Abstract

A brief explanation of the most commonly used vibration measuring transducers

is given at the beginning of the lecture. This is followed by a description of
various types of piezoelectric accelerometers and their principle of operation. The
basic specifications of accelerometers are explained and the effect of different
mountings and their practical application is described in detail. The influence of
different environments is discussed and a description of calibration is given. The
lecture ends with a description of preamplifiers and signal conditioning.
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The Measurement Chain
Remember: The system is never stronger than the weakest link in the chain.
Whenever measurements of physical parameters takes place, the method used
comprises a transducer to convert the parameter into a more practical parameter,
mostly an electromagnetic magnitude because of the vast amount of available
methods and components to treat such signals.
Furthermore a certain adaptation between a transducer and normal
instrumentation is often necessary in the form of preamplifiers and conditioning
of the signal.
After analysis which today can have many different forms, the result will be
presented as an output to screen, paper or storage medium.

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Early Methods of Vibration “Measurement"
In the absence of instruments, vibration has been “evaluated” by means of
touching the machine; transfer of the vibration signal from the source to the head
with the aid of a rod, or by using a doctor's stethoscope. In each of these cases,
the signal is evaluated by experience without the aid of numerical values to aid
comparison.

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VIBRATION TRANSDUCERS
Mechanical Levers
Measures Displacement.

Advantages: Limitations:
Self generating No electrical output
Trace available Low frequency only
Inexpensive High amplitudes required
Prone to wear
Loads the vibrating structure
Sensitive to orientation

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Eddy Current Proximity Probe
Measures Displacement (mostly according to API 670)
Dynamic range: 500:1
Frequency range: DC -10kHz (Theoretical)
DC -2000Hz (Practical)

Advantages:
Non contacting
No moving parts, no wear
Works to DC

Limitations:
Variations in magnetic properties of shaft and geometric irregularities of shaft give
erroneous signal components.
Local calibration necessary
A low dynamic range limits practical frequency range as displacement is relatively
small at high frequencies.

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Velocity Pickup
Measures velocity
Induced voltage e proportional to:
Magnetic field B, length of windings l and relative velocity v
Dynamic range: 1000:1

Advantages:
Self generating
Low impedance

Limitations:
Moving parts prone to wear
Large size
Sensitive to orientation
Sensitive to magnetic fields
High lower limiting frequency (>app. 10 Hz) as it operates above resonance
Friction against the motion of the Moving Element will cause reduced output
signal.

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Accelerometer
Measures acceleration
Dynamic range: 108 : 1 (160 dB)

Advantages: Limitations:
Self generating High impedance output
No moving parts, no wear No true DC response
Rugged
Very large dynamic range
Wide frequency range
Compact, often low weight
High stability
Can be mounted with any orientation

Piezoelectric Materials
When a force is applied to a piezoelectric material in the direction of its
polarization an electric charge is developed between its surfaces, giving rise to a
potential difference on the output terminals. The charge (and voltage) is
proportional to the force applied. The same phenomenon will occur if the force is
applied to the material in the shear mode. Both modes are used in practical
accelerometer design.

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Compression Type Design
This traditional, simple construction gives a moderately high sensitivity-to-mass
ratio. In the Centre-mounted configuration shown, the piezoelectric element-
spring-mass system is mounted by means of a cylindrical centre post attached to
the base of the accelerometer.
The design is very stable, but even with careful design the influence from
environmental parameters is higher than for the other construction types.
Therefore this design is especially used for accelerometers which are intended for
measurement of very high shock levels and special purpose accelerometers.
Shear Type Design
Shear type accelerometers have the advantage that they intrinsically are rather
insensitive to environmental parameters like temperature transients and base
strain. A high sensitivity-to-mass ratio can be obtained, and this helps to create
miniature accelerometers as well as high performance general purpose
accelerometers. The piezoelectric elements are arranged in such a way that they
are subjected to shear forces from the seismic mass when accelerated.
DeltaShear® Design
Three piezoelectric elements and three masses are arranged in a triangular
configuration around a centre post. They are held in place using a high-tensile
strength clamping-ring.
The DeltaShear® accelerometers can be used for virtually any application. The
advantage of the Delta Shear accelerometer is its excellent overall specifications
and very low sensitivity to environmental influences.
Continued

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Ranges of Operation
The range of frequencies and levels within which the different transducers
typically can operate differs significantly as stated earlier. A graphical
representation underlines this.
Continued from previous side:
Planar Shear Design
This design is a simplified DeltaShear® Design with only two piezoelectric
elements and seismic masses. This gives excellent performance even when used
in very small accelerometers.
Annular-Shear Design
In this design the piezoelectric element and seismic mass are formed into rings
and mounted around a centre post. The figure shows an accelerometer with built-
in electronics and double shielding.
ThetaShear® Design
This patented design combines the advantages of the shear design, electrical
insulation from the mounting surface, simplicity, and low mass- loading to provide
low-cost flexible well performing transducers.
OrthoShear® Design (Triaxial)
This design (patent pending), developed for triaxial measurements, has a
common seismic mass as reference point (centre of gravity) for all directions. This
results in a compact design ensuring accurate and consistent measurements even
when exposed to complex patterns of vibration. The seismic mass is surrounded
by a piezoelectric ring and four terminals all held in position by a high tensile-
strength clamping ring. The X, Y and Z outputs are obtained by appropriate
connection to the terminals and summation of signals. Combines the advantages
of the shear design, electrical insulation from the mounting surface, simplicity,
and low mass-loading to provide low-cost flexible well performing transducers.

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Selection of an Accelerometer
The range of operation is the first to be considered when selecting an
accelerometer.
The graph shows two typical groups of accelerometers with typical specifications:
• General Purpose Type Accelerometers
• Small (miniature) Accelerometers

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Useful Frequency Range
All accelerometers will give a constant output signal for a constant acceleration
from very low frequencies up to a limit set by the increase in output due to
resonance of the accelerometer. In general, however, the accelerometer is not
used close to its resonance as this could result in a big error in the measured
signal. As a rule of thumb, the accelerometer can be used up to one third of its
resonance frequency. This will then ensure that the error at that frequency does
not exceed approximately 12% or 1 dB. 0.3 times the mounted resonance
frequency gives 10 % as shown. Filters can be used to limit the response to well
below the accelerometer resonance frequency, but the input stages will still have
to handle any signals at the resonance. To avoid this, mechanical filters can be
used. This will be discussed later.

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Sensitivity and Frequency Range
When the accelerometer is exposed to a constant level of acceleration it will give
a constant output signal over a very wide frequency range up to frequencies
near its resonance frequency. The sensitivity and frequency range of an
accelerometer are related: in general the bigger the accelerometer the higher its
sensitivity, and the smaller is its useful frequency range, and vice versa.

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The Importance of Correct Mounting
Bad mounting of the accelerometer can spoil vibration measurements by severely
reducing the usable frequency range. The main requirement is for close
mechanical contact between the accelerometer base and the surface to which it is
to be attached.
Stud Mounting
Mounting the accelerometer with the aid of a steel stud is the best mounting
method and should be used in all applications wherever possible. The
unavoidable resonance of the accelerometer at high frequencies can cause
erroneous signals and therefore the accelerometer output should be attenuated at
these high frequencies.
Cementing Studs
In places where it is not wished to drill and tap fixing holes, a cementing stud can
be fixed onto the machine with the aid of an epoxy or cyanoacrylate cement. The
frequency response will be nearly as good as that obtained using a plain stud.
Soft glues must be avoided.
Mounting with the Aid of Beeswax
For quick mounting of the accelerometers e.g. for surveying vibration in various
locations beeswax can be used for mounting the accelerometer. Because beeswax
becomes soft at high temperatures, the method is restricted to about 40°C.
Isolated Mounting
In places where it is desirable to isolate the accelerometer from the test object an
isolated stud and a mica washer should be used. This could be either because the
potential of the test object is different from the ground potential of the test
instrumentation or because direct stud mounting will create a ground loop which
could affect the measurement. The latter is the most common reason for use of
an isolated mounting. This point will be discussed later.

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Mounting with the aid of a Permanent Magnet
An easy and fast method of mounting the accelerometer is by using a permanent
magnet which very easily can be shifted from one position to another. This is
especially useful for surveying. The method is restricted to use on ferro-magnetic
surfaces and the dynamic range is limited due to the limited force of the magnet.
To obtain the maximum frequency range and dynamic range, the ferro-magnetic
surface must be clean and flat. By fitting a self adhesive disc on the magnet it will
provide electrical isolation between the accelerometer and the surface to which it
is attached.

Use of a Hand Held Probe

A hand held probe with the accelerometer mounted on top is very convenient for
quick-look survey work, but can give gross measuring errors because of the low
overall stiffness.

Mounting the Accelerometer on a Long Rod

Where there is a need for measuring vibration at difficult-to-reach locations the
accelerometer can be mounted at the end of a steel pipe or rod in a rubber ring.
A slightly rounded tip is mounted onto the mounting surface of the
accelerometer. Note that the response is far superior to the “hand held” probe.

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Mounting with the aid of a Permanent Magnet
An easy and fast method of mounting the accelerometer is by using a permanent
magnet which very easily can be shifted from one position to another. This is
especially useful for surveying. The method is restricted to use on ferro-magnetic
surfaces and the dynamic range is limited due to the limited force of the magnet.
To obtain the maximum frequency range and dynamic range, the ferro-magnetic
surface must be clean and flat. By fitting a self adhesive disc on the magnet it will
provide electrical isolation between the accelerometer and the surface to which it
is attached.

Use of a Hand Held Probe

A hand held probe with the accelerometer mounted on top is very convenient for
quick-look survey work, but can give gross measuring errors because of the low
overall stiffness.

Mounting the Accelerometer on a Long Rod

Where there is a need for measuring vibration at difficult-to-reach locations the
accelerometer can be mounted at the end of a steel pipe or rod in a rubber ring.
A slightly rounded tip is mounted onto the mounting surface of the
accelerometer. Note that the response is far superior to the “hand held” probe.

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Choosing a Mounting Position for the Accelerometer
The accelerometer should be mounted so that the desired measuring direction
coincides with the main sensitivity axis. Accelerometers are slightly sensitive to
vibrations in the transverse direction, but this can normally be ignored as the
maximum transverse sensitivity is typically only a few percent of the main axis
sensitivity.
The reason for measuring vibration will normally dictate the position of the
accelerometer. In the figure the reason is to monitor the condition of the shaft
and bearing. The accelerometer should be positioned to maintain a direct path for
the vibration from the bearing.
Accelerometer “A” thus detects the vibration signal from the bearing predominant
over vibrations from other parts of the machine, but accelerometer “B” receives
the bearing vibration modified by transmission through a joint, mixed with signals
from other parts of the machine. Likewise, accelerometer “C” is positioned in a
more direct path than accelerometer “D”.
It is very difficult to give general rules about placement of accelerometers, as the
response of mechanical objects to forced vibrations is a complex phenomenon, so
that one can expect, especially at high frequencies, to measure significantly
different vibration levels and frequency spectra, even on adjacent measuring
points on the same machine element.

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Loading the Test Object
When the accelerometer is mounted on the test object it will increase the mass of
the vibrating system, and thereby influence the mechanical properties of the test
object. As a general rule the accelerometer mass should be no more than one-
tenth of the “local” dynamic mass of the vibrating part onto which it is mounted.

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Transverse Sensitivity
The accelerometer has its main sensitivity perpendicular to the base of the
accelerometer. However, it is also slightly sensitive to vibrations occurring in a
direction transverse to this. In the worst case this will typically be less than 4% of
the main-axis sensitivity. The direction of minimum transverse sensitivity is
indicated on the accelerometer with a dot of red paint or an angle indication on
the calibration chart.

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Triboelectric Noise
Movement (vibration) of the accelerometer cable during use can cause the screen
of the cable to be separated from the insulation around the inner core of the
cable. A varying electrical field is thereby created between the conducting screen
and the non-conducting insulation, causing a minute current to flow in the screen
which will be superimposed on the accelerometer signal as a noise signal. This
phenomenon can be prevented by using low noise (or super low noise, which has
similar precautions around the center conductor) accelerometer cables and fixing
them to the test object e.g. with the aid of adhesive tape near the accelerometer,
and let them leave the structure at a point with minimum motion.

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The Influence of Environments
Base Strain: Base strain sensitivity has been reduced by the use of a very thick
base in the accelerometers. Delta Shear accelerometers are best in this respect as
the elements are not in direct connection with the base.
Humidity: The accelerometer itself is sealed, so moisture can only enter the
connector. In wet conditions this effect can be prevented by the use of a silicon
rubber sealant.
Acoustic Noise: Has normally negligible influence on the vibration signal from the
accelerometer.
Corrosive Substances: Special materials which are resistant to most corrosive
substances are used in the construction of the accelerometer.
Magnetic Fields: The magnetic sensitivity is typically in the range
0.5 to 30 ms-2/Tesla and thus normally not causing any problems.
Nuclear Radiation: Most accelerometers can be used under gamma radiation of
100 kRad/h up to accumulated doses of 100 MRad without significant change in
characteristics. High temperature (400°C) accelerometers can be used up to 1000
MRad.
Influence of Temperature Transients: Temperature transients (rapid fluctuations)
can cause an electrical output from the accelerometer, but this effect has been
considerably reduced in the Delta Shear accelerometer. The charges developed
on the piezoelectric material due to temperature transients are mainly developed
on surfaces normal to the polarisation of the piezoelectric material and are thus
not measured.
Continued

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Continued from previous slide:
Sensitivity Change due to Temperature:
A shift in temperature will cause a small reversible change in the sensitivity of the
accelerometer. For use at high temperatures it is recommended to use one of the
accelerometers designed specifically for use in such conditions. The
accelerometer base temperature may be kept down if a heat sink and mica
washer are included in the mounting. If forced air cooling is employed check that
the cooling system (fan) does not induce significant vibration.

Special Type Accelerometers

A number of accelerometers have been specially designed for specific purposes.
For example, calibration references, high temperature, triaxial, high shock and
very low levels as shown in the above figure.

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Accelerometer handling
Although most accelerometers are specified to withstand several thousand g’s it is
quite possible to attain such levels if the accelerometer is handled carelessly. A
drop on a hard floor or a hit against a machine part might create shocks of
several thousands of g. This could mean change in sensitivity or even severe
damage to the accelerometer.
If it is known that the accelerometer has been subjected to such treatment it is
advisable to recalibrate the accelerometer, preferably with a check of the
frequency response curve.

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Calibration Chart
Each Brüel & Kjær accelerometer is supplied individually calibrated by the factory
and is accompanied by a comprehensive Calibration Chart.
Two examples are shown here, one classical piezoelectric accelerometer, and one
with built-in electronics.

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Calibration Chart
Each Brüel & Kjær accelerometer is supplied individually calibrated by the factory
and is accompanied by a comprehensive Calibration Chart.
The example shown here is with built-in electronics.

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