Government of Tamilnadu

Department of Employment and Training

Course : TNPSC Group I Mains Material

Subject : Geography
Topic : Basics of Geospatial Technology

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 BASICS OF GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGY

Introduction:
Geography has developed a number of methods and tools to investigate and identify
the spatial structures and patterns. Besides, it also lends or borrows some methods and
tools to measure and investigate precise understanding of the spatial locations and
patterns.
a) Mathematical Geography deals with the study of earth’s size and shape,
motions of the earth, concept of time and the time zones.
b) Statistical Geography is concerned with the practice of collecting, analysing
and presenting data that has a geographic or areal dimension, such as census
data.
c) Cartography is the study of making maps of various scales using authentic
information.
d) Remote Sensing is the art, science and technique of capturing the earth
surface features using sensors or cameras in airplanes or satellites, processing
and presenting the spatial information to users.
e) Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based tool of the
recent decades for geographical studies. It is used for storing, retrieving,
transforming, analysing, and displaying data to prepare useful thematic maps.
f) Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is used to pinpoint the
geographic location of a user anywhere in the world. Airlines, shipping, travel
agencies and automobile drivers use the system to track the vehicles and follow
the best routes to reach the destination in the shortest possible time.

Geography is undergoing frequent changes to tackle the challenges of the dynamic

world. The subject is more flexible and accommodates many principles of related
subjects. At the same time, it lends concepts and knowledge to many related
disciplines. Owing to these changes, the subject is attaining more refinement, accuracy,
precision, depth and scientific rationale.

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Geographical Information System (GIS)
• The Geographic information systems have emerged in the past two decades as an
essential tool for urban and resource planning and management. It includes the
functions of data entry, data display, data management, information retrieval
and analysis.
• While GIS deals with entire geography of the earth including land, ocean and
atmosphere, the art, science and technology dealing with the acquisition,
storage, processing, production, presentation and dissemination of the earth’s
information is called the Geoinformatics.
• It is the popular means of studies in recent decades which cater the real and
useful information to the field of Geography, Environmental Studies, Town
planning, Rural development studies, and Defense and Agricultural promotion.

Generation of the computers

1940 – 1956: First Generation – Vacuum Tubes
1956 – 1963: Second Generation – Transistors
1964 – 1971: Third Generation – Integrated Circuits
1972 – 2010: Fourth Generation – Microprocessors
2010 – Fifth Generation – Artificial Intelligence

Components of GIS
The components of GIS can be broadly classified into five types. They are mentioned
below.

A. Hardware
Hardware is Computer on which GIS software runs. Nowadays there are a
different range of computer, it might be Desktop or server based. ArcGIS Server is
server-based computer where GIS software runs on network computer or cloud based.
For computer to perform well all hardware components must have high capacity. Some
of the hardware components are: Motherboard, Hard driver, processor, graphics card,
printer and so on. These all component function together to run GIS software
smoothly.

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B. Software
Next component is GIS software which provides tools to run and edit spatial
information. It helps to query, edit, run and display GIS data. It uses RDBMS
(Relational Database Management System) to store the data. Few GIS software list:
ArcGIS, ArcView 3.2, QGIS, SAGA GIS. Software Components: GIS Tools, RDBMS,
Query Tools, GUI and Layout.

C. Data
Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected in-house compiled to
custom specifications and requirements (or) purchased from a commercial data
provider. A GIS can integrate spatial data with other existing data resources often
stored in a corporate data base management System. The data can be broadly classified
as
• Attribute data
• Spatial data
• Remote sensing data
• Global data base.
• You will learn in detail about each of the above classification of data in higher
studies.

D. People
The GIS technology is used by a huge number of industrialists and agencies to
help plan, design, engineer, build and maintain information infrastructures that affects
our everyday lives

E. Methods or Procedures
Methods here refer to well-defined, consistent procedures that are required to
produce accurate, reproducible result. A neatly conceived implementation plan and
business rules are the models and operating practices are unique to each organization.
There is need to properly integrate the sophisticated tool through bringing out well-
defined procedures in well documented form into the entire business strategy and

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operation to make the technology effective. Meta data i.e., (data about the data) is the
key for documenting these processes.

Functions of GIS
The functions of GIS describe the steps that have to be taken to implement a
GIS. These steps have to be followed in order to obtain a systematic and efficient
system. The steps involved are data capture, data storage (GIS Data Models),
manipulation and analysis.

Data Capture
• The input of data into a GIS can be achieved through many different methods of
gathering.
• For example, aerial photography, scanning, digitizing, GNSS is just a few of the
ways a GIS user could obtain data. Digitization: A conversion process which
converts paper maps into numerical digits that can be stored in the computer.
• Digitizing simplifies map data into sets of points, lines or cells that can be stored
in the GIS computer. In this stage, digitization is carried out. There are two basic
methods of digitization: Manual digitizing & scanning.

Data Storage
• Some data is stored such as a map in a drawer, while others, such as digital data,
can be as a hardcopy, stored on CD or on your hard drive. Once the data have
been digitally compiled, digital map files in the GIS are stored on magnetic or
other digital media. Data storage is based on a Generic Data Model that is used
to convert map data into a digital form.
• The two most common types of data models are Raster and Vector. Both types
are used to simplify the data shown on a map into a more basic form that can be
easily and efficiently stored in the computer.
Data Manipulation
• The digital geographical data can be edited, this allows for many attributes to be
added, edited, or deleted to the specification of the project. Once data are stored
in a GIS, many manipulation options are available to users.

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 • These functions are often available in the form of “Toolkits.” A toolkit is a set of
generic functions that a GIS user can employ to manipulate and analyse
geographical data. Toolkits provide processing functions such as data retrieval
measuring area and perimeter, overlaying maps, performing map algebra, and
reclassifying map data.
• Data manipulation tools include coordinate change, projections, and edge
matching, which allow a GIS to reconcile irregularities between map layers or
adjacent map sheets called Tiles.

Query and Analysis

GIS was used widely in decision making process for the new commission
districts. We use population data to help establish an equal representation of
population to area for each district. The heart of GIS is the analytical capabilities of the
system.

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)

• GNSS refers to the collection of the worlds global satellite-based positioning

systems. It includes GPS (United States) GLONASS (Russia) GALILEO
(European Union) BEODOU (China) IRNSS (India) QZSS (Japan).

• GNSS can provide centimetre level accuracy with a low-cost receiver, if an error
correction technique is used. GNSS are recognized to be the systems of choice in
outdoor environments and, to a great extent, one of the most accurate sources of
position (and precise timing) information when it is available.

• The first satellite navigation system was Transit, a system deployed by the US
military in 1960’s. Transit’s operations were based on the Doppler Effect: the
satellites travelled on well-known paths and broadcast their signals on well-
known radio frequency.

• The received frequency will differ slightly from the broadcast frequency because
of the movement of the satellite with respect to the receiver. The satellite broad
cast signals that contains orbital data (from which the position of the satellite
can be calculated) and the precise time, the signals is transmitted.

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 • There are multiple constellations of GNSS satellites orbiting the earth. GNSS
satellites’ orbit situated about 20,000 km above the earth’s surface. They are
moving very fast, several kilometres per second. The latest generation of GNSS
satellites (Block IIF) weight over 1,400 kg.

GNSS system operated in different countries

The following are the Global Navigation satellite Systems:

GPS (United States)

GPS was the first GNSS system. GPS was launched in the late 1970’s by the
United States Department of Defense. It uses a constellation of 24 satellites, and
provides global coverage.

GLONASS (Russia)
• The premier Soviet military navigation network was to be comprised of Uragan
satellites. At the end of the Cold War, the constellation was unclassified under
the name GLONASS -- a Russian abbreviation of Global Navigation Satellite
System. Global Navigation Satellite System by Russian Aerospace Defense
Forces is a space-based satellite navigation system.
• The life style of GNSS satellites 5-7 years and new satellites are to be launched
after a specific time interval in order to fill the gap due to ageing satellites.
GLONASS proves very beneficial for Russian territory by 2010. In 2011,
restoration of system is improved to enable full global coverage.

GALILEO (European Union)

• Galileo is Europe’s own global navigation satellite system, providing a highly
accurate, guaranteed global positioning service under civilian control. Currently
providing Initial Services, Galileo is interoperable with GPS and Glonass, the US
and Russian global satellite navigation systems.
• By offering dual frequency as standard, Galileo is set to deliver real-time
positioning accuracy down to the metre range. The Galileo constellation in space

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 will comprise 30 satellites in total. There will be 24 operational satellites, plus 6
spare satellites, circulating in medium Earth orbit on three orbital planes.

BEIDOU (China)
Beidou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) is a Chinese satellite Navigation
system. It consists of two separate satellite constellations. The first Beidou system is
officially called the Beidou Satellite Navigation Experimental System and also known
as BeiDou-1. On December 27, 2018, Beidou-3 officially began to provide global
services. The Beidou-3M/G/I satellite represent the orbital segment of the third phase
of the Chinese Beidou navigation system which uses satellites in Medium Earth Orbit
and Geosynchronous Orbit and is also known as the Compass Navigation Satellite
System.

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (QZSS Japan)

QZSS is a regional navigation satellite system that provides service to Japan and
the Asia-Oceania region. QZSS (nickname of Michibiki - meaning to 'guide' or 'show
the way') QZSS is a Japanese satellite positioning system composed mainly of satellites
in quasi-zenith orbits (QZO). However, the term “Quasi-Zenith Satellite (QZS)” can
refer to both satellites in QZO and geostationary orbits (GEO). For that reason, the
name “QZO satellite” is used when it is necessary to specifically refer to satellites in
QZO. Satellite positioning systems use satellite signals to calculate position
information. The QZSS is sometimes called the “Japanese GPS.”

IRNSS (Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System)

IRNSS is an autonomous regional satellite navigation system being developed by
ISRO (Indian Space Research Organization). It is designed to provide geospatial
positioning information within the Indian subcontinent. It enables users to map out
their location (altitude, longitude and latitude).

The objective of developing IRNSS was to cut down India's dependency on foreign
navigation satellite systems.

It provides location information service to users in India and the region extending for
upto 1,500 km from the Indian boundary. This is the primary service area of IRNSS

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information service to users in India and the region extending up to 1500 km from
Indian boundary.

IRNSS aims to provide the following services:

1. Standard Positioning Service (SPS) for civilian, research & commercial use,
2. Restricted Service (RS) for authorized users. For example, in defense, IRNSS is
used for ground, aerial and marine navigation, disaster management, mobile
phone integration, mapping and visual & voice navigation for drivers, among
others.

Applications of GNSS
GNSS applications are widely used to get the quick information about a
particular field. Some of the commercial applications are Consumers, Transportation,
GIS, Machine Control Port Automation, Precision Agriculture, Construction, Marine
Mining, Unmanned Vehicles Surveying, Defense, and Aerial Photogrammetry, etc.

Consumer
GNSS technology has been adopted by the consumer market, in an ever-
increasing range of products. GNSS receivers are now routinely integrated into smart
phones, to support applications that display maps showing the location of and best
route to stores and restaurants.

Transportation
In rail transportation, GNSS is used to track the location of locomotives and rail
cars, maintenance vehicles and wayside equipment, for display at central monitoring
consoles. Knowing the precise location of rail equipment reduces accidents, delays, and
operating costs, enhancing safety, track capacity, and customer service. In aviation,
GNSS is being used for aircraft navigation from departure, en route, to landing.

Port Automation
Using GNSS, shipping hubs can improve their operating efficiency by tracking
the movement and placement of containers about their yards. Many cranes are

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equipped with GNSS based steering devices that determine the crane’s position and
keep it travelling in the desired path, improving accuracy and productivity as well as
the safety of operators and workers on the ground.

Machine Control
GNSS technology is being integrated into equipment such as bulldozers,
excavators, graders, pavers and farm machinery to enhance productivity in the real-
time operation of this equipment, and to provide situational awareness information to
the equipment operator.

Precision Agriculture
In precision agriculture, GNSS-based applications are used to support farm
planning, field mapping, soil sampling, tractor guidance, and crop assessment. More
precise application of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides reduces cost and
environmental-impact.

Surface Mining
GNSS information is being used to efficiently manage the mining of an ore body
and the movement of waste material. GNSS equipment installed on shovels and haul
trucks provides position information to a computer-controlled dispatch system to
optimally route haul trucks to and from each shovel.

Survey
Using GNSS, it is possible for a single surveyor to accomplish in one day what
might have taken a survey crew of three people a week to complete. Determining a new
survey position once required measuring distances and bearings from an existing
(known) survey point to the new point.

Questions
1. Enumerate the components on GIS.
2. Mention some of the GNSS system in various countries. Explain.
3. What are the functions of GIS?

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