during heavy rainfall.
Soil conservation is required to prevent the loss of soil fertility and agricultural productivity. Soil erosion
may also increase the risks of droughts and floods. Landslides also occur because of deforestation
and soil erosion.
In India, many programmes have been undertaken to prevent soil erosion. These
are
1. Integrated watershed management programme was launched during the Sixth
Plan in flood-prone rivers. The programme enhances the ability of the
catchment by absorbing rainwater and reducing erosion.
2. A scheme for reclamation and development of ravine area was launched in
1987–88 in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. The scheme Shelter Belt
included afforestation and reclamation of ravines.
3. The scheme was also launched for controlling shifting cultivation in the states of Arunachal Pradesh,
Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Assam.
4. National Project on Development and Use of Biofertilisers and National Project on Quality Control
were implemented during the Seventh Five Year Plan. It aimed at balancing the use of fertilisers.
 Agriculture in India–Cash Crops
Cash Crops
Cash crops are agricultural crops which are grown primarily for direct sale in the markets. The main cash
crops are categorised as
Beverages: Tea and coffee
Fibres: Cotton and jute
Oilseeds: Groundnut and mustard seeds
Others: Sugarcane, tobacco and rubber

Sugarcane

It grows mainly in the tropical regions with a hard thick stem growing up to the height of 3.5 m or more.
India has the largest area under sugarcane in the world. It is used for manufacturing sugar, gur and
khandsari. India is the second largest producer of sugarcane in the world after Brazil.

Climatic Conditions and Soil

 Sugarcane grows well in regions with temperatures between 20°C and 24°C. Dry winter is ideal for
ripening and harvesting.
 Frost can severely damage the crop.
 Sugarcane grows well in tropical regions with rainfall of 100–150 cm distributed throughout the year.
 Dry sunny weather is essential during the ripening stage of the cane.
 Rich alluvial and lava soil are considered best for the growth of sugarcane.

Methods of Cultivation
 Sowing: Sugarcane is planted by the following methods:
o Sett method: New canes are taken out from old plants. These cuttings of new plants known as
‘setts’ are planted and four to five stalks grow from each cutting.
o Ratooning method: Sugarcane is harvested leaving a little stalk with the roots in the soil. Any crop
obtained from the roots of the leftover crop is known as ratoon. Advantages of ratooning are that it
saves labour as plants need not be planted again and it is a cheaper method as it does not involve
any extra inputs.
o Sugarcane is also planted by seeds, but this method of sowing is hardly used.
 Harvesting: It is harvested in northern India before the winters to save it from frost. The crop is cut by
hand using a long carved knife. The stalk should be cut close to the ground as the greatest
accumulation of sucrose is in the base of the stem.
 Processing: After harvesting, the sugarcane has to be taken to the mill at the earliest. It is because
the sucrose content starts decreasing after 24 hours of harvesting. In the mills, canes are crushed and
boiled with lime to make raw sugar. It is reprocessed to make brown and white sugar. Only one-third of
the sugarcane grown in the country is used for making sugar. The remaining two-thirds are used for
making gur and khandsari.
 Distribution: Three main areas of sugarcane distribution are
o The Satluj Ganga Plain from Punjab to Bihar, regions of black soil from Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu
and coastal Andhra Pradesh and the Krishna Valley.
o Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh are leading producers of
sugarcane in the world. Tamil Nadu is the largest producer of sugarcane in South India.
 o Sugarcane has begun to be grown in South India as it has a favourable maritime climate free from
the effects of summer loo and winter frost and has good irrigation facilities.

Oil Seeds

Groundnut, linseed, castor seed, sesame, soya bean, cotton seed, sunflower seed, rapeseed and
mustard seed are some oil seeds which are grown in India. Groundnut is the leading oil seed in India.

Groundnut
Groundnut contains about 42% of oil which is extracted from nuts found in the roots of plants. It is mainly
used for the manufacturing of hydrogenated oil. It is used for making margarine, medical emulsions and
soaps. While the oil of groundnut is used for cooking, its oil cake is used as cattle feed. The nuts are also
eaten raw, roasted, salted and sweetened.

Climatic Conditions
 Groundnut grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climate and can be damaged because of frost. While
it is a rabi crop in Odisha and southern states, it is a kharif crop in the rest of India.
 It requires a temperature of 20°C to 25°C.
 The groundnut crop requires light to moderate rainfall of 50–100 cm which should be well distributed
throughout the year.
 Continuous rains, stagnant water and frost harm the crop adversely.
Soil
Sandy loams and well-drained soils are considered suitable for groundnut cultivation.
Method of Cultivation
 Sowing: After ploughing, seeds are sowed by broadcasting and drilling methods. It is a flowering plant,
and the crop takes about 4–5 months for harvesting.
 Harvesting: During harvesting, the entire plant is removed from the soil. Groundnuts are packed in
sacks after drying. They are sent to mills or commercial establishments.
Distribution
India is the second largest producer of groundnut after China. It is mainly grown in Peninsular India.
Gujarat is the leading producer of groundnut in India. Other groundnut-producing states are Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.

The table below gives details of the other oil seeds produced in India.

Name of Temperature Rainfall Soil Methods of Distribution

Oil Seed Cultivation
Mustard 10–20°C 25–40 cm Loamy soil They are Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
and Rape grown in rows Punjab, Madhya Pradesh
seeds along with and Haryana are the main
wheat, gram producing states. They are
and barley. also grown in Assam,
Their growing Bihar, Odisha, Gujarat and
period is from Jammu and Kashmir.
four to five
months. The
seeds are
separated by
trampling
them under
 bullocks’ feet.
Soya bean 13–24°C 40–60 cm Friable It is a rain fed Madhya Pradesh is the
loamy crop which is leading producer of soya
acidic soils harvested in beans, followed by
the middle of Rajasthan and
October. Maharashtra.
Sunflower 26–30°C Less than 50 Well- It requires Bihar, Maharashtra,
seed cm drained adequate Andhra Pradesh and
loamy soil moisture in Karnataka
soil in the first
45 days.
Rainfall should
not be heavy
during its
flowering
stage.
Sesame 21°C Moderate Well- It is grown as Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
It cannot rainfall drained a kharif crop in Maharashtra, Madhya
withstand frost. between 40 light loamy the northern Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat,
cm and 50 soil states and as Karnataka Andhra
cm. a rabi crop in Pradesh and Tamil Nadu
Excessive the southern
rainfall ruins states.
the crop.
Linseed 15–20°C 45–75 cm It is grown Alluvial soils, Madhya Pradesh and
during the clayey loamy Uttar Pradesh
rabi season soil and deep
and is black soils.
harvested
in march
April.
Castor 20–25°C 50–75 cm It is sown in It grows on Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh
seed June and red sandy and Rajasthan are the
July and loamy soil. leading producers. It is
harvested also grown in Odisha,
in Karnataka and Tamil
November Nadu.
and
December.

Cotton
Cotton is an important cash crop which provides raw materials to Indian industries. It is a tropical crop
grown in the kharif season.

Climatic Conditions
 The cotton plant requires a high temperature ranging between 21°C and 30°C. While during October,
the temperature should be above 26°C to help in ripening and bursting of cotton balls, the minimum
temperature should not fall below 20°C as it retards plant growth.
 A long growing period of at least 200 frost-free days is also necessary for the plant to mature.
 Moderate rainfall of 50–75 cm is required for the growth of the plant. Rainfall more than 85 cm can
destroy the crop.
Soil
Well-drained clayey soil rich in lime and phosphate is suitable for the growth of cotton plant. The deep
black soil of the plateau regions and Gujarat is also considered suitable for the growth of the cotton plant.

Methods of Cultivation
 Sowing: The seeds are sown by the drilling or broadcast methods generally before the beginning of
rainfall.
 Harvesting: Harvesting is done in October when the cotton balls ripen and burst.
 Processing: After harvesting, the cotton crop passes through the following processes:
o The cotton balls are ginned after harvesting. Ginning is a process of separating cotton fibres from
cotton seeds.
o The seeds are then crushed to produce oil; the residue is then used for feeding cattle.
o The cotton fibre or the bale is then transported to the manufacturing regions.
o After washing fibres, rope-like mass of fibre known as sliver is formed.
o The sliver is then spun to make cotton yarn.

Varieties of Cotton
Five main varieties of cotton are grown in India. These are superior long staple, long staple, superior
medium staple, medium staple and short staple.

Distribution
The chief cotton-growing regions of the country are
 The northwestern parts of the Deccan having fertile black soil
 The central and southern Deccan of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
 The Upper Ganga Valley
Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Punjab are the chief cotton-producing states in the country.
Other cotton-producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana, Karnataka and Tami Nadu.

Jute
Jute is one of the most important fibres grown in India. White jute grows on lowlands and uplands. The
tossa jute is grown only on uplands as it can be damaged by floods. Jute is used for manufacturing sacks
and other packaging materials. Jute is also used for manufacturing many utility products such as carpets,
rugs, twine and tarpaulins.
Mesta is an inferior substitute for jute.
Climatic Conditions
 The jute crop requires hot and humid climate with temperatures ranging between 24°C and 35°C.
 The crop requires an annual rainfall of more than 150 cm.
 Uninterrupted rains and prolonged droughts are harmful for the crop.

Soil
New alluvial soil is considered suitable for the growth of the jute crop.

Methods of Cultivation
Sowing: Seeds are sowed by broadcasting and drilling methods. They are sown in February on lowlands
and in March and June on uplands.
Harvesting: The crop is harvested from July to September. The plants are cut after they attain the height
of 2–4 m, and then they are put into a pond for retting. After peeling the bark, the fibre is rinsed, washed,
dried and pressed into bales.
Processing: Jute is put into specialised tanks for retting. After obtaining fibres, they are dried, spun and
woven into sacks and carpets.

Distribution
West Bengal is the leading producer of jute in the country. In Bengal, jute is grown in Nadia, Parganas,
Jalpaiguri, Malda and Burdwan. It is also grown in Assam, Bihar, Odisha and Uttar Pradesh.

Tea

Tea is an important beverage in India.

Climatic Conditions
 The ideal maximum temperature for the growth of the tea plant is about 24–30°C. The tea plant grows
well under shade.
 High humidity, heavy dew and morning fog are good for the development of young leaves.
 The tea plant grows well in humid climate. It needs adequate annual rainfall of about 150 cm
distributed throughout the year.

Soil
 It grows well in regions of well-drained loamy soil or forest soil rich in humus.
 The soil should be gently rolled to prevent waterlogging.

Methods of Cultivation
Sowing
 One way of planting tea is that first high-quality seeds are sown in nurseries. The saplings are then
transplanted within a year in a tea garden.
 Tea shrubs can also be grown in nurseries from the cutting of high-yielding varieties. This is known as
the clonal planting method of propagating tea.
 Tea gardens are located on hillslopes as slopes prevent the soil from waterlogging. Standing water or
waterlogging can seriously damage the crop.
Harvesting
 Bushes of the plant are pruned. In India, tea leaves are picked frequently.
 Tea picking is a skilful job and is mostly done by women.
Processing
There are four types of tea and each is processed differently.
Black Tea
 Withering: Tea leaves are dried under the Sun to extract moisture.
 Rolling: Leaves are then rolled mechanically between steel rollers to break the fibres.
 Fermentation: The leaves are fermented, reducing the amount of tannic acid in tea by half.
 Drying: Leaves are then dried over a fire or in an oven until they are black.
 Blending: Blenders then give blend grades of tea to give it a special aroma.
Green Tea
 The picked leaves are heated immediately by roasting them.
 There is no fermentation process and leaves remain green even when they are dried, graded and
packed.
Oolong Tea
 This tea is prepared by partially drying and fermenting the leaves.
 Much of this tea is exported to the United States.
Brick Tea
 Inferior and coarser leaves and stems are compressed into rectangular blocks of brick tea.
 This tea is mostly consumed in Tibet and Russia.

Distribution
India is the fourth largest exporter of tea. Assam is the leading producer of tea in India, followed by West
Bengal. Tea is also produced on a large scale in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Other minor tea-producing
regions are Ratnagiri and Satara in Maharashtra, Purnea in Bihar, Kangra Valley in Himachal Pradesh
and Coorg and Shimoga in Karnataka.

Coffee

Three main species of coffee are grown in India. These are

Coffea robusta: It is grown in areas of lower elevation where Arabica is not usually grown and can
survive in even arid conditions. It produces poor quality coffee.
Coffea liberica: It is a disease-resistant species of coffee which is generally grown on the lowlands. Both
Robusta and Liberica are suitable for making ‘instant’ coffee and thus have become popular.
Coffea arabica: It is the finest quality of coffee, but it is prone to diseases. Its main varieties are Chicks,
Blue Mountain and Bourbon Amarillo.

Climatic Conditions
 Coffee requires warm climate with a temperature of 15–28°C. It can neither withstand frost nor high
temperature.
 The coffee plant is planted under the shade of trees (such as silver oak and jackfruit) as direct sunlight
can damage the crop.
 The coffee plant requires rainfall between 150 and 200 cm. A prolonged drought may severely
damage the crop.

Soil
Rich, well-drained friable loamy soil is suitable for the growth of coffee plant. Fertilisers are added to make
the soil fertile.

Methods of Cultivation

Sowing
 Saplings of coffee plant are taken from the nursery and are then transplanted to the field.
 Plants are planted 3 m apart from each other. They are pruned. The height of the coffee plant is
maintained at 1.5 to 2.5 m.
 Coffee plants are grown on slopes as stagnant water is harmful for the crop.
 Many trees such as oranges, cardamom and pepper vines are also planted to generate extra income.

Harvesting
 The coffee plant is harvested in the fourth or fifth year. Coffee is picked by hands by removing ripe
berries from the stalk.
Processing
 The coffee berries are passed through the machine which removes their outer covering.
 The beans are then fermented by drying under the Sun. After being peeled, the beans are roasted at a
temperature of 99°C and are then ground into coffee powder.

Distribution
Coffee is mainly produced in Karnataka (Coorg and Chikmagalur), Kerala (Kozhikode, Palakkad and
Idukki) and Tamil Nadu (Nilgiri district, Madurai and Coimbatore).

Rubber

Rubber is obtained from latex—a milky juice obtained from various plants such as castile and Hevea
brasiliensis (para rubber).

Climatic Conditions
 Para rubber is grown in India at an elevation of about 300 to 450 m on the slopes of the Western and
Eastern Ghats.
 It grows well in hot and humid conditions. It is grown in regions where the temperature does not fall
below 21°C. It grows well between 25°C and 35°C.
 The rubber plant requires evenly distributed high rainfall of 200–400 cm.

Soil
The plant requires rich, well-drained alluvial and laterite soils.

Methods of Cultivation

Sowing
 Rubber is cultivated either by propagating seeds or by bud grafting.
 In propagation of seeds, seeds are allowed to sprout in the river bed sand. After germination, they are
planted in nurseries and are then transplanted in the fields.
 Bud grafting is carried out by selecting quick-growing buds. After the seedlings grow, the buds are
grafted on the seedlings.
 Rubber plant needs proper caring and good manuring for growth and good yield.

Harvesting
 Latex is obtained from the rubber tree by the process of tapping. After cutting the bark of the rubber
tree, latex is collected in containers placed below the plant.
 Tapping is not carried out in the rainy season as latex dilutes because of rainwater. It is also
suspended during winter as its production is minimal at this time.

Processing
 Latex contains about 35% of dry rubber. After collecting, it is sent to a factory for processing.
 It is cleaned and mixed with acetic acid and is heated for about 24 hours.
 The spongy whitish mass is then obtained which is passed through the rollers to drain out water.
 They are then rolled into sheets and dried.
Distribution
India is the fourth largest producer of natural rubber in the world. Kerala produces about 95% of the total
annual output. It is produced mainly in Kottayam, Kozhikode, Ernakulum and Kollam districts in Kerala. It
is also grown in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Tripura, Assam, Goa and Andaman and Nicobar Islands also
produce rubber in small quantities.
 Agriculture in India-Food Crops
Types of Agriculture in India
Agriculture plays an important role in the Indian economy in the following ways:
a. It provides food for the ever increasing population of the country.
b. It supplies raw materials for agro-based industries such as the textiles and food processing industries.
c. It provides a market for industrial goods such as machinery and agricultural implements.
d. It provides employment to millions of people.
e. It accounts for a large portion of India’s exports.

Some types of agricultural farming in India are shifting agriculture, subsistence agriculture, intensive
agriculture, extensive farming, plantation farming and mixed farming.

Shifting Agriculture
 It is also known as ‘Slash and Burn Agriculture’ and ‘jhum’, ‘ponam’ or ‘podu’. It is a primitive method
of cultivation. In this type of cultivation, a patch of forested land is cleared by felling and burning trees.
The ashes of trees are mixed in the soil.
 After two to three years, when the soil loses its fertility, the land is left fallow, and a new patch of land
is cleared for cultivation.
 Maize, potato, yam and cassava are grown in shifting cultivation. It is mainly practised in northeast
India.
 Dry paddy, maize, millets and vegetables are commonly grown in this type of farming. This method of
cultivation has some disadvantages. It results in deforestation, accelerates soil erosion and causes
floods and silting.

Subsistence Farming
 A majority of farmers in India practise subsistence farming. Land holdings in this type of farming are
small, and farmers use traditional methods of agriculture.
 As farmers are poor, they do not use fertilisers and high-yielding seed varieties in their fields.
 The production is not very high. Food crops are mainly produced for consumption by the family.

Intensive Farming
 This kind of cultivation is practised in areas with high density of population.
 It is a labour intensive system whereby fertilisers, high-yielding seed varieties and irrigation methods
are used for increasing production.
 More than one crop is cultivated on the same field.

Extensive Farming
 This kind of cultivation is practised where the size of the agricultural field is large and productivity is
high.
 Machines are extensively used, and hence, the labour employed per unit area is low.
 Farmers specialise in the production of one or two major commercial crops.
 Rice, wheat, maize and sugarcane are the main crops which are grown in extensive farming. Because
the productivity is high, there is large surplus for sale.
Plantation Farming
 In plantation farming, single crops of tea, sugarcane, coffee, rubber, cotton and banana are grown on
large fields.
 Large labour force and capital are required in plantations.
 Developed transport is required to transport these crops to factories for processing.
 Latest technology and modern methods of agriculture are used. In this kind of cultivation, crops are
mainly exported to earn foreign exchange.

Mixed Farming
 In mixed farming, two or more crops are grown together on a rotational basis.
 Apart from growing crops and fodder crops, animals are also reared.
 This type of cultivation ensures farmers with a steady income.

Commercial Farming
 In this type of farming, crops are grown for commercial purposes, i.e. for selling in local and
international markets.
 Wheat and maize are the main crops which are grown in commercial grain farming.
 Farming is mechanised and is prevalent in areas where farms are large and the market is strong.
 In India, this kind of farming is practised in Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Western Uttar Pradesh and
Andhra Pradesh.

Dry Farming
 It is practised in areas where irrigation facilities are not readily available. Crops which can stand dry
weather such as jowar, bajra and ragi are mainly grown.
 The fields are repeatedly ploughed before and during rains to preserve soil moisture.
 This type of cultivation is practised in Western Rajasthan and in some parts of Deccan.

Problems Faced by Indian Agriculture

Environmental Factors
 Unreliable rainfall
 Lack of irrigation facilities
 Soil erosion
 Reduction in net sown area

Institutional Factors
 Small and fragmented land holdings
 Exploitation of farmers

Economic Factors
 Subsistence agriculture
 Challenges posed by globalisation

Technological Factors
 Use of old and inefficient techniques by Indian farmers
Steps Taken to Improve Agricultural Production in India
 Introduction of various reforms such as the abolition of the Zamindari Act.
 Consolidation of fragmented land holdings
 Creation of irrigation infrastructure
 Announcement of minimum support prices
 Provision of subsidies to farmers for purchasing fertilisers and seeds

Green Revolution
Green Revolution is a term which is used to describe manifold increase in farm production in India. Its
main features are
 Use of large-scale capital and technological inputs
 Use of high-yielding seed varieties
 Use of chemical fertilisers and extensive irrigation facilities
 Adoption of modern scientific methods of farming

Impact of the Green Revolution

 Owing to large production, the Green Revolution changed Indian agriculture from subsistence farming
to commercial and market-oriented farming.
 Creation of more employment opportunities.
 Farmers were benefited by increased productivity leading to rural prosperity.
 It made India self-sufficient in food grains.
However, the Green Revolution was criticised by environmental scientists because of land degradation
caused by overuse of fertilisers and decease in soil fertility due to over irrigation.

Agricultural Crops and Seasons

There are two major agricultural crops in India—rabi crops and kharif crops.
In India, there are three main types of cropping seasons. They are rabi, kharif and zaid.

Types of Sowing Period Harvesting Period Main Crops or Seasonal Conditions

Cropping Fruits
Seasons
Rabi Winter (October– Summer (April–June) Wheat, barley, Rainfall during winter
December) peas, gram and months in northern India
mustard because of western
temperate cyclones
helps in the growth of
crops.
Kharif Beginning of the September–October Rice, maize, jowar, Much needed moisture is
monsoon (July) groundnut, tur and provided by the monsoon
cotton rains in India.
Zaid March–April May–June Watermelon, These crops are grown
cucumber, between the rabi and
vegetables and kharif seasons. These
fodder crops require warm weather to
grow.
However, it is to be noticed that this categorisation of the cropping season does not exist in southern
India.

Rice
It is the most important staple food crop of India. It is a kharif crop which is grown extensively in the
northern plains, northeastern parts of the country, and coastal and deltaic regions. Rice requires high
temperature above 20°C–35°C and high rainfall between 150 cm and 300 cm. During the earlier phase of
its growth, the crop requires 5–10 cm of standing water. India is the second largest producer of rice in the
world after China.
The rice crop in India can be divided into upland and lowland rice.
Upland Rice Lowland Rice
It is mainly grown on mountainous regions. It is mainly grown on low-lying regions.
It is sown in March–April and harvested in It is sown in June and harvested in October.
September–October.
The crop is mainly used for local consumption. The crop is not only consumed locally but is also
sold to other regions.

Soil: Rice requires fertile, clayey and loamy soil for cultivation. It grows well on alluvial soil which should
be able to retain standing water in the field. Manure and fertilisers are added to increase production.

Methods of Cultivation
Rice in India is cultivated by two methods—the dry method and the puddle method.
The dry system of cultivation is mainly confined to regions which depend on rainfall and do not have
sufficient irrigation facilities. In this method, seeds are scattered by hand in areas of moderate rainfall and
are sown in rows with the help of drills in areas of heavy rainfall.
Puddle or wet method of cultivation is practised in regions which have adequate supply of water. After
ploughing, land is filled with 3–5 cm of water.
The cultivation of rice is carried out by the following steps:
 Sowing of seeds
 Transplanting
 Harvesting
 Processing
Sowing of Seeds
Seeds are sown by various methods. These are
Broadcasting Method: In this method, seeds are scattered all over the field. This method is prevalent in
regions where labour is scarce and the soil is infertile.
Drilling Method: In this method, seeds are sown in furrows with the help of a drill usually made of
bamboo. The germination of seeds is high as seeds fall into furrows systematically. This is however a
time-consuming way to sow seeds.
Dibbling Method: In this method, seeds are sown at regular intervals in furrows.

Transplanting Method
 In this method, seedlings from nurseries are transplanted into rice fields in groups of four to six at a
distance of 30–45 cm.
 Initially, the field is covered with 2–3 cm of water. The level of water is then increased to 4–6 cm till the
crop matures.
 This method is popular as it gives higher yield.
Japanese Method
 In this method, the seedlings are prepared in nurseries.
 The rows of plants are then fixed at a distance of 25 cm, and the distance between the plants is about
15 cm.
 Manure is used extensively to increase yield. Plants give higher yield by this method.

Harvesting and Processing

 The rice fields are drained dry just before the crop is harvested. Each stalk is then hand reaped.
 The moisture content of the stalk is reduced by drying stalks in the Sun.
 In threshing, grains are separated from the stalks. It is done in the field to reduce the cost of transport.
 During winnowing, unwanted husk is removed from the grains by pouring them from a height.
 Milling is then done to remove yellowish husk from the grains.

Distribution
India produces 22% of the total rice in the world. It is mainly grown in West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh,
Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Assam, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura
and Tamil Nadu.

Wheat
It is the second most important crop in the country after rice. It is a rabi
crop. India accounts for 12% of the total wheat production in the world.

Climatic Conditions: Wheat requires a cool climate. It requires a

temperature of 10–15°C during sowing and 20–25°C during harvesting.
About 80 cm of rainfall is ideal for wheat cultivation.
Soil: Well-drained loamy soil is suitable for the growth of wheat.
Wheat is a rabi crop which is sown
Methods of Cultivation during winters and harvested during
summers.
 Seeds are generally sown by the drilling and broadcasting methods.
 The wheat crop starts ripening in March and is harvested in April when
the temperature is 27.5°C.

Distribution
 Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh are five leading producers of wheat in the
country. Wheat yield is extremely high in Punjab and Haryana.
 The yield of wheat is low in Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir as it is
grown under rain-fed conditions.
Millets
Climate required for the growth of millets
Name of Temperature Rainfall Required Soil Distribution
the Crop Required
Jowar 27–32°C It grows in arid and Red, grey and Maharashtra, Madhya
semi-arid regions yellow loamy soils. It Pradesh, Karnataka,
receiving rainfall can also be grown in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
below 45 cm. sandy soils. Nadu, Gujarat and
Rajasthan
Bajra 25–30°C Low rainfall; it can Red, sandy, loamy Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar
be grown in and black soils. Pradesh, Punjab and
regions receiving Haryana
less than 50 cm of
rainfall.
Ragi 20–30°C It is grown in Red and sandy Karnataka (leading
regions receiving loamy soil and well- producer), Tamil Nadu,
50–100 cm of drained alluvial soil. Uttarakhand,
rainfall. Maharashtra and Andhra
Pradesh

Pulses
 Pulses are an important part of the Indian diet as they provide vegetable protein. Some pulses are
gram or arhar, urad, masur (lentil), moong (black gram) and matar (peas).
 Temperature ranging between 20°C and 25°C and rainfall between 50 cm and 75 cm are required for
growing pulses.
 Pulses grow well in dry light soil.
 Gram is the leading pulse and is sometimes grown along with wheat. While gram is raised as a rabi
crop in regions receiving about 10 cm of rainfall, urad and moong are raised as kharif crops.
 Pulses are leguminous crops which increase the content of nitrogen in the soil, increasing its fertility.
 India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world. Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh are the five leading states producing pulses.
 Manufacturing Industries in India-Agro Based

Industrialisation in India
India is one of the top ten industrialised countries in the world. With her command over vast natural
resources and huge manpower resources, she is developing at a rapid pace.

Need for Rapid Industrialisation in India

 Rapid industrialisation is required to make India self-sufficient and self-reliable for fulfilling all her
needs and requirements.
 As India is predominantly an agricultural country, about one two-thirds of the population is dependent
on agriculture. Since agriculture cannot support the growing population, industries need to be
established to solve the problem of unemployment.
 Industries give support to agriculture. For example, agricultural implements are manufactured in
industries.
 Rapid industrialisation is required to keep pace with the technological advancements which have been
made in the world.
 Industries produce goods and equipment required for maintaining the defence of the country.

Factors Affecting the Location of Industries

Geographical and commercial factors affect the location of industries. Geographical factors are
 Raw Materials: Industries are mostly established at areas which are located close to the fields of raw
materials. For example, many iron and steel industries are located near the iron and coal fields.
Industries dealing with the manufacturing of perishable goods are located close to the source of raw
materials. For example, sugarcane industries are located close to the sugarcane fields as the sucrose
content of sugarcane starts drying up after 24 hours of its harvest.
 Water Supply: Industries require water while manufacturing goods. For example, water is used in
textile industries for bleaching and washing purposes. Thus, many industries are located close to the
sources of water.
 Energy: Energy is required for processing raw materials into manufactured goods. Thus, many
industries are located close to the coal fields. Industries are also located in regions where energy
power resources are readily and cheaply available.
 Transport: Transport is required for carrying raw materials to manufacturing units. It is also required
for transporting finished goods to markets. Thus, many industries are located near the port cities which
are also well-connected by road and rail to major towns and market cities.
 Labour: The availability of skilled and unskilled labour is an important factor which decides the
location of industries. Thus, many industries are located at places where cheap labour is readily
available.
 Proximity to Markets: Industries require markets to sell off their finished goods. For example, heavy
industries are located in an industrial area as their products are required by other small industries.
 Climate: It plays an important role in determining the location of agro-based industries. For example,
many cotton textile mills are located in Mumbai and Gujarat as it has a favourable climate which is
required for storing and manufacturing cotton yarn.
Commercial factors deciding the location of industries are
 Policies of the Government: The policies of the government play an important role in deciding the
location of industries. The government makes rules and regulations for the supply of water and
electricity. Further, it formulates policies for protecting and encouraging indigenous industries.
 Capital: Many industries are located in the big cities where most financers and investors are present.
Thus, many big cities are also major industrial centres.
 Organisational Skills: Organisational skills and technical knowledge are required for running any
industry. As a result, we find that many industries are located near educational and management
institutes to hire skilled people.

Classification of Industries
Industries Classification on the basis of Examples
Agro-based: Use agricultural Raw materials Agro-based: Cotton textiles and
products as raw materials tea industry
Mineral-based: Use minerals as Mineral-based: Iron and steel
raw materials industry
Forest-based: Use forest Forest-based: Wood industry
products as raw materials Animal-based: Silk and woollen
Animal-based: Use raw industry
materials provided by animals
Heavy industries: Manufacture Nature of product Heavy industries: Iron and steel
heavy and bulky goods industry
Light industries: Produce Light industries: Bottle
lightweight goods industries
Large-scale industries: Has Size and investments Large-scale industries: Iron and
huge infrastructure and steel Industry
requires large capital Medium-scale industries: Paper
investments mills
Medium-scale industries: Are Small-scale industries: Weaving
neither big nor small industry
Small-scale industries: Are
small and have only small
capital investments
Public sector industries: Ownership Public sector industries: IOC
Owned by the government and SAIL
Private sector industries: Private sector industries:
Owned by individuals Reliance and Wipro
Joint sector industries: Owned Cooperative sector industries:
and managed by both Maruti Suzuki and Exide
government and private Industries
individuals Joint sector industries: AMUL
Cooperative sector industries: and IFFCO
Owned by producers and
distributers collectively
Distribution of Industrial Regions
Major industrial belts in India are

a. The Hooghly Belt: This industrial belt has many jute textiles, cotton textiles, chemicals, engineering,
paper, leather industries etc. Kolkata is a major city in this belt. Proximity to the coal and iron ore
mines of Jharkhand and Bihar, cheap labour, freshwater of River Hooghly has made this an important
industrial belt of the region.

b. The Mumbai–Pune Belt: Cotton textile mills, oil refineries, chemical and fertiliser industries etc. are
located in this belt. Development of hydroelectricity in the Sahyadris and the availability of cheap
labour from Gujarat and Maharashtra have made this an important industrial belt. Further, the port of
Mumbai facilitates the transport facilities in and out of the region.
c. The Ahmedabad–Vadodara Region: Ahmedabad has emerged as a major centre of cotton textile
industries. This region has many industries such as chemical and fertiliser industries, plastics
industries and engineering industries for goods and services. Availability of skilled and unskilled labour
has made it an important industrial region.

d. The Chennai–Coimbatore–Bengaluru Region: Cheap and skilled labour, availability of cotton and
large markets have made this region an important industrial belt. Chennai, Coimbatore and Madurai
are important centres of the belt.

e. The Chotanagpur Plateau Region: This region covers parts of West Bengal and Jharkhand. This
region is rich in minerals such as iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite and mica. Jamshedpur, Bokaro
and Durgapur are some important centres of steel production. Asansol, Ranchi and Dhanbad are
some important centres of metallurgy and heavy industries. Because of the presence of rich deposits
in this region, many industries are located here.

f. The Mathura–Delhi–Saharanpur–Ambala Region: Two separate belts between Faridabad and

Ambala in Haryana and Mathura and Saharanpur in Uttar Pradesh merge in and around Delhi. The
region has cotton textile, glass industry, chemicals and fertilisers, sugar and engineering industries.
Cheap availability of raw materials, good transport system and large markets have led to the
establishment of many industries in the region.

Agro-Based Industries
The sugar industry is the second largest organised industry next to cotton textile industries. Sugarcane is
a cash crop.
Products of sugarcane industries are sugar, gur and khandsari. Its by-products are
 Molasses: It is obtained during the process of manufacturing sugar. It is used in the alcohol industry
for the distillation of liquor and for producing certain chemicals and synthetic rubber.
 Bagasse: It is the leftover cane. It is used for producing steam which is a source of power for the
sugarcane industry and is used for making wax, carbon paper and shoe polish.
 Press mud is used for making wax, carbon paper and shoe polish.

Distribution of Sugar Industries

 As Maharashtra is the leading producer of sugar in India, the state has 119 sugar mills. Most of the
mills are large.
 Uttar Pradesh is the second largest producer of sugarcane in India. Sugarcane factories are located in
two belts—the Ganga Yamuna Doab (Saharanpur, Meerut, Bualndshahar and Ghaziabad) and the
Terai belt (Basti, Gonda, Gorakhpur etc).
 Other northern Indian states where sugar mills are located are Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and
Gujarat.
 Peninsular India has emerged as a leading producer of sugar in India. Tamil Nadu has become the
leading producer of sugar in the region because of higher per hectare yield of sugarcane, higher
sucrose content and long crushing season.
 Sugar factories are also located in Andhra Pradesh (Hyderabad, Vijayawada, Chittoor etc.) and
Karnataka (Belgaum, Bellary, Bijapur etc.).

Sugar Industries have Shifted to the South because

 The climate of South India is free from the effects of summer loo and winter frost which are suitable for
growing superior varieties of sugarcane. The production period is also long.
 Black soil is more fertile than the alluvial soil of north India. The sugarcane here is of superior quality
with higher yield.
 The excellent transport facilities in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu have resulted in an increased number
of sugarcane mills in these regions.
 The sugarcane farmers in South India have bigger area and are managed by cooperative societies.

Problems Faced by Sugarcane Industries

 Growth of poor quality of sugarcane with low sucrose content.
 High cost of production because of low yield and short crushing season.
 As maximum sugarcane is harvested at the same time, there is pressure on industries during the
harvest time.
 The supply of raw materials to sugar industries is irregular as no plantation industry exists around the
factories.
 Old and obsolete machinery is used in the sugar industry which has not been replaced by new
machinery and modern technology.

Cotton Textile Industries

India is the third largest cotton textile manufacturing country in the world after USA and UK. It is also the
third largest exporter of cotton textiles. Nearly 40% of the country’s labour force is supported by this major
industry.
Many cotton textile industries are located in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. They produce three-
fourths of the total output of yarn. The remaining one-fourth is produced by West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
The cotton textile industry is located in almost all the Indian states. About half of the total cotton mills are
located in Mumbai and Ahmedabad. Mumbai is known as the ‘cottonpolis’ of India as it is the most
important centre of cotton production. Mumbai and Ahmedabad have emerged as the most important
manufacturing centres because of the following reasons:
 Both cities are located close to the cotton-growing areas of the Deccan Plateau.
 Humid coastal climate have favoured the establishment in industries in both cities.
 Connectivity of Mumbai and Ahmedabad by rail and road routes to cotton-growing regions and by sea
routes to foreign markets.
 Mumbai is the main port city and Ahmedabad uses port facilities from Kandla.
 Many big and large financial centres are located in Mumbai and Ahmedabad.
 Power supply in Mumbai and Ahmedabad is mostly regular. While power is supplied by the Tata
hydroelectric system in Mumbai, Ukai and Kakrapara hydroelectric projects supply electricity to
Gujarat.
Problems Faced by Cotton Textile Industries
 The yarn in India is produced by small industries and units which largely cater to the local markets.
Thus, while many spinners export cotton yarn, many garment manufacturers have to import fabric.
Therefore, there is a mismatch between the two.
 Most of the machinery installed in the cotton mills are outdated and need to be replaced.
 Irregular power supply has hampered the production.
 Uncertainty in procuring raw materials, low labour productivity, lack of modernisation etc. are some
problems because of which sugar industries are running into loss.
 The cotton industry is facing tough competition from the fibre industry.

Handloom and Khadi Industries

It is one of the oldest industries in India. The industry provides employment to about 10 million people and
contributes over 23% of the total cloth production in the country. The khadi and handloom industries are
located in many Indian states such as Tamil Nadu, Manipur, West Bengal, Nagaland, Kerala, Madhya
Pradesh, Karnataka and Rajasthan.

Problems Faced by Khadi and Handloom Industries

 Insufficient and inferior quality of raw materials
 Lack of technical skills among poor craftsmen
 Old and obsolete technology used in the industries
 Goods which are produced are no match to modern fast-changing fashion and designs
 Stiff competition faced by mill-made cloth
 Lack of capital and cheap credit facilities

Silk Textile Industries

India is one of the largest producers of silk in the world. It manufactures four varieties of silk—mulberry,
eri, tussar and muga. The first modern silk industry was set up at Howrah by the East India Company.

Mulberry Silk
Mulberry silk accounts for about 90% of the total natural produced silk in India. Mulberry silk is produced
from silkworms which are reared from mulberry trees. Rearing of silkworm for producing silk is known as
sericulture. Mulberry silk is produced mainly in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu
and Jammu and Kashmir.

Distribution
Regions producing mulberry silk are

States Regions
Karnataka Bengaluru, Mysore, Kolar, Mandya, Belgaum and
Coorg
Andhra Pradesh Chittoor, Warangal, Karimnagar, Vishakhapatnam
and Anantnagar
West Bengal Malda, Murshidabad, Birbhum and Bankura
Tamil Nadu Coimbatore, Dharmapuri, Nilgiris, Salem and
Tirunelveli
Bihar and Jharkhand (produce tussar silk) Bhagalpur, Palamau, Hazaribagh and Ranchi
Assam (produce tussar, eri and muga) Goalpara, Kamrup and Nagaon
Problems Faced by the Silk Industry
 Competition from artificial silk
 Import of better quality and cheap raw silk from China
 No systematic testing and grading of silk
 Lack modern power looms for increasing production

Woollen Industry
More than 80% of woollen mills are located in
northern India. The main centres of woollen
production are Delhi, Srinagar, Kanpur, Dhariwal,
Mumbai, Ahmedabad and Gwalior. The woollen
industry in India is not as developed as cotton
textile industries because the demand for woollen
clothes is less as they are required only for three
to four winter months mainly in northern India.
Peninsular India does not experience extreme
winters; hence, the demand for woollen clothes in
these regions is low.

Problems Faced by the Woollen

Industry
 India is a tropical country, and hence, woollen
clothes are required only during winter months
in northern India.
 Many people in India are poor and cannot
spend on purchasing costly woollen clothes.
 Good quality of wool in India has to be
imported.
 Synthetic fibres are replacing woollen
industries.
 Because cotton and synthetic clothes are
more in demand, capitalists prefer to invest in Map showing major textile industries in India
cotton industries.
Many steps have been taken to improve the woollen industry in India. The government has started
encouraging the production of good quality wool in India. Various sheep-breeding farms have been set up
in northwest India. Merino and Corriedale sheep are imported and reared in the country.

Jute Industry
It is the second important agro-based industry in India after the cotton textiles industry. It is one of the
principal earners of foreign exchange.
The jute industry produces gunny bags, hessian, coarse carpets, rugs and cordage. Jute fibres are also
used for packing goods.

Distribution
The jute industry is mainly centred in the Hooghly region as jute is largely grown in the Ganga Delta and
in the Lower Ganga Valley. Other important jute-growing areas in Bengal are Howrah, Titagarh, Jagatal,
Serampore, Bansberia and Sibpur. Jute mills are also located in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
Odisha and Madhya Pradesh.

Factors Promoting the Jute Industry around Kolkata

 The Hooghly valley is a part of the Ganga Valley where jute is predominantly grown.
 The Ganga Brahmaputra Delta has fertile soil which gets renewed every year. This has increased jute
production.
 Humid climate and rainfall ranging 175–200 cm favour the growth of jute crop.
 Plenty of freshwater for retting and cleaning is available from the River Hooghly.
 Availability of labour from the neighbouring areas of Odisha and Uttar Pradesh has led to the growth of
jute industries in the region.
 Kolkata is a port city and is well-connected to the other parts of the country by rail and road.

Problems Faced by the Jute Industry

 After Independence, nearly 70% of jute-producing areas went to Bangladesh. Thus, the industry
suffers from inadequate supply of jute.
 The jute industry in India faces tough competition from Bangladesh, Brazil, Egypt and Thailand.
 The industry is equipped with old and obsolete machinery. Costs of production have also risen.
 Products of paper, plastic and hemp are widely used today as substitutes of jute products.

Remedial Steps Taken by the Government

 A Jute Consultative Council has been set up to advice the government on the jute industry.
 Many research programmes have been undertaken to extend the range of jute products. Some new
jute products are tarpaulins, jute carpets etc.
 Modern machinery has begun to be installed in jute industries.
 Steps have been taken by the government to stabilise jute prices.
 Natural Vegetation of India
Natural Vegetation

Natural vegetation is vegetation which grows in the region all by itself without the interference of human
activity. There is a thin line of difference between flora and forests.
Flora refers to the listed species of plants. Forest refers to a large tract of land covered with trees and
shrubs.
Natural vegetation of a region is influenced by several factors such as temperature, rainfall and altitude.
India has a variety of forests and natural vegetation which differ from region to region.

Tropical Evergreen Forests

Climatic Conditions: The tropical evergreen forests grow in regions
which receive more than 250 cm of annual rainfall. The average annual
temperature ranges between 25°C and 27°C.
Distribution: These forests are found in areas of heavy rainfall in the
Western Ghats, the Lakshadweep, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
upper parts of Assam and the coast of Tamil Nadu.

Characteristic Features
 Trees in the tropical evergreen forests may reach up to the height of
60 metres or more. There is rich growth of plant life because the All the trees in the evergreen forests do not
shed their leaves at the same time. Hence,
region receives more than 200 cm rainfall. they always appear green.
 There is no definite season for plants to shed their leaves. All trees
do not shed their leaves at the same time. Hence, these forests always appear green.

Important Species of Trees and their Uses

 Rosewood: It is used for making furniture and is used as decorative wood for carving and for making
ornamental ply boards.
 Ebony: It is used for ornamental carving and for making musical instruments, sports goods, piano keys
and caskets.
 Chaplas: It is used for ship building and making furniture and packing boxes.
 Gurjan: It is used for construction work, for making packing boxes, tea boxes, panelling and flooring. It
is also used for carriage and wagon construction.
 Telsur: It is used for making bridges, boats and carts.
 Sissoo: As the wood is hard and heavy, it is used in construction, furniture making and for making
bullock carts, agricultural implements and musical instruments.
 Toon: It is used for making tea boxes, toys and furniture.

Tropical Deciduous Forests

Climatic Conditions: These forests grow in regions which receive rainfall between 200 cm and 100 cm.
The annual temperature varies from 24°C to 27°C.
Distribution: These forests are found in West Odisha, eastern slopes of the Western Ghats,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and northeastern states of the country.
Characteristic Features
 These forests are also known as monsoon forests. These forests are largely found in India.
 Based on the availability of water, these forests can be classified into moist deciduous forests and dry
deciduous forests.
 The trees of the forest shed their leaves from six to eight weeks to conserve water.
 Tropical deciduous forests are commercially exploited and provide valuable timber.

Important Species of Trees and their Uses

 Sal: It is used for making beams, doors and window posts.
 Teak: It is hard and durable and thus is used in construction, ship building, making furniture, railway
carriages and bridges.
 Shisham: Its wood is hard and durable. It is used in construction, furniture making and for making
bullock carts, agricultural implements and musical instruments. It is also used for decorative
ornamental carving.
 Mahua: Oil is extracted from its fruit, while wine is made from its flowers.
 Palas: Its leaves are used for rearing shellac worms.
 Semul: As its timber is soft and white, it is used for making toys, packing cases, match boxes and
plywood. A soft fibre is yielded from its fruit which is used in pillows.
 Sandalwood: It is used for making statues and ornamental objects. It is used in making aromatic
substances and for extracting sandalwood oil. It is in great demand in India and abroad.
 Khair: Its hard wood is used for making ploughs, handles for knives, daggers and swords.
 Axlewood: It is used for making furniture, kitchen cabinets, radio and TV cabinets and wardrobes.

Differences between evergreen and deciduous forests:

Tropical evergreen forests Deciduous forests
Tropical evergreen forests are found in regions Deciduous forests are found in regions which
which receive more than 200 cm of rainfall. receive rainfall of 200–70 cm.
The trees of the tropical evergreen forests do not The trees of the deciduous forests shed their
shed their leaves at the same time as there is no leaves for about six to eight months during the dry
particular season for shedding leaves. season.
The tropical evergreen forests are dense. These forests are less dense.
These forests are found in the Andaman and These forests are found in the northeastern
Nicobar Islands, the Lakshadweep, upper parts states, parts of central India, West Odisha and
of Assam and Tamil Nadu and on the western Chhattisgarh.
slopes of the Western Ghats.
Some species of trees are ebony, mahogany, Some species of trees are sandalwood, teak and
rosewood and rubber. sal.

Tropical Desert Forests

Climatic Conditions: This vegetation occurs in regions which receive less than 70 cm of rainfall. The
temperature ranges between 25°C and 27°C.
Distribution: This kind of vegetation is found in the northwestern parts of India such as semi-arid regions
of Gujarat and Rajasthan. It is found in southwestern Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh and parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Characteristic Features
 The trees are stunted with large patches of coarse grasses.
 Plants have long roots which go out deep into the soil in search of water. Leaves are waxy, small and
thick to reduce transpiration.
 Main species of trees are acacias, palms, euphorbia and cacti.
Important Species of Trees and their Uses
 Ber: Its fruit is used for making beverages and pickles. Its wood is used for boat ribs, agricultural
implements and charcoal.
 Babool: The tree’s bark and gum have medicinal value.
 Date palm: It is used as an astringent. Its syrup is used for treating sore throat, cold and fever.
 Neem: It has medicinal properties. It is effective in treating diabetes, allergies, ulcers and several other
diseases.

Littoral Forests
Climatic Conditions: These forests are found in wet marshy areas, in river deltas and swampy areas
along the sea coasts.
Distribution: They are mainly found in the deltas of large rivers on the eastern coast and in saline
swamps of the Sundarbans in West Bengal and the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.
Characteristic Features
 These forests have evergreen species of trees generally varying in height.
 The trunks of trees are supported by several stilt roots which are submerged under water. There is
also a rich growth of climbers.
Important Species of Trees
 Some important species of trees are keora, amur, sundari, bhara and canes.
 Mangrove trees are used for fuel.
 Sundari trees are used for construction purposes and in boat making.

Montane Forests
Montane forests grow in the mountainous regions. As the temperature decreases with an increase in
height, there is change in the cover of natural vegetation on altitude. Montane forests can be divided into
two types—Northern Montane forests and Southern Montane forests.
Northern Mountain Forests
The Northern Montane forests include the Himalayan moist temperate forests, Himalayan dry temperate
forests and Alpine forests.
Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests
Climatic Conditions: They are found in regions which receive rainfall between 100 cm and 300 cm. The
temperature ranges between 12°C and 13°C.
Distribution: These are found in the Himalayan zone from Kashmir to Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.
Characteristic Features
 These forests have mixed species of broad-leafed evergreen trees and conifers.
 These forests also contain scrubs, creepers and ferns.
Important Species of Trees
Some important species of trees are oak, fir, spruce, deodar, cedar, maple, yew and birch. The timber of
the forests is used for commercial purposes.

Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests

Climatic Conditions: These forests occur in areas receiving less than 100 cm rainfall and are found at a
height above 1500 m.
Distribution: They are mainly found in Ladakh, Chamba, Sikkim and in the inner Garhwal regions.
Important Species of trees are ash, junipers, maple and oak. The timber obtained from these forests is
used for construction work and for making light furniture.
Alpine Forests
Climatic Conditions: These forests are found at an altitude of 2800–4000 m.
Distribution: These forests are found in high altitudes of the Himalayas running from the northwest to the
northeast frontiers.
Characteristic Features
 Deciduous forests are found at the
foothills of the Himalayas.
 Between the heights of 1000 to 2000 m,
wet temperate types of forests are
found. Trees are broad leaf such as oak
and chestnut.
 Temperate forests are found at 1500–
3000 m. Coniferous trees pre-dominate
in this region. Pine, cedar, fir, deodar
and spruce are some important species
of trees. These forests are found in the
southern slopes of the Himalayan
mountains.
 At higher altitudes, temperate
grasslands are found.
 Above 3600 m, Alpine vegetation can
be found. Silver fir, pines, junipers and
birches are some important species of
trees. However, at still higher latitudes,
their growth is stunted.
 At higher altitudes, mosses and lichens
are found which forms part of the
Tundra vegetation.
Map showing the distribution of natural vegetation in India
Important species of trees are silver
juniper, pine, birch, chestnut, oak and fir.
The trees yield valuable timber which is used for making furniture, wood pulp and plywood.

Southern Mountain Forests

Climatic Conditions: They are found in regions receiving annual rainfall of more than 150 cm. The
temperature of the region ranges between 18°C and 24°C.
Distribution: These forests are found in the Vindhyas, Nilgiris and Western Ghats.
Characteristic Features
 These forests have both tropical and temperate vegetation.
 It is because the hilly regions located closer to the tropics have temperate vegetation, while lower
regions of the Western Ghats have sub tropical forests.
Important species of trees are laurel, wattle, plum and magnolia.
Uses of Some Important Species of Mountain Trees
 Deodar: It is used for construction work.
 Chir: The wood is reddish brown and is used for making tea chests, furniture and match boxes.
 Blue Pine: It is used for making doors, windows and furniture.
 Spruce: Its soft wood is used for construction work and for making cabinets, match boxes and
furniture.
 Walnut: Its wood is used for making musical instruments and cabinets. It is mostly used in Kashmir
and North India for carving. It is also used for gun stocks.
 Birch: It is used for making furniture, plywood and radio cabinets.
 Cypress: It has durable wood which is used for making furniture.
 Jamun: It is used for making furniture and cabinets, and in construction.

Forests and Environment

Forests affect our environment in the following ways:

 They play an important role in controlling humidity, temperature and precipitation.
 They help in maintaining the purity of air by absorbing carbon dioxide.
 They control soil erosion, soil degradation and prevent droughts and floods.
 Forests help in water percolation.
 Decayed leaves of plants provide humus to the soil and increase its fertility.
 They provide habitation to plants and animals.

Many factors have resulted in the depletion of forest cover or deforestation. Some of these are
 Rapid growth of population has resulted in clearing land for cultivation activities
 Many forests have been cleared to convert them into pasture lands
 Overgrazing
 Increasing demand for timber for industrial expansion and urbanisation
 Construction of multipurpose river valleys has led to the submergence of lands and destruction of
forests

Conservation of Forests
Some forest conservation methods are
 Afforestation or special programmes like ‘Van Mahotsav’ should be launched and celebrated on a
large scale. This will create awareness among the people regarding the protection of forests. One of
the other ways of making people aware is the celebration of festivals should begin with a tree
plantation.
 The government should cautiously give permit to contractors for the cutting of timber.
 One of the ways in which tribals protect the forests is by declaring a large patch of forests as ‘sacred
groves’. Because these are worshipped by the government, trees in the sacred groves are considered
sacred and are not allowed to be cut.
 An important factor which contributes towards the conservation of forests is the Joint Forest
Management (JFM). Local communities are involved in the management of degrading forests. This
programme has been in existence since 1998. Because local communities undertake the responsibility
of forest protection, they are given rights to use non-timber products and get a share in timber
harvests by successful protection of forests. States such as Odisha and Gujarat have been practising
forest conservation through JFM.
 Developmental activities should be environment-friendly. If timber is required for any project, then the
same or more number of trees which are felled should be planted.
 Building of many multipurpose dams also leads to the submergence of land and forest area. Building
of small check dams and reservoirs goes a long way not only in providing water to farmers for
irrigation but also in recharging the groundwater. This will ensure that forest cover is not depleted
because of the building of large dams.
 Using alternative sources of energy such as solar energy, wind power and tidal energy results in
saving wood which is commonly used as a source of energy in the rural areas.
National Forest Policy
The National Forest Policy was adopted in 1952 by the government of India. The policy gives importance
to sustainable forest management to conserve forests. Important objectives of the National Forest Policy
are
 To maintain the stability of the environment by preservation and restoration of ecological balance
 To check soil erosion and denudation in the catchment areas of rivers, lakes and reservoirs
 To increase the productivity of forests to meet essential national needs
 To create people’s movement on a large-scale involving women for preserving forests
 To conserve natural heritage of the country by preserving natural forests, flora and fauna.

Social Forestry

Social forestry refers to the management and protection of forests with the help of local communities.
Three components of social forestry are
 To recognise, restore and reallocate the forest lands to the inhabitants for the management and
protection of forests.
 The forest department works in close cooperation with local communities.
 To develop the required social and economic system to achieve the above aims.

Important Objectives of Social Forestry

 To provide wood, fodder, timber and other minor forest produce to rural people
 To develop local cottage industries by providing raw materials
 To conserve soil and water
 To increase agricultural production by using cow dung as manure

Features of Social Forestry

 Planting trees with the help and support of local communities
 Using fallow lands to take away the pressure on forest lands
 Practising sustainable forestry with short crop rotation
 Distributing the benefits derived from various projects based on forestry among local communities

Agro Forestry

Agro forestry is an agricultural practice which involves the cultivation of trees. It is a land management
system in which trees or shrubs are planted and grown among crops or in pasturelands.

Objectives of Agro forestry

Objectives of agro forestry are
 To make the best use of all the available resources such as soil
 To obtain various forest products and agricultural crops on the same piece of land
 To check the possibility of soil erosion and floods by planting trees in crop lands
 To maintain the ecological balance along with proper use of farm resources

In traditional forestry, only trees are grown; however, in agroforestry, trees along with crops are planted.
Agro forestry is also able to withstand the pressure of increasing population unlike traditional forestry.
Agro forestry is a scientific system of managing land with the help of local communities which is absent in
traditional forestry.
 Minerals in India
Minerals
Minerals are naturally occurring, homogeneous substances with definite chemical composition. Based on
chemical and physical properties, minerals can be divided into metallic and non-metallic minerals.
Differences between metallic and non-metallic minerals are

Metallic Minerals Non-metallic Minerals

Metallic minerals contain metal in the raw form. Non-metallic minerals do not contain metals.
These metals are generally associated with These metals are generally associated with
igneous rocks. sedimentary rocks.
They are usually hard and have a shine of their They are not usually hard and have no shine of
own. their own.

Examples: Iron, copper, bauxite, tin Examples: Salt, coal, mica, clay

Characteristics of Minerals
Main characteristics of minerals are
 Minerals are not evenly distributed on the surface of the Earth.
 Minerals are exhaustible. Because they cannot be replenished immediately, they need to be
conserved.
 All minerals do not have uniform properties. They have different chemical compositions.
 Minerals differ with each other in colour, lustre and texture.

Minerals in India

India is rich in many minerals because of its varied geological structure. Some commonly found minerals
in India are coal, bauxite, mica, iron ore and manganese.
Coal
 Coal occurs in the sedimentary rocks. It was formed when plants and ferns were buried in the swamp
forests. Heat and pressure exerted by many layers which were formed over these decayed plants
resulted in many physical and chemical changes.
 Coal contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and small amounts of phosphorus and sulphur.
 Depending on the amount of carbon, moisture and volatile matter present, coal can be classified into
four categories—anthracite, bituminous, lignite and peat.
Anthracite
 It is the hardest and highest quality coal as it has a carbon content of over 90% and burns slowly
without smoke.
 It leaves very little ash behind and has a high heating value.
Bituminous
 Its carbon content varies from 50% to 80%.
 It is hard and black. It makes up about 80% of the
total coal output in the world.
 It is widely used for household purposes.
 It is popularly used in various industries. High
grade bituminous coal is used in blast furnaces
for smelting iron.

Lignite
 It is a low grade coal also known as brown coal.
 It is soft with high moisture content.

Peat
 It has the least carbon content and is inferior to
the other three varieties of coal.
 It represents the first stage of transformation of
wood into coal.

Uses of Coal
 It is used in thermal power plants for generating
electricity.
 It is used as a source of heat and energy for
domestic purposes. Map showing major coal fields and coal mines in India
 It is used for manufacturing iron and steel. It is
used as raw material in many industries.
 Chemicals such as ammonia and benzol are obtained as by-products from the gases which are
released when the coal is burnt in a closed chamber to get metallurgical coke.

Distribution
In India, coal is found in two main fields—Gondwana coalfields and tertiary coalfields. Bituminous coal is
generally found in India.

Gondwana Coalfields
 It accounts for 98% of the total coal reserves in India. It is nearly free of moisture.
 It is found in the river valleys of Damodar, Mahanadi and Godavari.
 Gondwana coal deposits are found in West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.

Tertiary Coalfields
 The coal found in the tertiary coalfields has high moisture content.
 These fields are generally found in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Nagaland.

Petroleum
Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbon compounds. It is found in underground reservoirs in sedimentary
rock formations such as sandstone, shale and limestone. Petrol, diesel, tar, kerosene, LPG and paraffin
wax are some products which are obtained during the refining process.
Uses of Petroleum
 It is used as a fuel and plays a major role in land, sea and air transport.
 After refining, petroleum is used in the production of various petrochemicals such as gasoline,
lubricating oil and printing ink.
 It is used for power generation.

Distribution
 It is found in Mumbai High which is about 176 km off Mumbai in the Arabian Sea.
 Digboi oil field in Assam is the biggest oil field in India.
 Khambhat basin in Gujarat is the main oil field. Other important oil field reserves are Kalol, Koyali,
Kosamba, Sanand, Kathana, Ankleshwar and Navgaon.
There are 21 oil refineries in India. The Reliance Petroleum Limited at Jamnagar in Gujarat was the first
oil refinery in the private sector. The Digboi oil refinery is the oldest refinery in India.

Iron Ore
Names of iron ores and their characteristics:
Varieties of Iron Ore Characteristics Distribution
Hematite It is known as ‘red ore’. Odisha, Jharkhand,
It contains 60–70% of pure iron. Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and
Maharashtra
Magnetite It is known as ‘black ore’. Tamil Nadu and Karnataka
It is the best quality of iron ore as it
contains more than 70% of iron.
It possesses magnetic property and
hence is called magnetite.
Limonite It is of inferior quality as it contains Garhwal in Uttarakhand,
35–50% of iron. Mirzapur district in Uttar
It is yellow brown. Pradesh and Kangra Valley in
Himachal Pradesh

Distribution
Main iron ore deposits in India:
States Regions Utilisation
Chhattisgarh Bailadilla in Dantewada and Durg Supply deposits to the Bhilai Iron
district and Steel Plant
Odisha Keonjhar, Mayurbhanj, Supply deposits to steel plants
Sambalpur, Sundergarh, Cuttack, located at Durgapur, Bokaro,
Koratpur Jamshedpur, Asansol and
Rourkela
Karnataka Bababudan Hills in Chikmaglur, Supply raw materials to
Sandur, Bellary, Hospet, Bhadravati iron works
Shimoga and Chitradurga
districts
Goa North Goa -
Andhra Pradesh Anantapur, Khammam, Krishna, -
Kurnool, Kadapa and Nellore
Tamil Nadu Salem, North Arcot, -
Tiruchirappalli, Coimbatore and
 Madurai
Maharashtra Ratnagiri and Chandrapur -
districts
Rajasthan Moriza in Bhilwada and Udaipur -
districts

Manganese
It is a black, hard metal which is mainly used as a raw material for smelting iron ore and is used for
manufacturing ferro alloys.

Uses of Manganese
 It is an important raw material in the iron and steel industry as it is used for hardening steel and
prevents it from rusting.
 It is used in dry cell batteries.
 It is used in forming many alloys.
 It is used in chemical, glass and electrical industries.

Distribution
Main deposits of manganese in India are located in the following states:
States Regions
Andhra Pradesh Adilabad, Vishakhapatnam and Vizianagaram
Goa Sanguem
Jharkhand Singhbhum, Palamau and Chaibasa
Karnataka Sandur, Shimoga, Chitradurga, Bellary, North
Kanara, Tumkur, Belgaum and Davangere
Madhya Pradesh Chhindwara, Balaghat, Mandla, Jabalpur
Maharashtra Nagpur and Bhandara
Odisha Keonjhar, Mayurbhanj, Talcher, Sundargarh, Bonai
and Koratpur
Rajasthan Banswara, Udaipur and Pali

Bauxite
It is an oxide of aluminium.
Uses of Bauxite
 Aluminium is extracted from bauxite. It is lightweight, strong and rust-resistant metal.
 Aluminium is used in aircraft, automobiles, shipping industry and household appliances.
 Because aluminium is a good conductor of electricity, it is used in the electrical industry.

Distribution
Main deposits of bauxite in India are located in the following states:
States Regions
Goa Mopa and Pernem
Odisha Kalahandi and Sambalpur
Gujarat Jamnagar, Kaira, Surat and Kachchh
Madhya Pradesh Jabalpur, Balaghat, Shahdol, Mandla and Amarkantak Plateau
Chhattisgarh Durg, Bilaspur, Raigarh
Jharkhand Palamau, Ranchi
Maharashtra Thane, Kolhapur, Ratnagiri, Satara
Karnataka Belgaum, mainly at Karle Hills
Tamil Nadu Salem, Nilgiri, Madurai, Coimbatore

The largest integrated aluminium plant is located at Renukoot in Uttar Pradesh. It gets its supply of
bauxite from Amarkantak Plateau and Ranchi.

Limestone
It is a non-metallic mineral. It is formed by the deposition and hardening of skeletons, remains of animals
and shells. It is found in almost every state of India.

Uses of Limestone
 It is used as a flux in the iron and steel industry.
 It is mainly used in the cement industry.
 It is used in manufacturing quicklime and slaked lime.
 It is used to suppress methane explosions in underground coal mines.
 It is used in the production of chemicals, paper, glass and fertilisers.
 Industries in India
Mineral-Based Industries in India
Industries which use minerals as raw materials are known as mineral-based industries.

Iron and Steel Industry

The opening of the Tata Iron and Steel Company in Jamshedpur in 1907 was an important event in the
history of industrialisation in India. At
present, India is the fifth largest
producer of crude steel in the world.

Raw Materials
Iron ore, manganese, limestone,
silica, feldspar, scrap iron and flux
are important raw materials used in
the iron and steel industry. Coking
coal for the industry is obtained from
Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro, Giridha and
Korba. Manganese is used for
hardening the steel and for removing
impurities.

Steel Making
Iron ore exists with impurities such as
sulphur, silica and lime. These
impurities have to be removed to
obtain pure iron for manufacturing
steel. The following process is used
for converting iron ore to steel.

Ore Reduction
 The process of ore reduction is
carried out in the blast furnace.
Coke, limestone and dolomite are
added to combine impurities in Map of India showing some major iron and steel plants in India
the ore.
 These impurities combine to form slag which floats on the molten iron and can be separated from it.
 Molten iron is then collected at the base of the furnace which is removed at regular intervals.
 This product is known as pig iron which can later be converted to wrought iron, steel and cast iron.
Steel Melting Furnace
 To convert pig iron into steel, impurities are removed by deoxidation.
 Hardening material such as carbon is then added.
Rolling Mills
 The steel is cast into ingots and rolled into different sizes.
Tata Iron and Steel Plant at Jamshedpur
Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) is located at Jamshedpur about 240 km northwest of Kolkata.

Availability of Raw Materials

 The plant gets iron ore from the Gurumahisani mines in Mayurbhanj district of Odisha and from the
Noamundi mines in Singbhum district of Jharkhand.
 The plant obtains manganese from Joda in Keonjhar district and limestone, dolomite and fire clay from
the Sundargarh district of Odisha.
 Coal is received from Jharia and Bokaro coalfields which are located at a distance of about 177 km.

Power Supply: Coal, the main source of power supply, comes from Jharia and Bokaro coal fields.

Water Supply: Water from the rivers Kharkai and Subarnarekha is used in the plant.

Labour Force: Most labour force comes from the densely populated states of Bihar, West Bengal,
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Uttar Pradesh.

Markets: Kolkata is an important market of finished steel.

Transport Facilities: Jamshedpur is well-connected with roads and railways to the other parts of the
country. It is connected with Eastern Railways and Kolkata Port for exporting steel.

Products: High-grade carbon steel and acid steel are used for making railway wheels, axles, bars and
rods. The plant also produces special alloy steel.

Other Large Iron and Steel Plants

Name of the Location Availability of Raw Power Water Supply Products
Plant Materials Supply
Bokaro Steel Hazaribagh District Coal: Bokaro and Damodar Reservoirs Pig iron, crude steel
Plant Jharia Valley across River and saleable steel.
(set up in Iron ore: Kiriburu mines Corporation Damodar Its sludge and slag
assistance with in Keonjhar (Odisha) (DVC) is used for making
Russia) Limestone: - fertilisers at Sindri.
Bhavantapura
Dolomite: Palamau
district of Jharkhand
Durgapur Steel Burdwan district of Iron ore: Singhbhum Coal for River Damodar Alloy steel and
Plant West Bengal (Jharkhand) and power railway items such
(set up in Keonjhar (Odisha) supply is as wheels. Also
assistance with Coal: Jharia obtained produces crude coal
UK) (Jharkhand) and from Jharia tar and crude
Raniganj (West coalfields benzol.
Bengal) and
Damodar
Valley
Corporation
Bhilai Iron and Durg district of Iron ore: Dalli Rajhara Coal is Reservoir Heavy rails, billets,
Steel Plant Chhattisgarh mines (Chhattisgarh) obtained located at rolled wires,
(set up in Limestone: Nandini from Tendula structural beams
assistance with Manganese: Balaghat Bokaro, and plates for the
Russia) mines in Madhya Karagati shipbuilding
Pradesh and Jharia industry. It also
 coal fields in produces by-
Jharkhand products such as
and Korba ammonium
in sulphate, benzol,
Chhattisgarh coal tar and
sulphate acid.
Rourkela Steel Sundargarh district of Iron ore: Sundargarh Coal is Mandira dam Hot rolled sheets,
Plant Odisha and Keonjhar (Odisha) obtained across River galvanised sheets
Manganese: Barajmda from Jharia, Sankha and and electrical steel
Limestone: Talcher and River plates. Also
Bhirmitrapur Korba fields. Mahanadi produces nitrogen
Dolomite: Baradwar Electricity is which is used as
obtained fertiliser.
from
Hirakud
Project.
Indian Iron and Burnpur, Hirapur and Iron ore: Singbhum and Coal: Jharia River Damodar Pig iron and iron
Steel Company Kulti near Asansol in Mayurbhanj coal fields, and steel
northwest Kolkata Limestone and Damodar
dolomite: Sundargarh Valley
district in Odisha Corporation
Manganese: Jharkhand
Visvesvaraya Bhadravati in Shimoga Iron ore: Kemmangundi Charcoal is - Alloy steel, ferro
Iron and Steel district in Karnataka mines (Chikmagalur obtained silicon, cement, mild
Limited district) from nearby steel and casting
Limestone: Bhudiguda forests of
Manganese: Shimoga Malnad
and Chitradurga area.
Electricity is
obtained
from
Shravati
Power
Project.
Vijayanagar Torangal near Hospet Iron ore: Hospet Coal fields Tungabhadra Ingot steel
Steel Plant in Bellary in Karnataka Limestone and of the reservoir and
dolomite: Gulbarga and Kanhan Tungabhadra
Bijapur Valley (MP) project
and
Singareni
coalfields
(Andhra
Pradesh)
Vishakhapatnam Vishakhapatnam in Iron ore: Bailadila in Coal fields Liquid steel,
Steel Plant Andhra Pradesh Chhattisgarh of Damodar saleable steel
Limestone, dolomite Valley
and manganese: Mines
of Andhra Pradesh and
Odisha
Salem Steel Salem in Tamil Nadu Iron ore: Salem, iron Stainless steel,
Plant ore mines of Karnataka electrical steel
Coal: Neyveli
Mini Steel Plants
Mini steel plants use ferrous scrap, pig iron or sponge as their raw materials. The government is
encouraging the establishment of mini plants because they have the following advantages:
 These plants use scrap iron which is cheap and easily available.
 They use electric power and thus do not cause pollution.
 They do not require heavy investments.
 As these plants meet the demands of the local markets, they reduce the pressure on large plants.

Heavy Engineering Industries

Heavy engineering industries are important industries as they provide machinery for industries and
equipment for the agriculture, transport, mining and construction sectors.
These industries require the following:
 Bulky raw materials
 Advanced technology and large capital resources
 Huge workforce
Iron and steel industries, shipbuilding industries and automobile industries are heavy industries.

Shipbuilding Industry
Factors favouring the development of the shipbuilding industry in India are
 Because the shipbuilding industry requires bulky raw materials, it is located near the source of raw
materials.
 It requires skilled labour force.
 It is also located near deep waters which can be used for navigation.
 It needs large tract of level land.

Major Shipyards
Name of the Company Features
Hindustan Shipyard Limited Located in Vishakhapatnam, it was the first
shipyard to obtain ISO-9001 accreditation. It builds
cargo vessels, passenger vessels and small craft
for ports and customs.
The Cochin Shipyard Located in Kochi, it has large docks to construct
and repair ships. It has repaired more than 1200
ships so far.
The Garden Reach Workshop Located in Kolkata, it is one of the leading
shipyards in India. It constructs ships, floating dry
docks, passenger and other types of vessels, and
fishing trawlers.
The Mazagaon Dock Limited Located in Mumbai, it builds frigates, cruisers and
other ships for the Indian navy. It also builds cargo
ships, passenger vessels and dredgers.
Automobile Industry
Four requirements of the automobile industry are
 Raw materials such as iron, steel and paint
 Tools and machinery for running and maintaining factories
 Finished goods such as tyres, tubes and batteries
 Coal and hydropower
India has several automobile units. It is the sixth largest passenger car and commercial vehicle
manufacturing country in the world.

Railway Locomotives
Railways are an important means of transport in the country. Units producing locomotives and coaches for
the railways come under the Ministry of Railways. These are
The Chittaranjan Locomotive Works: it is located at Chittaranjan in West Bengal. It manufactures
electric railway engines, broad gauge and metre gauge and diesel locomotives.
The Diesel Locomotive Works (DLW): It is located at Varanasi. It produces broad gauge and metre
gauge diesel engines.
The Integral Coach Factory: Located at Perambur near Chennai, it manufactures fully furnished
passenger coaches.
The Rail Coach Factory: It is located at Kapurthala in Punjab and produces high-speed lightweight
railway coaches.
Other plants producing diesel electrical engines are located at Jamshedpur and Patiala.

Aircraft Industry
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited was set up in 1964 with its corporate office at Bengaluru. It was the first
aircraft industry to be set up in India. Its main functions are
 To design, manufacture, repair and overhaul various types of aircraft, aero engines, avionics,
instruments and accessories.
 Design and develop advanced light helicopters and light combat aircraft.

Heavy Electrical Industry

This industry consists of the equipment used for generation, transmission, distribution and use of power. It
includes items such as generators, boilers, turbines and cables. Three main heavy electrical industries in
India are
 The Heavy Electrical Limited at Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh
 The Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited at New Delhi
 The Hindustan Cables Factory at Rupnarainpur in West Bengal

Heavy Machinery and Tools

This industry provides machines to all sectors of the economy.
The Hindustan Machine Tools at Bengaluru: It is a major manufacturer of machine tools in the country.
It also manufactures watches, tractors, printing machinery and lamp-making machinery. Some of its units
are also located at Ajmer, Mohali, Ranibagh and Pinjore. Some other heavy industries are the Heavy
Machine Tools Plant at Ranchi, Machine Tool Corporation of India and National Instruments
Factory.
Iron Implements for Agriculture is an important industry which makes agricultural implements in India.
Units of factory dealing with the manufacture of iron implements in India are set up at Ajmer, Pune, Satara
and Bhiwandi.
Electronics

The electronic industry developed in India about 1950. It is the fastest growing industry.
The Indian Telephone Industry was set up at Bengaluru in 1950. It manufactures equipment to meet the
requirements of post and telegraph departments, railways, defence and electricity boards. It also
manufactures automatic telephone switching systems and teleprinter exchanges.
The Electronic Corporation of India at Hyderabad produces modular systems for nuclear applications and
for use in medical, agricultural and industrial fields.
The Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) at Bengaluru caters to the requirements of the defence sector, All
India Radio and the Meteorological Department.

Space Technology
It is supported by the electronic industry. The Indian Space Research Organisation at Bengaluru, the
Satellite Launching Station at Sriharikota and the National Remote Sensing Agency at Hyderabad are
important industries dealing with space research and satellite launching. India has launched various
indigenous satellites such as the Apple and INSAT series. ISRO has developed rockets for putting
satellites into polar orbits. Recently, India has also undertaken a Mars orbital mission.

Software Industry
The software industry has emerged as one of the fastest growing industries in India. India has achieved
the capability of designing super computers. Indian industries also provide their expert IT services to
global markets. Bengaluru and Hyderabad are two leading centres of software industries.

Entertainment Products Industry

As a result of progress made by the electronic industry, the television and audio industries boomed in the
1990s. BPL, Videocon, Onida and Philips specialise in the sales of televisions. Many audio systems have
also captured the vast Indian markets. Mumbai, Pune, Kolkata and Chennai are the main centres of
production.

Petrochemical Industry

Petrochemical industries use raw materials which are generally the products of petroleum, LPG and coal.
These industries are located near oil refineries which can supply the basic requirements of naphtha and
benzene.
Petrochemical industries manufacture synthetic fibres, dyestuffs, synthetic rubber, plastics, drugs and
pharmaceuticals. They also produce fertilisers and insecticides. They also manufacture adhesives and
resins for industries.
Advantages of petrochemical products are that they are cheaper and can be produced on a large scale.
Raw materials are easily available. Many traditional materials have been replaced by the products of
petrochemical industries; for example, jute fibre has been replaced by synthetic fibre, steel pipes have
been replaced by PVC and jute bags have been replaced by polythene bags.

Main Petrochemical Plants

Herdillia Chemicals Limited at Chennai manufactures acetone, phenol and diacetone alcohol.
National Organic Chemicals Industries Limited is located at Thane near Mumbai. It is the first plant
which is based on latest technology. It produces ethylene, benzene and PVC.
Petrofils Cooperative Limited (PCL), a joint venture between the Weavers’ Cooperative Societies and
the Government of India, has plants located at Vadodara and Naldhari. It manufactures polyester filament,
swim suits and yarn.
India Petrochemical Cooperation near Vadodara manufactures organic chemicals and fibres.
Reliance Industries is located at Hazira in Gujarat.
Indian Oil Corporation has set up one petrochemical plant in Gujarat and two at Panipat (Haryana).