EGE 3151: STATISTICAL

TECHNIQUES AND MAPWORK

IN GEOGRAPHY
Y1S2

BY
MARY KAGENI

0710275730
01/27/2023 1
 STATISTICS
Most of us encounter statistics for the first time through radio, television, newspapers, or magazines. We may see
or hear reports of studies or surveys concerning political polls or perhaps the latest advance in the treatment of
cancer or heart disease. If we were to reflect on it for a moment, we would probably notice that statistics is used in
almost all fields of human endevous.
Statistics is the methodology used in studies that collect, organize, and summarize data through graphical
and numerical methods, analyze the data, and ultimately draw conclusions.

01/27/2023 2
Analysis of the data is then usually undertaken for one of the following purposes:
1. To help summarize the findings of some inquiry, for example, a study of the
travel behavior of elderly or handicapped citizens or the estimation of timber reforestation requirements.
2. To obtain a better understanding of the phenomenon under study, primarily
as an aid in generalization or theory validation, for example, to validate a
theory of urban land rent.
3. To make a forecast of some variable, for example, short-term interest rates,
voter behavior, or house prices.
4. To evaluate the performance of some program, for example, a particular
form of diet, or an innovative medical or educational program or reform.
5. To help select a course of action among a set of possible alternatives, or to
plan some system, for example, school locations.

01/27/2023 3
 Statistical Methodology Into Two Parts:
Descriptive Statistics And Inferential Statistics.
• Descriptive statistics deals with the organization and summary of data. The purpose of descriptive statistics is to replace what may be an extremely
large set of numbers in some dataset with a smaller number of summary measures.
• Descriptive statistics refers to techniques used to describe data, either numerically or graphically e.g. mean, standard deviation.
• Whenever this replacement is made, there is inevitably some loss of information. It is impossible to retain all of the information in a dataset using a
smaller set of numbers.
• One of the principal goals of descriptive statistics is to minimize the effect of this information loss. Understanding which statistical measure should be
used as a summary index in a particular case is another important goal of descriptive statistics.
• If we understand the use of descriptive statistics and are aware of its limitations, we can help to avoid the propagation of misleading results.
• Much of the distrust of statistical methodology derives from its misuse in studies where it has been inappropriately applied or interpreted. Just as the
photographer can use a lens to distort a scene, so can a statistician distort the information in a dataset
through his or her choice of summary statistics.
NB: Understanding what descriptive statistics can tell us, as well as what it cannot, is a key concern of statistical analysis.

01/27/2023 4
• Inferential statistics includes methods used to make statements about a population
characteristic on the basis of information from a sample. Statistical inference includes
both hypothesis testing and estimation methods. Types of hypothesis null hypothesis
Hoand HA or H1
• A statistical population is the total set of elements (objects, persons,
regions,neighborhoods, rivers, etc.) under examination in a particular study.
• For instance, if a geographer is studying farm practices in a particular region, the
relevant population consists of all farms in the region on a certain date or within an
area.

01/27/2023 5
VARIABLE
• A variable is a population characteristic that takes on different values for the elements comprising the population
POPULATION CENSUS
• A population census is a complete tabulation of the relevant population characteristic for all elements in the population.
• A population census is a complete tabulation of the relevant population characteristic for all elements in the population.
• The second way information can be obtained about a population is through a sample.
• A sample is simply a subset of a population, thus in sampling we obtain values for only selected members of a population.
SAMPLE
• A sample is a subset of the elements in the population and is used to make inferences about certain characteristics of the population as a
whole.
• For practical considerations, usually time and/or cost, it is far more convenient to sample rather than enumerate the entire population.
• sampling has one distinct disadvantage. Restricting our attention to a small proportion of the population makes it impossible to be as
accurate about population characteristics

01/27/2023 6
Advantages of Sampling are;
• Save time and money
• Enable collection of comprehensive data
• Eanable more accurate measurement as it conducted by trained and experienced investigators
• Sampling is the the only way when the populwtion contains infeinitely many members
• It is the only way of data collection eg pathological status of blood, boiling status of rice
• Provides a valid estimation of sampling error

Stages of sampling process

• Define population
• specify the sampling frame
• Specify sampling unit
• Select the sampling method
• Determination of sample size
• Specify the sampling plan
• Select the sample
CHART SHOWING BASIC SAMPLING DESIGNS
SAMPLING ERROR
• Sampling error is the difference between the value of a population characteristic and the value of that characteristic inferred from
a sample.
To illustrate sampling error
consider the population characteristic of the average selling price of homes in a given metropolitan area in a certain year. If each
and every house is examined, it is found that the average selling price is $150,000. However, if only 25 homes per month are
sampled and the average selling price of the 300 homes in the sample (12 months × 25 homes), the average selling price in the
sample may be $120,000.

All other things being equal, we could say that the difference of $150,000 – $120,000 = $30,000 is due to sampling error.
What do we mean by all other things being equal? Our error of $30,000 maybe partly due to factors other than sampling. Perhaps
the
selling price for one home in the sample was incorrectly identified as $252,000 instead of $152,000. Many errors
this type occur in large datasets. Information obtained from personal interviews or questionnaires can contain factual errors from
respondents.
DATASET
• A dataset is a collection of statistical information or values of the variables of interest in a study. variables in a dataset can be
classified as either quantitative or qualitative.
• Quantitative values can be obtained either by counting or by measurement and can be ordered or ranked.

01/27/2023 9
QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE
• A quantitative variable is one in which the values are expressed numerically.
• Discrete variables are those variables that can be obtained by counting. For example,the number of
children in a family, the number of cars owned, the number of trips made in a day are all counting
variables. The possible values of counting variables are the ordinary integers and zero: 0, 1, 2, ..., n.
Quantities such as rainfall, air pressure, or temperature are measured and can take on any
continuous value depending
• upon the accuracy of the measurement and recording instrument. Continuous variables are thus
inherently different from discrete variables. Since continuous data must be measured, they are
normally rounded to the limits of the measuring device. Heights, for example, are rounded to the
nearest inch or centimeter, and temperatures to the nearest degree Celsius or Fahrenheit.

01/27/2023 10
QUALITATIVE VARIABLE
• Qualitative variables are neither measured nor counted.
• Qualitative variables are variables that can be placed into distinct non overlapping
categories. The values are thus non-numerical.
• Qualitative variables are sometimes termed categorical variables since the
observational units can be placed into categories. Male/female, land-use type,
occupation, and plant species are all examples of qualitative variables.

01/27/2023 11
Levels of Measurement
NOMINAL SCALE
• A categorical variable, also called a nominal variable,is for mutual
exclusive, but not ordered, categories.
• Nominal scales are mere codes assigned to objects as labels, they
are not measurements. Not a measure of quantity. Measures
identity and difference. People either belong to a group or they do
not.
• Sometimes numbers are used to designate category membership.
• Eye color: blue, brown, green, etc.
• Biological sex (male or female)
• Democrat, republican, green, libertarian, etc.
• Married, single, divorced, widowed
• Country of Origin 1 = United States, 2 = Mexico, 3 = Canada, 4 =
Other

01/27/2023 12
• ORDINAL SCALE
• This ranks the individual attributes of items in same group but unit of measurement is not available
in this scale, like student A is taller than student
B but their actual heights are not available.
• Designates an ordering: greater than, less than. Does not assume that the intervals between
numbers are equal.
EXAMPLES
• Rank your food preference where 1 = favorite food and 4 = least favorite:
Final position of horses in a thoroughbred race is an ordinal variable.
The horses finish first, second, third, fourth, and so on.
• The difference between first and second is not necessarily equivalent to the difference between
second and third, or between third and fourth.

01/27/2023 13
INTERVAL SCALE
• Classifies data into groups or categories
Determines the preferences between items
• Zero point on the internal scale is arbitrary zero, it is not the true zero
• point
• Designates an equal-interval ordering.
• The difference in temperature between 20 degrees f and 25 degrees f is
• the same as the difference between 76 degrees f and 81 degrees f
RATIO SCALE
• This is the highest level of measurement and has the
• properties of an interval scale; coupled with fixed origin or zero point.
• It clearly defines the magnitude or value of difference between two individual items or intervals in same group

01/27/2023 14
DISCUSSION
• A professor/ Lecturer is interested in the relationship between the number of times
students are absent from class and the letter grade that students receive on the final
exam. He records the number of absences for each student, as well as the letter
(A,B,C,D,F) each student earns on the final exam.
• In this example, what are the measurement scales the proffesor will use?

01/27/2023 15
Two descriptions of data:
• Measures of Central Tendency
• Measures of Dispersion

01/27/2023 16
 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
MEAN

Arithmetic average

01/27/2023 17
 NB: This applies to raw data what about for grouped data ??
01/27/2023 18
01/27/2023 19
01/27/2023 20
01/27/2023 21
01/27/2023 22
01/27/2023 23
01/27/2023 24
01/27/2023 25
01/27/2023 26
01/27/2023 27
01/27/2023 28
01/27/2023 29
01/27/2023 30
• What is the modal class, Median and mean for grouped data with example

• Define the following standard deviation, variation, range with examples

• What are the measures of dispersion and its characteristics