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PHYSICS
QUICK REVISION
CONTENTS
Sr. No. Title Page No.
01 Units And Measurements 01
02 Scalars And Vectors 03
03 Motion In A Straight Line 06
04 Motion In A Plane 08
05 Circular Motion 10
06 Newton’s Laws Of Motion 13
07 Friction 15
08 Work, Energy And Power 17
09 Centre Of Mass And Collision 19
10 Rotational Motion 21
11 Gravitation 27
12 Mechanical Properties Of Solids 31
13 Mechanical Properties Of Fluids 34
14 Surface Tension 35
15 Thermal Properties Of Ma er 37
16 Thermodynamics 39
17 Kinetic Theory Of Gases 42
18 Simple Harmonic Motion 45
19 Waves 49
20 Electrostatics 52
21 Current Electricity 61
22 Magnetic Effect Of Electric Current 65
23 Magnetism And Ma er 67
24 Electromagnetic Induction 70
25 Alternating Current 72
26 Electromagnetic Waves 75
27 Ray Optics 77
28 Wave Optics 83
29 Dual Nature Of Radiation And Ma er 86
30 Atoms 88
31 Nuclei 90
32 Semiconductor Devices 92
Units And Measurements
Quick Revision UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
TERMINOLOGY 10) Absolute error : The magnitude of the
d = Plane Angle difference between the individual
measurement and the true value of the quantity
ds = Arc Length
is called absolute error.
r = Radius
11) Mean absolute error : The arithmetic mean of
d = Solid Angle all the absolute errors is called mean absolute
D = Distance between two planet error.
b = Diameter Of Planet 12) Relative error : The ratio of mean absolute error
in the measurement of a physical quantity to its
a = Absolute error most profable value is called relative error.
amean = Mean absolute error 13) Percentage error : The relative error multiplied
by 100 is called the percentage error.
Z, A & B = Physical Quantities
FORMULAE
DEFINITIONS
1) System of Units : A complete set of units both ds
fundamental and derived for all kinds of 1) Plane Angle : d
r
physical quantities is called system of units.
2) Unit : The reference standard used for the
measurement of a physical quantity is called a
unit.
3) Fundamental Quantities : The physical
quantities which do not depend on any other
physical quantities for their measurements are
known as fundamental quantities. dA
2) Solid Angle : d
r2
4) Derived Quantities : The physical quantities
which depends on one or more fundamental
quantities for their measurements are known
as derived quantities.
5) Parallax Method : The method used to measure
large distances are called Parallax Method.
6) Dimensional Analysis : The dimensions of a
physical quantity are the powers to which
d
fundamental units must be raised in order to 3) Parallax Method : D
obtain the unit of the given physical quantity.
7) Order of Magnitude : The value of its
magnitude rounded off to the nearest integral
power of 10.
8) Significant Figures : Figure which is of some
significance but it does not necessarily denote
a certainty.
9) Error : The difference between the true value
and measured value of physical quantity is
called error.
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Units And Measurements
4) Error Analysis : a1, a2, a3, ...... an values obtained Combination of Errors:
in measurement. 1) Error of sum or difference
a1 a2 ........an Z=A+B
amean Z A B
n
2) Error of product
a1 a1 amean Z = AB
a2 a2 amean Z A B
an an amean Z A B
3) Error of Division
a1 a2 ....... an
amean A Z A B
n Z
B Z A B
amean
Relative error 4) Error in case of raised power
amean
a A p Bq Z A B C
Percentage error mean 100 Z p q r
amean Cr Z A B C
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Dimension Quantity
Frequency, angular frequency, angular velocity, velocity gradient and
[M0L0T–1] decay constant
1 2 –2 Work, internal energy, potential energy, kinetic energy,
[M L T ] torque, moment of force
1 –1 –2 Pressure, stress, Young's modulus, bulk modulus, modulus of rigidity,
[M L T ] energy density
1 1 –1
[M L T ] Momentum, impulse
[M0L1T–2] Acceleration due to gravity, gravitational field intensity
[M1L1T–2] Thrust, force, weight, energy gradient
[M1L2T–1] Angular momentum and Planck's constant
1 0 –2
[M L T ] Surface tension, Surface energy (energy per unit area)
Strain, refractive index, relative density, angle, solid angle,
0 0 0
[M L T ] distance gradient, relative permittivity (dielectric constant), relative
permeability Poisson's ratio etc.
0 2 –2
[M L T ] Latent heat and gravitational potential
[ML T θ ] Thermal capacity, Boltzmann's constant and entropy
2 –2 1
l / g , m / k , R / g , where l length
0 0 1
[M L T ] g = acceleration due to gravity, m = mass, k = spring constant,
R = Radius of earth
[M0L0T1] L/R, LC , RC where L = inductance, R = resistance, C = capacitance
V2 q2
I 2 Rt ,t , VIt , qV , LI 2 , , CV 2
[ML T ]
2 –2 R C
where I = current, t = time, q = charge,
L = inductance, C = capacitance, R = resistance
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Scalars And Vectors
Quick Revision SCALARS AND VECTORS
TERMINOLOGY FORMULAE
A & B : Are two vectors ˆ A
1) Unit vectors : A
A
: Angle between A and B
2) Law of Triangle : R A B
R : Resultant of vectors.
: Angle made by vector with x-axis
: Angle made by vector with y-axis
: Angle made by vector with y-axis
i : unit vector along x axis
3) Law of Polygon : R A B C D
j : unit vector along y axis
k : unit vector along z axis
DEFINITIONS
1) Scalar Quantity : A physical quantity which can
be completely described by its magnitude only
is known as scalar quantity. 4) Law of Parallelogram : R A B
2) Vector Quantity : A physical quantity which has R A 2 B 2 2 AB cos
magnitude and direction and obeys all the laws
of vector algebra is called vector quantity.
3) Parallel Vector : Those vectors which have the
same directions are called as parallel vectors.
4) Equal Vector : Vectors which have equal
magnitude and same direction are called equal
vectors.
5) Anti-parallel Vectors : Those vectors wich have
A sin
the opposite directions are called as Anti- tan
parallel vectors. B A cos
Cases
6) Opposite Vectors : Vectors have equal
magnitude but opposite directions are called as 1) If 0, R A B
opposite vectors. 2) If 90, R A2 B2
7) Unit Vectors : Vectors whose magnitude is one
3) If 180, R A B
is called a unit vector.
5) Substraction of vectors :
8) Rectangular components of vector : When a
vector is splitted into components which are R A 2 B 2 2 AB cos
right angle to each other then the components
are called rectangular components of vectors.
9) Dot Product : The dot product of two vectros
can be defined as the product of their
magnitudes with cosine angle between them.
10) Cross Product : the cross product of two vectors
can be defined as the product of their
magnitudes with sine angle between them.
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Scalars And Vectors
6) Resolution of vectors 6) In case of orthogonal vectors
a) Two dimensions i j j k k i 0
7) Scalar product of a vector by itself
A A A2
8) Incase of unit vector
i i j j k k 1
9) Interms of components
b) Three dimensions
A B ( Ax i Ay j Az k ) ( Bx i By j Bz k )
A Ax i A y j A z k
2 2 2 A B Ax Bx Ay By Az Bz
A A A Ax y z
10) Projection of vector
A
cos x AB
A Projection of B on to A B cos
A
Ay
cos
A AB
Projection of A on to B A cos
Az B
cos 8) Cross product :
A
cos 2 cos 2 cos 2 1 C AB
sin 2 sin 2 sin 2 2 C C AB sin
7) Dot Product : A B AB cos
Key points
Key points 1) If 0, C A B 0
1) If Q 0, A B AB
If 90, C A B AB
If Q 90, A B 0
If 180, C A B 0
If Q 180, A B AB
2) Angle between the vectors
2) Angle between two vectors
A B
AB sin
cos AB
AB
3) It is commulative 3) It is anti-commutative
A B B A A B B A
4) It is Distributive 4) It is distributive
A (B C ) A B B C A (B C)A B A C
5) It is associative 5) It is associative
( A B(C D ) A C A D B C B D ( A B) (C D) A C A D B C B D
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Scalars And Vectors
6) Incase of orthogonal vector 10) If two vectors are parallel
i j k A Ax i A j j Az k
jk i
B Bx i B j j Bz k
ki j
j i k Ax Ay Az
then B B B
k j i x y z
i k j 11) A , B and C are coplanar then A ( B C ) 0
7) Vector product of a vector by itself
12) Angle between ( A B) and ( A B) is 90°.
A A 0 13) Formuale to find area
8) Incase of unit vector
i) If A and B are two sides of triangle
i i j j k k 0
9) In terms of components 1
then its area AB
2
A B ( Ax i Ay j Az k ) ( Bx i By j Bz k )
ii) If A and B are two adjacent sides of
i j k
parallelogram then its area A B
A B Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz iii) If A and B are diagonals of a
1
i[ Ay Bz Az By ] j[ Ax Bz Az Bx ] paralelogram then its area AB
2
k[ Ax By Ay Bx ]
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Motion In A Straight Line
Quick Revision MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
TERMINOLOGY 11) Acceleration : The rate of change of velocity of
S : Displacement an object with time is called acceleration. In S.I
v : Velocity unit, it is the change in velocity in one second.
u : Initial velocity 13) Free fall: When a body released near the earth’s
t : Time taken surface, it accelerates downwards towards
a : Acceleration earth. In the absence of air resistance its velocity
g : Acceleration due to gravity continuously increases. The motion of the body
vAB : Velocity of ‘A’ with respect to ‘B’ is called free fall.
vBA : Velocity of ‘B’ with respect to ‘A’ FORMULAE
|v| : Speed Distance
vo : Initial velocity or velocity at t = 0 1) Speed
Time
DEFINITIONS
1) Distance : It is the length of actual path Displacement
2) Velocity
traversed by a body between its initial and final Time
position. Distance is a scalar quantity.
d(s )
2) Displacement : It is the shortest length between 3) Velocity
dt
initial and final position of body. It is a vector 4) Speed = |Velocity|
quantity.
3) Speed : The rate of change of position of an vu
5) Acceleration
object with time in any direction is called its t
speed. It is equal to distance travelled per unit
dv
time. 6) a
dt
4) Average speed : For an object moving with
variable speed, the average speed is total s1 s2 s3 ......sn
7) Average velocity
distance travelled per unit time. t1 t 2 t3 ....tn
5) Instantaneous speed : The speed of an object 8) v = u + at
at any particular instant of time or at particular 9) v2 – u2 = 2as
point of path is called instantaneous speed.
1 2
6) Velocity : The rate of change of position of 10) s ut at
object with time in a given direction is called 2
velocity. It is equal to displacement per unit a
time. 11) sn th = u + ( 2n - 1)
2
7) Average velocity : Average velocity is called at
12) vAB = vA – vB
the ratio of total displacement to the total time
13) vBA = vB – vA
interval of the body.
Relative change in sepration
8) Instantaneous velocity : The velocity of an 14) Relative velocity
object at a particular instant of time or at a Time
particular point on its path is called For motion under gravity
instantaneous velocity. I) v = u – gt
9) Uniform motion: An object is said to be in II) v2 – u2 = –2gs
uniform motion if it covers equal distance in 1
III) s ut gt 2
equal intervals of time however small these 2
intervals may be.
10. Non-uniform motion: A body is said to be in g
IV) sn th = u ( 2n - 1)
non uniform motion if it covers unequal 2
intervals in equal periods of time. In this
motion, its velocity changes with time.
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Motion In A Straight Line
v
DISPLACEMENT–TIME GRAPH II)
s
I)
t
Uniformly increasing velocity
t v
III)
Object at Rest
s
II)
t
Uniformly decreasing velocity
* Relative Velocity Graphs
t
s B
Object moving with uniform velocity I)
A
s
III)
t
vA = vB
t
Relative velocity is zero
Object moving with uniform +ve acceleration
II) B
s s
IV)
t t
Object is moving with decreasing velocity vB > vA vB – vA = +ve
VELOCITY–TIME GRAPH s
III) A
v
I)
B
P
t
t vA > vB vA – vB = +ve
Object moving with constant velocity P = Point of overtaking
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Motion In A Plane
Quick Revision MOTION IN A PLANE
TERMINOLOGY
dv
r : Displacement Vector 6) a
lim t 0 dt
r1 or r0 : Initial position vector
7) Speed | v| vx2 vy2
r2 : Final position vector
v : Velocity vector 8) a ax iˆ a y jˆ
vx : x-component of velocity dvx
vy : y-component of velocity 9) ax
dt
a : Acceleration vector
ax : x-component of acceleration vector dv y
10) ay
vy : y-component of acceleration vector dt
R : Range of Projectile dv dv y ˆ
T : Time of light 11) a x iˆ j
dt dt
u : Initial velocity
t : Half time of projectile or Instantaneous time 12) v v0 at
m : slope 13) r r0 r
DEFINITIONS
v vo
1) Projectile : A projectile is the name given to any 14) r r0 t
body which since thrown its space with some 2
initial velocity moves thereafter under the effect 15) v 2 v 2 2 a.(r r )
o o
of gravity alone, without being propelled by
any engine or fuel. The path followed is called vy
trajectory. 16) m tan
vx
Assumptions used in projectile motion:
a) There is no air resistance on the projectile. ANGULAR PROJECTILE
b) The effect due to earth’s curvature is negligible.
u2 sin 2
c) The effect due to rotation of earth is zero. 1) R
d) Acceleration due to gravity is constant in all g
points of motion.
2u u
2) Time of flight : It is the total time which the 2) R 2u sin .u cos y x
projectile remains in the flight. g g
3) Horizontal Range : It is the horizontal distance
covered by the projectile during its time of 2u sin 2uy
3) T
flight. g g
4) Horizontal component : It is the component of
velocity which remain constant and is parallel T u sin uy
to surface of earth. 4) t
2 g g
FORMULAE
u2 sin 2
1) r r2 r1 H
5)
2g
2) r xiˆ yjˆ
uy2
3) v v x iˆ v y jˆ 6) H
2g
r
4) v 2H
t 7) T2
g
dr
5) v
lim t 0 dt
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Motion In A Plane
x
8) y x tan 1 3) Y
R
gx 2
9) y x tan
2u2 cos2
HORIZONTAL PROJECTILE
x
1) t t
u
2h
2) T Vertical distance with time.
g
4) x
3) v v x2 v y2
R
4) v y 2 gh
5) v y gt
2h
6) Rv
g
O T t
vy gt
7) tan
u u Horizontal distance with time.
GRAPHS
1) Y
5) vy
r
r0 v sin
r
O X t
O
ro = Initial Position
r = Displacement vector
r = Final position
-v sin
2) ux
Vertical velocity with time
t
Horizontal velocity in projectile w.r.t. time
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Circular Motion
Quick Revision CIRCULAR MOTION
TERMINOLOGY 8) Centrifugal force : The pseudo force in circular
: Angular Displacement [rad] motion which acts along radius and directed
away from the center of circle is called as
i : Initial Angular Velocity [rad/s] centrifugal force.
f : Final Angular Velocity [rad/s] 9) Angle of Banking : The angle made by the
surface of road with the horizontal surface of
: Angular Acceleration [rad/s2] road is called angle of banking.
V : Linear Velocity [m/s] 10) Banking of Road : The process of raising outer
r : Radius [m] edge of road over its inner edge through certain
acp : Centripetal Acceleration [m/s2] angle is called as Banking of road.
at : Tangential Acceleration [m/s2] FORMULAE
Fcp : Centripetal Force [N] 1) Kinematics of Circular Motion
Wcp : Work Done by Centripetal Force [ J ]
Pcp : Power by centripetal Force [W] 1
i t t 2
Ft : Tangential force [N] 2
s : Displacement [m]
2f i2 2
: Coefficient of Friction
b : Angle of Banking
nth (2n 1)
m : Mass [kg] 2
q : Charge [coulomb] Vrelative
DEFINITIONS relative
rrelative
1) Circular Motion : Movement of an object along
the circumference of a circle or rotation along VB V A
a circular path is calloed as circular motion.
rB rA
2) Uniform Circular Motion : Periodic motion of
a particle movin g along circumference of a 2) Uniform Circular Motion
circle with constant angular speed is called as
uniform circular motion. d
0
3) Non-uniform Circular Motion : Motion of a dt
particle moving along circumference of a circle
d
with variable angular speed is called as Non- at r 0
uniform circular motion. dt
4) Angular Displacement ( ) : The angle V2
described by radius vector in a given time at the acp 2 r V
r
center of circle is called as angular displacement.
5) Angular velocity [ ] : The time rate change of V2
limiting angular displacement is called angular acp 2 r rˆ V
r
velocity.
6) Angular Acceleration [] : The time rate change mv 2
Fcp m2 r mv
of an angular velocity is called angular r
acceleration.
7) Centripetal Force : Force acting on a particle Wcp 0
performing circular motion which is along
radius of circle and directed towards. Pcp 0
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Circular Motion
3) Non-uniform Circular Motion
d 2 1
dt t
d
at r
dt
v2
acp 2 r rˆ v
r
For condition of slack
at r
TA 0 , V A gl
anet acp at
VB 5 gl
Fcp macp For any condition
Ft mat TB TA 6 mg
Wcp = 0 6) Motion of a Charged aprticle in a magnetic field
Wt Ft S mv 2
qvB
Pcp = 0 r
Wt
Pt Ft V
t
p Pcp Pt
4) Banking of Road
Horizontal curve road
V rg
7) Conical Pendulum
Banked road
V2
rg( tan ) tan
V rg
(1 tan )
g
If 0
h
V2
tan cos
rg T 2
g
Pendulum in a car
V2 r
2
tan Tension mg 1
rg
h
5) Verticle Circular Motion 8) Change in vector quantities
Change in velocity V 2V sin
2
Change in radial vector V 2r sin
2
Change in momentum P 2mv sin
2
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Circular Motion
9) Death Well : 12) Reaction of road on car
1) car on a concave bridge
rg
V mv 2
R mg cos
r
2) car on a convex bridge
10) Hemispherical Vessel :
mv2
R mg cos
g r
R cos
11) Inverted Cone : 13) Motion of a block on frictionless hemisphere
V gh 2
h r
3
h
cos
r
2
cos 1
r
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Newton’s Laws Of Motion
Quick Revision NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
TERMINOLOGY FORMULAE
F : Force [N] dp dV
m : Mass [kg] 1) F m ma
dt dt
dv : Change in velocity [m/s]
2) p mV
p : Linear momentum [kg m/s]
I : Impulse [N-s] 3) I Ft mV mu
dp : Change in momentum [N-s] I F dt
W : Weight [N]
Area under F-t graph
T : Tension [N]
will give impulse.
L : Length [m]
4) W mg
a : Acceleration [m/s2]
: Angle 5) Fpseudo maframe
m0 : Initial mass of rocket [kg] 6) Law of conservation of momentum
dm m1u1 m1 v1
: Rate of fuel consumption [kg/s]
dt 7) Motion of connected bodies
Vr : Velocity of gases relative to rocket i) For two bodies
N : Normal reaction [N]
F
DEFINITIONS a
m1 m2
1) Force : Force is a push or pull which tries or
change the state of rest or uniform motion of m1 F
T
a body. m1 m2
2) Weight : Force given by earth towards its centre
ii) For three bodies
on an object is called weight.
3) Reaction : If a body is pressed against a rigid F
a
support, the body experienced a force which is m1 m2 m3
perpendicular to surface in contact is called
reaction or normal reaction. m1 F
T1
4) Linear Momentum : The quantity of motion m1 m2 m3
present in a body is called as Linear
Momentum. ( m1 m2 )F
T2
5) Impulse : When a large force acting for a short m1 m2 m3
interval of time is called impulse.
8) Rope on a horizontal surface
6) Intertial frame of reference : A non-accelerating
frame of reference is called inertial frame of
reference.
7) Pseudo Force : Those force which do not
actually act on the particles but appear to be
acting on the particles due to accelerated
l
motion of frame of reference are called pseudo T 1 F
force. L
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Newton’s Laws Of Motion
9) Pulleys Case - V
Case - I ( m1 m2 sin )
a g
( m1 m2 )
m1 m2 m
T = mg ( m1 m2 )(1 sin )
T g
( m1 m2 )
a=0
Case - VI
Case - II
( m1 sin m2 sin )
m1 m2 a g
( m1 m2 )
( m1 m2 ) m1 m2 (sin sin )
a g T g
( m1 m2 ) ( m1 m2 )
10) Tension in lift wire
2m1 m2
T g i) Lift is stable : T mg
( m1 m2 )
ii) Lift moving up : T m( g a)
Case - III
iii) Lift moving down : T m( g a)
( m2 m3 m1 ) 11) Apparent weight
a g
( m1 m2 m3 ) i) Lift is stable : N = Mg
ii) Lift moving up
N M ( g a)
iii) Lift moving down
N M ( g a)
12) Rocket propulsion
Vr dm
acceleration of rocket
m dt
dm
Thrust on rocket ma Vr
dt
If gravitational force is considered acceleration
Case - IV Vr dm
of rocket g
m2 g m dt
a
m1 m2 dm
m m0 t
m1m2 dt
T g
( m1 m2 )
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Friction
Quick Revision FRICTION
TERMINOLOGY FORMULAE
F : Force (N) 1) Friction:
µ : Coefficient of friction
fs = µsN
N : Normal reaction (N)
µk : Coefficient of kinetic friction fk = µkN
µs : Coefficient of static friction
2) Angle of friction:
m : Mass (kg)
W : Weight (N) = tan–1(µ)
: Angle of repose
N
v : Velocity (m/s) R
s : Distance (m) F
t : Time (s)
f
fs : Static friction
fk : Kinetic friction
3) Angle of repose:
DEFINITIONS
1) Friction: = tan–1(µs)
The resistive force which will act when two
bodies tries to slide is called friction.
2) Static friction:
The frictional force acting between two surfaces
at rest is called as static friction.
3) Kinetic friction:
The frictional force acting between two surfaces 4) Pull is easier than push:
in relative motion is called kinetic friction.
µmg
4) Rolling friction: FPush
cos µ sin
The frictional force acting when object perform
rolling motion is called rolling friction.
5) Limiting friction: F
The maximum force of static friction upto
which body does not move is called limiting
friction.
6) Angle of friction:
The angle which the resultant contact force µmg
FPull
makes with the normal reaction is called angle cos µ sin
of friction.
7) Angle of repose: F
The maximum angle of inclination of a plane
with the horizontal at which the object placed
on it just begin to slide down is called as angle
of repose.
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Friction
5) Motion of an insect in the rough bowl: 8) Friction on an inclined surface:
i) Object moving up
1 a g[sin µ cos ]
h R1
µ2 1
R
h ii) Object moving down
a g[sin µ cos ]
6) Maximum length (Y) hung from table:
µL
Y
µ1
L–Y
9) Minimum force to move:
µmg
Y Fmin
µ2 1
Fmin
7) Stopping of block due to friction:
10) f Versus FApplied:
v2
s
2µg
v f
t
µg
a µg Fapplied
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Work, Energy And Power
Quick Revision WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
TERMINOLOGY 5) Work energy principle:
W : Work done Work done by net force acting on a body is equal
P : Power to change in kinetic energy of body.
s : Displacement 6) Conservative forces:
ds : Small change in displacement A force is conservative if work done by force
in displacing a particle from one point to
K.E. : Kinetic energy another is independent on the path followed by
T.E. : Total energy particle and depends only on the initial and end
points.
T.M.E. : Total mechanical energy
6) Non-conservative forces:
P.E. : Potential energy
If the amount of work done in moving an object
p : Momentum against a force from one point to another point
KEF : Final kinetic energy depends along the path along which the body
moves, then such a force is called non-
KEI : Initial kinetic energy
conservative force.
U : Potential energy
7) Conservation of mechanical energy:
U This principle states that when only
: Partial derivative of energy w.r.t. x
x conservative forces are acting on body then its
net mechanical energy (potential energy +
U kinetic energy) remains constant.
: Partial derivative of energy w.r.t. y
y 8) Power:
It is the rate of doing work. In other words, if
U work done or energy consumed per unit time.
: Partial derivative of energy w.r.t. z
z
9) Watt:
00
Watt is S.I. unit of power. The power of an agent
DEFINITIONS is one watt if it does work at the rate of 1 joule
per second.
1) Work:
10) Kilowatt-hour:
Work is said to be done whenever a force acts
on a body and body moves through some Kilowatt-hour is the commercial unit of energy.
distance in the direction of force. One kilowatt hour is the electrical energy
consumed by an appliance of 1000 watt in
2) Positive work:
1 hour.
The force acting on a body has component in
the direction of displacement. The work done FORMULAE
is called positive work.
1) W F.s
3) Negative work:
2) W | F ||s|cos
If the force acting on a body has the component
opposite to direction of displacement then work
s2
done is called negative work done. 3) W F .ds
s1
4) Zero work:
When force or displacement for cos , either of 1 p2
4) K.E. = mv 2
them is zero then work done is zero. 2 2m
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Work, Energy And Power
5) p 2m( K.E.) 12) P F . v
1 1 dv
6) W mv 2 mu 2 13) F
2 2 ds
1 U
7) Fnet .s m( v 2 u2 ) K .E. 14) Fx
2 x
1 2 U
8) P.E. of spring = kx Fy
2 y
1 2 1 F2 U
9) U kx Fx Fz
2 2 2k z
10) P.E. mgh2 mgh1 mgh 15) For equilibrium,
dU
W dW F 0 0
11) P ds
t dt
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Centre Of Mass And Collision
Quick Revision CENTRE OF MASS AND COLLISION
TERMINOLOGY 6) Centre of gravity :
Fnet : Net force on a particle (Fext + Fint) A point where whole weight of body is act or
m : Total mass supposed to be concentrated is called centre of
gravity.
rcom : Position of center of mass
OR
xcom : Coordinates of Centre of mass on x-axis. Is a point at which resultant of gravitational
ycom : Coordinates of Centre of mass on y-axis. force of all the particles of a body act.
zcom : Coordinates of Centre of mass on z-axis. 7) Velocity of centre of mass :
m1, m2 : Mass of particles Taking time defivative of position vector of
centre of mass will get the velocity vector of
r1 , r2 : Position of individual particle
centre of mass.
d1 : Distance of centre of mass m1. 8) Acceleration of centre of mass :
d2 : Distance of centre of mass m2. Taking time derivative of velocity vector of
: Linear mass density. centre of mass will get the acceleration of centre
R : Radius of circle, semicircle, disc, sphere, of masss.
hemisphere and ring. CONCEPT
h : Height of triangle, hollowand solid cone. 1) Two particle system : Centre of mass divide the
: Density of material distance between particles in inverse ratio of
A : Area there masses.
V : Volume Centre of mass is closer to a massive body.
Vcom : Velocity of centre of mass 2) Applied force is in line with centre of mass then
acom : Acceleration of centre of mass body will travel in translational motion.
DEFINITIONS 3) For small body centre of mass and centre of
gravity both one same.
1) Particle :
4) Try to place particles on co-ordinates system,
Is defined as an object whose mass in finite but
so that we get maximum no. of zero.
size and structure is neglected.
5) Try to find symmetry.
2) System :
6) Centre of mas of a two particle always lie on
Is a collection of very large no of particle, having line joining of these two particle.
finite size and structure. 7) Internal force is action reaction pair.
3) Internal force : FORMULAE
The mutual force exerted by particles of system
on one another is called as internal force. m r m2 r2 .......
1) rcom 11 Weighted average
m1 m2 ......
Fnet (Internal) 0 .... always on system
m1 x1 m2 x2 .......
ex. - Intermolecular force 2) xcom
m1 m2 m3 ......
- Friction
- Explosion m1 y1 m2 y2 .......
3) ycom
- Electrostatic m1 m2 ......
- Gravitation 4) Centre of mass of two particle system
4) External force :
The outside force exerted on a system by
external agent is called external force.
Fnet (Internal) ma
m2 d m1d
5) Centre of Mass : d1 , d2
m1 m2 m1 m2
Is a point where whole mass of a body is
supposed to be concentrated is called centre of d1 m2
or m1d1 m2 d2
mass. d2 m1
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Centre Of Mass And Collision
5) Centre of mass of a continious body 7) Motion of centre of mass
a) Velocity of centre of mass
m1r1 m2 r2 ..........mnrn
rcom
m1 m2 ..................mn m1V1 m2 V2 ........
Vcom
m1 m2 ........
xcom
x dm , y
y dm
com
dm dm P MVcom
Trick : For regular shape body b) Acceleration of centre of mass
m1a1 m2 a2 ......
acom
m1 m2 ........
Fnet Macom
Fnet Fexternal Finternal
6) Centre of mass a remaining portion
a) For solid body Finternal 0
Cases:
If Fexternal 0
Then
m1r1 m2 r2
rcom
m1 m2
m1 x1 m2 x2
xcom
m1 m2
m1 y1 m2 y2 Irrespective of the individual acceleration of
ycom
m1 m2 particle.
b) For two dimensional body (lamina)
a) Vcom const :
If initially Vcom = constant then it will remain
always constant.
m r m2 r2 b) Vcom 0
rcom 1 1
m1 m2
If initially Vcom = 0 then it will remain always
m x m2 x2 A1 x1 A2 x2 zero.
xcom 1 1 or xcom
m1 m2 A1 A2 ex. - Particles is at rest initially
m1 y1 m2 y2 A1 y1 A2 y2 Initial velocity is zero
ycom or ycom
m1 m2 A1 A2 Body is at rest.
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Rotational Motion
Quick Revision ROTATIONAL MOTION
TERMINOLOGY 7) Rolling Motion : When a body perform
: Angular velocity [rad/s] translational and rotational motion is called as
rolling motion.
2 : Final angular velocity [rad/s]
FORMULAE
1 : Initial angular velocity [rad/s] 1) Fundamental of rotational motion
T : Time period [s] 2 2 1
f : Frequency [1/s]
T t
: Angular acceleration [rad/s2]
m : Mass [kg] 1
f
I : Moment of inertia [kg m2] T
r : Perpendicular distance [m]
I0 : Moment of inertia of an object through point O. 2 2
Ic : Moment of inertia of an object through centre t
of mass. Comparison of linear and rotational motion
Iz : Moment of inertia of an object through z axis. Linear motion Rotational Motion
Ix : Moment of inertia of an object through x axis V u at 2 1 t
Iy : Moment of inertia of an object through y axis
m1 : Mass of first particle [kg] V 2 u2 2as 22 12 2
m2 : Mass of second particle [kg]
: Torque [N-m] 1 1
S ut at 2 1t t 2
F : Force [N] 2 2
r1 : Perpendicular distance [m] 2) Moment of inertia of a particle
: Angle I mr 2
k : Radius of gravition [m] 3) Theorem of parallel axis
h : height [m]
v : Velocity [m/s] I 0 I c Mh 2
DEFINITIONS
1) Rotation Motion : The change in the orientation X
a
of body during its motion is called rotational d
motion.
2) Moment of Inertia : The property of body due
CM
to which it oposees any change in its state of
rest or of uniform rotation is called moment of
ienrtia.
3) Radius of Gyration : The distance from an axis X’ a’
of rotation where entire mass of the body 4) Theorem of perpendicular axis
supposed to be concentrated and the value of
Iz Ix I y
moment of inertia is same that due to actual
distribution of masses of body is called radius
Z Y
of gyration.
4) Torque : If a pivoted, hinged or suspended body
O
tends to rotate under the action of force it is said
X’ X
to be acted on by a torque. Z’
5) Angular Momentum : The moment of linear Y’
momentum of body with respect to any axis of
rotation is called as angular momentum.
6) Kinetic Energy of Rotation : The energy which Formula for moment of inertia of regular
a body has by virtue of it rotational motion is bodies
called as kinetic energy of rotation.
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Rotational Motion
Shape Of Moment Of Radius Of
Axis Of Rotation Figure
Body Inertia (I ) Gyration
(1) 1.Passes through the centre 2
Circular Ring & perpendicular to plane MR R
M = Mass
R = Radius 2.About it’s diameter in 2
it’s own plane (1/2)MR R/ 2
3.A b ou t a t a n g en t i a l a xi s 2
2MR 2R
perpendicular to its own plane
4.About a tangential axis in its 3 2 3
MR R
own plane 2 2
(2)
1.Passing through the centre and MR 2 R
Circular Disc perpendicular to the plane
2 2
M = Mass
R = Radius
MR 2 R
2.About diameter
4 2
3.About a tangential axis lying 5 5
MR 2 R
its own plane 4 2
4.A b ou t a t a n g en t i a l a xi s 3 3
MR 2 R
perpendicular to its own plane 2 2
(3)
Hollow
1.About its geometrical axis MR 2 R
Cylinder l
M = Mass 2.About an axis passing through
MR 2 Ml 2
its CM and perpendicular to its R2 l2
R = Radius cm 2 12
length 2 12
L = Length l
3.About an axis perpendicular to MR 2 Ml 2
its length and passing through R2 l 2
2
3 2 3
one end of the cylinder
l
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Rotational Motion
(4) MR 2 R
1.About its geometrical axis
Solid C 2 2
Cylinder
M = Mass 2.About an axis passing through 2 2
its CM and perpendicular to its MR Ml R2 l 2
R = Radius
C 4 12 4 12
L = Length length
l
3.About an axis perpendicular to
R2 l 2
its length and passing through M R2 l 2
one end of the cylinder 4 3 2 3
(5)
Annular disk
1.Passing through centre and R1 M R12 R22
[ R12 R22 ]
perpendicular to the plane R2 2 2
R1
R2
M = Mass
R1 = Internal
2.About its diameter R1 R2 M [ R12 R22 ] 2
R1 R2
2
Radius
4 2
R2 = Outer
Radius
(6)
1.About its geometrical axis or
Hollow R1 R2 M[ R12 R22 ] R12 R 22
about the axis which is passing
Cylinder 2 2
through centre
R1 = Internal
Radius
R2 = Outer
Radius 2.Passing through centre of mass L2 ( R 2 R 2 )
M 1 2 L2 R12 R22
and perpendicular to its length cm 12 4
M = Mass 12 4
L = Length
(7)
Solid Sphere 1.About its axis OR diameter 2 2 2
whi ch i s passi ng through MR R
M = Mass 5 5
which is
R = Radius
7 7
2.About tangential axis MR 2 R
2 5
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Rotational Motion
(8)
Thin Spherical 1 .Pa s s in g t h ro ug h a xis or 2 2
MR 2 R
Shell diameter 3 3
(Hollow Sphere)
M = Mass
R = Radius
(Thickness 5
2.About tangential axis 5
MR2 R
negligible) 3 3
(9)
Solid Sphere
With Cavity
r = Internal About passing through centre 2 [ R5 r5 ] 2 (R 5 r 5 )
M
Radius OR about diameter 5 [ R3 r3 ] 5 (R 3 r 3 )
R = Outer
Radius
M = Mass
(10)
1.Passing through centre of mass ML L
Thin Rod
and perpendicular to length 12 2 3
[Thickness is L
negligible
w.r.t. length]
2.Passing through its one end and ML2 L
perpendicular to axis 3 3
(11)
Rectangular 1.About an axis passing through
CM and perpendicular to side cm Ma 2 a
Plate b
12 2 3
a in its plane
a = Length
b = Width a
M = Mass
2.About an axis passing through 2
Mb b
CM and perpendicular to side cm b
12 2 3
b in its plane
a
3.About an axis passing through M (a 2 b 2 ) a2 b2
CM b
cm 12 12
a
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Rotational Motion
(12)
Triangular Passing through centre of mass
Ma 2 a
Prism and perpendicular triangular
6 6
a = (Side of base face
and height)
a
(13)
Cone About the line joining of top of 3 3
MR 2 R
R = Radius the cone and mid-point of base 10 10
h = Height
R
Moment of inertia of some special bodies
Ma2 I5
I1 I 3 I4
Moment of inertia of square 12
(a) a I1
plate Ma 2
I5 cm
6
a I4
I3 I5
I1
I2
Ma2
I1
6
(b) Moment of inertia of cube
2Ma2
I2 a
3
a
a
IAB
A
I n a tri angle, M.I. w il l be If
(c) maximum relative to smallest AC > BC > AB,
side IA C < I BC < I AB
B C I
AC
I BC
I2
I n t ria n g le, M. I . wi ll b e
If 2
maximum rela tive to tha t
(d) 1 < 2 < 3 ,
perpen dicula r a xis whi ch
I1 > I 2 > I 3
passes through least angle 3 1
I3 I1
Greater the mass away from
(e) axis of rotation, more will be
M.I.
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Rotational Motion
5) Radius of gyration [k] 10) Rolling motion
I mk 2 i) Kinetic energy in rolling motion
6) Moment of inertia of two point masses 1 2 1
K.E.rolling I MV 2
r r1 r2 m1 m2 2 2
CM
m1r1 m2 r2 r1 r2
1 k2
MV 2 1 2
m2 r 2 R
r1
m1 m2
ii) Rolling : motion on an inclined plane
m1r
r2 g sin m
m1 m2 a Rolling body
k2
1 2 VCM
I m1r12 m2 r22 R Height
h S
mm 2 gh Inclined plane
I 1 2 r 2 mr r 2 V
m1 m2 k2
1 2
7) Torque R
rF
1 2h k2
rF sin t 1
sin g R2
F r1
Moment of couple = Fr iii) Pure rolling
V R
F
F
8) Angular momentum [L]
Lrp iv) Energy distribution in rolling motion
L rmv sin
E trans 1
E trans 1 Erotation K 2 / R2
K2
L mvr sin Body
R 2 Erotation
K 2 / R2
Etotal K2
1 2
E total
1
K2
R R2
Law of conservation of angular momentum if Ring 1 1
1 1
there is no external torque. 2 2
1 2 1
Disc 2
2 3 3
I 11 I 2 2 2 5 5 2
Solid Sphere
5 2 7 7
9) Kinetic energy of rotation 2 3 3 2
Spherical Shell
3 2 5 5
1 2 1 2 V2 Solid cylinder
1
2
2 1
K.E. I mk 2 2 3 3
2 2 R Hollow Cylinder 1 1
1 1
2 2
1 k 2 L2
mV 2 2
2 R 2I
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Gravitation
Quick Revision GRAVITATION
TERMINOLOGY DEFINITIONS
F : Force due to gravitation 1) Newton’s law of gravitation :
Law states that every particle on planet or
20
G : Universal gravitational constant 10 11 universe attract every other partical by a force
3 which is directly preportional to product of
M : Mass of earth (6 × 1024 kg) their masses and inversely proportional to
square of distance between them.
m : Mass of object
2) Acceleration due to Gravity :
g : Acceleration due to gravity
Acceleration produced in body due to gravity
: Density of object
or gravitational pull is called as acceleration due
g’h : Acceleration due to gravity at height h above to gravity.
g’d : Acceleration due to gravity at depth d 3) Gravity or Gravitational pull :
h : Height above the earth surface The force of attraction due to earth on a body
d : Depth below the earth surface is called as gravity or gravitational force or
gravitational pull.
R : Radius of earth (6400 km)
4) Gravitational field :
E : Gravitational field.
The gravitational force of attraction per unit
V : Graivtational potential
mass is called as gravitational field.
U : Gravitational potential energy.
OR
W : Work done
A gravitational field is defined as a sphere of
Ve : Escae velocity influence around a mass in which gravitational
Vc : Orbital or critical velocity. force has been experienced.
C : Speed of light (3 × 108 m/s) 5) Gravitational potential :
: Angular velocity Gravitational potential at a point in a
B.E. : Binding energy gravitational field of a body is defined as
amount of wokdone required to bring a mass
K.E. : Kinetic energy
from infinity to that point per unit mass.
VP : Velocity of projection
6) Gravitational potential energy :
VH : Horizontal velocity
GPE of a body is defined as amount of
T : Time period of satellite or planet. workdone required to bring a mass from
a : Semi-major axis. infinity to that point.
b : Semi-minor axis. 7) Escape velocity :
The minimum velocity with which a body
dA projected to just overcome the gravitational pull
VA : Areal velocity
dt of planet.
L : Angular momentum. 8) Orbital velocity (critical velocity) :
g’R : Acceleration due to gravity due to rotation. The velocity of sattelite required to put this
satellite in to a circular orbit around the planet.
g’P : Acceleration due to gravity due to at a pole
9) Binding energy :
g’eq : Acceleration due to gravity due to at a equator
The minimum amount energy required to
Rp : Radius of earth at pole. remove a satellite from earth’s gravitational
Req : Radius of earth at equator. influence.
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Gravitation
FORMULAE a) if h <<<< R
Gm1 m2 2h
1) F 2 then g 'h g 1
r F12 F21 R
r
Gm1m2 m1 m2
F ( rˆ ) 4 d
r2 g 'd G( R d) or g 1 .. At depth ‘d’
3 R
2) Null point
g ' R g 2 R cos 2 ... Due to rotation of Earth
r
x = Latitude
m2
1 GM GM
m1 g 'p g 'eq 2
2 ,
Rp Req
3) Gravitational force between spherical shell and
point mass. F
6) Gravitational field : E
m
i) For point mass
xR xR xr GM
GMm GMm E 2 ( rˆ)
F0 F F r
R2 R2 ii) For spherical shell
4) Gravitational force between solid sphere and
point mass.
xR xR xr
GM GM
E0 E 2 E 2
R r
M Mx
iii) For solid sphere
4 3 4 3
R x
3 3
xR xR xr
GMm GMm GMm
F F F
R3 R2 R2
5) Acceleration due to gravity
GM xR xR xr
g ... Surface
R2 GMx GM GM
E 3 E 2 E 2
GM R2 R R r
g 'h or g .... height ‘h’
( R h )2 ( R h) 2
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Gravitation
W iii) Relation between GP and GPE
7) Gravitational Potential V U = Vm
m
i) For point mass : iv) U on the earth surface
U = – mgR
v) U at height (h << R)
U = mgh
10) Escape velocity
2GM
ii) For spherical shell : Ve .... from surface
R
2GM
V 'e ... from height ‘h’ abovee
Rh
11) Orbital velocity
GM
VC ...... r = R + h
r
xR xR xr r3
GM GM GM T 2
VR VQ VP GM
R R r
GMm
iii) For solid sphere : Kinetic Energy
2r
GMm
Potential Enegy
r
GMm
Total Energy
2r
Binding Energy = – Total Energy
xR xR xr KE TE 2 PE BE
W WR x 12) Areal Velocity :
VR R W R W r
VQ VP dA L
m m r VA
GM x2 GM GM dt 2 m
2 2 VQ VP
GRAPHS
2R R R r
i) Acceleration due to gravity Vs. distance from
8) Relation between V and E
center
dv
E
dr
V E dr
9) Gravitational potential energy
GMm
i) U W r ...... point mass
r
ii) For solid sphere (earth) ii) E vs. Position Vector
a) Point mass
GMm x2
Ux 3 2 ..... inside earth
2R R
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Gravitation
b) Spherical Shell b) Spherical shell
c) Solid Sphere c) Solid sphere
iii) V vs. position (Distance) iv)Energy
a) Point mass
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Mechanical Properties Of Solids
Quick Revision MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
TERMINOLOGY 5) Rigid body:
F : External force The body which is having regular shape.
A : Area of cross section 6) Stress:
l : Change in length
Internal restoring force (external force) per unit
L : Original length area.
V : Change in volume 7) Longitudinal stress:
V : Original volume
When applied force / deforming force produces
: Shear strain change in length of body is called as
Y : Young’s modulus longitudinal force.
K : Bulk modulus 8) Volume stress:
: Shear modulus When deforming force produces change in its
E : Modulus of elasticity volume of body is called as volume stress (also
: Poisson’s ratio called as change in pressure).
P : Breaking stress 9) Shear stress:
C : Compressibility When applied force produces change in its
: Angle of twist shape only of body is called shear stress.
: Angle of shear 10) Strain:
W : Work done The ratio of change in dimension by original
U : Elastic potential energy dimension is called strain.
f : Final density 11) Longitudical strain:
i : Initial density Longitudinal strain or tensile strain is the ratio
Kt : Isothermal elasticity of change in length to the original length.
K : Adiabatic elasticity 12) Volume strain (Bulk strain):
v : Heat capacity
It is the ratio of change in volume to the original
DEFINITIONS volume.
1) Elasticity: 13) Shear strain:
The property of matter by virtue of which body
Ratio of change in shape by original shape.
regains its original size and shape after removal
of deforming force is called as elasticity. OR
2) Deforming force: The applied force produces change in shape
The force which produces deformation is called (cube to parallelopiped) the strain is called as
as deforming force. shear strain.
3) Deformation: 14) Elastic limit:
The change in size, shape or both in a body The maximum deforming force up to which
arising due to external force called as body regains its original size and shape is called
deformation. as elastic limit.
4) Plasticity: 15) Hooke’s law:
The property of matter to undergo a permanent
It states that within elastic limit stress is directly
deformation after removal of deforming force
proportional to strain.
is called as plasticity.
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Mechanical Properties Of Solids
16) Modulus of elasticity: FORMULAE
It is a slope of stress-strain graph within elastic F
limit. 1) Stress = A
C /S
17) Young’s modulus:
= Longitudinal stress
Within elastic limit, it is the ratio of longitudinal
(tensile) stress to longitudinal strain. F
2) Volume stress = P
18) Bulk modulus: Total area
Within elastic limit, it is the ratio of volume
Tangential force Ft
stress to the volume strain. 3) Shear stress
A A
It measures the resistance offered by solid,
liquid and gas to change its volume. l
4) Longitudinal strain =
19) Shear modulus (Modulus of rigidity): L
Within elastic limit, it is the ratio of shear stress V
to shear strain. 5) Volume strain =
V
It measures the resistance offered by solids to
change in its shape. x
6) Shear strain
L
20) Compressibility:
The reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity is Stress
7) E
called compressibility. Strain
21) Poisson’s ratio:
FL
8) Y
Within elastic limit, it is the ratio of lateral strain AL
to longitudinal strain.
Breaking force
22) Lateral strain: 9) Breaking stress P
C/ S Area
Strain developed in the direction perpendicular
to the applied deforming force.
P
10) K
23) Longitudinal strain: V / V
Strain developed in the direction of applied
deforming force. 1
11) C
K
24) Strain energy:
It is defined as elastic potential energy stored 12)
f i [1 C P]
by wire during elongation or compression by
13) Kt = Pressure
deforming force.
14) K = v × Pressure
Area of stress-strain graph gives work done or
elastic potential energy stored in stretched wire F FL
per unit volume. 15) Shear modulus, t or t
A Ax
Molecules having mininum potential energy
when they are in stable equibrium position, for r
any other position potential energy increases. 16) L Angle of shear
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Mechanical Properties Of Solids
17) Relation between Y, K and : GRAPHS
1) Hooke’s law:
9 3 1 Stress
Elastic limit
Y K
Proportional limit
r / r
18) Value 0 0.5
L / L
Strain
19) Relation between Y, K, and : 2) Stress–Strain Graph:
Y 3K(1 2)
Breaking strength
B
Y 2(1 ) Elastic region
Yield point C
20) Work done = Change in potential energy E
Stress
Rupture point
P Elastic limit
1 Proportional limit
W U × Force× Elongation
2
1
W U × Stress× Strain× Volume
2 Strain
1 B &C Small then material is brittle
W U × Stress 2 × Volume Distance
2Y
Large then material is ductile
1 Very very small then elastomer
W U × Y Strain 2 × Volume
2
3) Elastomer:
21) Elongation due to self weight Stress is not directly proportional to strain
Does not obey Hooke’s law.
Mg L
L Stress
2 AY
22) Breaking stress due to self weight
Mg
P Strain
A
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Mechanical Properties Of Fluids
Quick Revision MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
TERMINOLOGY FORMULAE
dv/dt : Velocity Gradient
A : Area dv
1) Fv A
: Coefficient of Viscosity dt
: Shearinag stress
Fv : Viscous force Fv dv
2)
W : Weight A dt
FB : Buoyancy force
Vt : Terminal velocity 3) 1 poise = 0.1 N.s/m2
: Density of ball (spherical object)
4) Fv 6rv
: Density of fluid
r : Radius of sphere
5) FB Vsub g = density of liquid
g : Acceleration due to gravity
Re : Reynold’s number
P : Pressure Vd
6) Re
Q : volumetric flow (Discharge)
L : Length
Vsub : Submerged volume 2 r 2 ( ) g
H : Total height of tank 7) Vt
g
h : Height of hole
DEFINITIONS 8) Q = AV
1) Viscosity :
The characteristic of fluid by virtue of which 9) Velocity of efflux V 2 gh
relative motion between different layers is
opposed is known as viscosity.
10) Range of efflux R 2 h( H h)
Viscosity is internal friction of a fludi in motion.
2) Critical Velocity :
The maximum velocity up to which fluid 2gh
motion is steady is called critical velocity. 11) Q A1 A2
A A22
2
1
3) Laminar flow :
Flow in which one liquid particle never cross GRAPHS
a path of other liquid particle.
4) Reynold’s number :
It can be defined as a ratio of inertia force to
viscous force.
Re 2000 ... Laminar flow
3000 Re 2000 ... transition flow
Re 3000 ... Turbulent flow
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Surface Tension
Quick Revision SURFACE TENSION
TERMINOLOGY FORMULAE
T or or s : Surface Tension F
F : Force due to surface tension 1) Surface Tension (T) =
l
l : Length of object in contact with liquid 2) Name of object Length
surface (for circular object it is i) Wire 2l
circumference)
ii) Ring 2 2r
W : Work done
iii) Circular plate 2 r
A : Total change in surface area.
iv) Hollow disc 2r1 2 r2
Q : Increase or decrease in temperature
v) Square plate 4l
J : Mechanical equivalent of heat. vi) Square frame 8l
V : Volume 3) W T A
d or : Density 4) Name of object Surface Area
S : Spacific heat Droplet 4 r 2
P : Pressure difference Bubble 2 4 r 2
: Angle of contact Air bubble inside liquid 4r 2
h : Rise in capillary 5) Formation of smaller droplet from bigger
t : Thickness between two plate. W 4 T[nr 2 R 2 ] ... Energy absorbed
DEFINITIONS Or
1) Surface Tension :
1 1
Surface tension of liquid is measured by the W 3VT
r R
force acting per unit length on either side of an
imaginary line drawn on the free surface of
3T 1 1
liquid. ... Temperature Decreased
JSd r R
2) Surface Energy :
6) Formation of bigger droplet from smaller
The potential energy stored in surface film per
unit surface area is called as surface energy per W 4 T [nr 2 R2 ] ... Energy released
unit area. Or
3) Angle of Contact :
1 1
When liquid is in contact with solid, the angle 3VT
between tangent drawn to the free surface of r R
liquid and the surface of solid at the point of
contact measured inside the liquid. 3T 1 1
... Temperature increased
JSd r R
4) Capillarity :
The phenomena of rise or fall or a liquid inside 7) Excess pressure ( P )
a capillary tube when it is dipped in the liquid 2T
is called capillaryity. P ... For droplet and Air bubble inside
r
5) Sphere of Influence : liquid
An imaginary sphere around a molecule in
4T
which intermolecular force has been P ... For bubble
experienced is called as sphere of influence. r
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Surface Tension
10) Formation of Double bubble :
2T cos
8) h 1 1 1
rg
R R1 R2
R1 R2
1 R
h or hr = constant or h1r1 h2 r2 R2 R1
r
11) Force required to pull two plate (JEE concept)
2TA
h r F
t
(tube) (meniscus radius) (Angle of contact)
GRAPHS
Rise in capillary Vs radius of tube
9) Formation of single bubble or droplet from two
bubble or droplet in isothermal condition
c a 2 b2
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Thermal Properties Of Matter
Quick Revision THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
TERMINOLOGY 3) Heat :
TC : Temperature in °C is energy in transit which is transfered from one
Tk : Temperature in °K body to other due to temperature difference
x0 : Thermometric property at 0°C between them.
x100 : Thermometric property at 100°C 4) Heat Capacity :
xt : Thermometric property at t°C The heat required to raise the temperature of
l : Length body by 1°C is called heat capacity.
V : Volume 5) Water equivalent :
P : Pressure Water equivalent of a body is the mass of water
R : Resistance having the same heat capacity as a given body
: Linear expansion coefficient 6) Latent heat :
: Coeficient of areal expansion The amount of heat required to change the state
of unit mass of a substance at a constant
: Coeficient of volume expansion
temperature is called latent heat.
: Density
7) Thermal conductivity is a measure of the ability
T : Time period of a substance to conduct heat through it.
Y : Young’s modulus 8) Black body :
vapp : Apparent coefficient of volume expansion
A body which absorb all the radiation falling
W : workdone on it is caused black body.
J : Mechanical equivalent of heat (4.2 J/cal)
8) Emissive power :
Q : Heat
Emissive is the energy radiated per unit area
S : Specific heat capacity
per unit time per unit solid angle along the
: Change in temperature normal to the area.
C : Molar heat capacity 9) Absorptive power :
M : Molecular weight Absorptive power is a fraction of the incident
L : Latent heat radiation that is absorbed by the body.
LF : Latent heat of fusion FORMULAE
K : Coefficient of thermal conductivity
A : Area of cross-section tt t0
1) t 100C
i : Heat current t100 t0
R : Thermal resistance
E : Emissive power C0 F 32 K 273.15
2)
U : Energy radiator 100 0 212 32 373.15 273.15
a : Absorptive power l l0
: Stefans constant (5.67 × 10–8 W/m2k4) 3) Liquid thermometer : t 100C
l100 l0
e : Emmissivity of the surface
S : Solar constant V V0
DEFINITIONS 4) Gas thermometer : t V V 100C
100 0
1) Temperature :
It is defined as degree of coldness or hotness P P0
of a body and it is measured by thermometer. t 100C
P100 P0
2) Zeroth law of Thermodynamics :
If two bodies x and y are are in equlibrium and R R0
x and z are in equilibrium then y and z are in 5) Resistance thermometer : t 100C
R100 R0
equilibrium.
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Thermal Properties Of Matter
6) Thermal expansion
U
a) Linear expansion L2 L1[1 ] 14) E
At
b) Area expansion A2 A1 [1 ] 15) u T 4
c) Volume expansion V2 V1 [1 ] dT eA 4
16) Rate of cooling (T T04 )
d) pendulum clock time period dt ms
1 dT
T2 T1 1 Newtons law K (T T0 )
2 dt
e) Density 2 1 [1 ] 4eAT03
K
ms
7) Thermal stress t
17) Wien’s law mT = b = constant
8) Vapp V app where app 1 b = 0.288 cm-k
9) W = JQ
10) ms , nc , mL GRAPHS
11) Heat lost = Heat gained 1) Heating Curve
While solving problems, when temperature
change is involved, use ms or nc ,
when state change is involved, use mL
KA( 1 2 )
12)
t L
d d
KA
dt dx
L
iR
t KA 2)
13) Keq
1 1 1
a) Series K K K .........
eq 1 2
b) Parallel Keq K1 K2 K3 ......
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Thermodynamics
Quick Revision THERMODYNAMICS
TERMINOLOGY 5) Adiabatic process :
n : Number of moles of gas. If system is completely isolated from
c : Molar specific heat capacity. surroundings so that no heat flows ‘in’ or ‘out’,
cp : Molar specific heat capacity at constant then any change that the system undergoes is
pressure. called an adiabatic process.
cv : Molar specific heat capacity at constant
6) Iso-baric process :
volume.
R : Universal gas constant. A process taking place at constant pressure
T : Absolute temperature of gas. throughout.
Q : Heat energy supplied to the gas. 7) Isochoric (Isometric) process :
w : Work done by the gas.
Thermodynamic process in which volume of
u : Internal energy of gas.
the system remains constant throughout.
u : Change in internal energy of gas.
: Efficiency 8) Cyclic process :
The process in which the initial and final states
cp of gas after traversing a cycle are same.
: Adiabatic exponent c
v 9) Second laws of thermodynamics :
P : Pressure exerted by gas. It states that it is impossible for a self acting
V : Volume occupied by gas. machine unaided by any external agency, to
f : Degree of freedom. transfer heat from a body at lower temperature
to a body at higher temperature. It is decided
R from this law that, the efficiency of any heat
k : Boltzmann constant k
NA engine can never be 100%.
F.L.T. : First law of thermodynamics. 10) Heat engine : It is a device which converts heat
DEFINITIONS energy into mechanical energy.
1) Heat ( ) : 11) Refrigerator :
It is the energy which is transfered from a
Refrigerator is a heat engine running in
system to surroundings (or) vice versa due to
backward direction i.e., working substance
temperature difference between system and
takes heat from cold body and gives out to
surroundings. hotter body with the help of external agency.
It is a macroscopic quantity..
Path dependent. 12) Carnot’s theorem :
2) Work : It states that no heat engine can have efficiency
Work is the energy that is transmitted from one greater than carnot’s engine working between
system to other by a force moving its points of same hot and cold reservair.
application. 13) Reversible process :
It is a macroscopic quantity..
Path dependent. A process which can proud in opposite
3) Internal energy : direction in such a way, that the system passes
through the same states as in the direct process
The total kinetic energy of gas and gas
and finally the system and surroundings
molecule. u T
acquire the initial conditions.
4) Isothermal process :
A thermodynamic process in which the 14) Irreversible process :
temperature of the system remains constant The process which cannot be traced back in the
throughout. opposite direction.
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Thermodynamics
FORMULAE 6) Cyclic process :
1) First law of thermodynamics a) Initial and final states are same.
u b) u 0
nc T heat energy supplied to gas. c) Work done by gas = Area inside cycle.
u nGT change in internal energy of gas. = +ve for clockwise cycle and –ve for anti-
clockwise cycle.
1
2 d) net ; ( net supplied released )
dV work doen by the gas.
v1 e) cycle
supplied
2) Isothemal process :
7) Molar specific heat capacity for a polytropic
a) condition T = constant throughout
process with state equation PVh = constant is
b) State equation pv = constant
R
( P1V1 P2 V2 ) given by C CV
1 n
c) F.L.T. u ncv T 0 ; ( T 0) 8) Area covered by P-V graph with volume axis
gives work done by the gas.
P
u
d) Work done by the gas RT ln 2
u1
P
RT ln 1 Work
P2 V
3) Iso-baric process : 9) Bulk modulus of gas Bisothermal = P
a) Condition p = constant throughout Badiabatic = P
10) Efficiency of heat engine :
V V V c/p
b) State equation = constant. 1 2 efficiency
T T1 T2 i/p 1
c) F.L.T. ut 2
1
d) Work done by the gas P( V ) R( T ) 1 1
4) Iso-choric process : (Isometric process) for carnot engine ' ' is
a) Condition : v = cconstant throughout maximum is given by
P P 2 T
P max 1 1 2
b) State equation constant 1 2 1 T1
T T1 T2
11) Refrigerator
c) F.L.T. u;( 0) Co-efficient of performance
d) Work done by the gas 0 ; 1
1 T1
( v = constant) 2 1
5) Adiabatic process : T2 T1
a) Condition 0 (Hot Reservoir) (Cold Reservoir)
Source Engine Sink
b) State equation PV = constant
T1 T2
TV 1 = constant
Q1 Q2
P 1T = constant
c) F.L.T. u 0 ; ( 0)
W = Q1 – Q2
d) work done by the gas
12) Relation between " " and " "
PV PV R(T1 T2 )
1 1 2 2 1
1 1
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Thermodynamics
GRAPHS 5) What does the slope of P-V graph gives ..?
1) Iso-thermal process : a) for isothermal process graph
dP P
slope
dV V
b) for adiabatic graph
dP P
slope
dV V
6) Iso-choric process :
2) Adiabatic process :
7) Iso-baric process :
3) Iso-thermal and Adiabatic comparison :
4) Comparison of mono, dia and polyatomic gases
for adiabatic process
8) Carnot’s cycle :
T1 T2 TH (temperature of hot reservior)
T3 T4 TC (temperature of cold reservior)
TC
cycle 1
TH
more more slope 1 2 3
5
1 monoatomic
3
7
2 diatomic gas 1 2 isothermal expansion
5 2 3 adiabatic expansion
4 3 4 isothermal compression
3 polyatomic gas 4 1 adiabatic compression
3
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Kinetic Theory Of Gases
Quick Revision KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
TERMINOLOGY 6) Charle’s law:
P : Pressure exerted by the gas It states that, volume of given mass of gas
varies directly proportional to its absolute
V : Volume occupied by the gas
temperature, given its pressure is constant.
n : Number of moles of the gas
R : Universal gas constant V
Constant
T
T : Absolute temperature of gas
7) Dalton’s law of partial pressure:
M : Molar mass of the gas
Partial pressure of a gas is the pressure which
m : Mass of gas sample it would exert if contained alone in the given
µ : Molecular mass of the gas confined space.
K : Boltzmann constant P = P1+P2+P3
C : Specific heat capacity P = Total pressure of mixture of gases
P1+P2+P3 = Partial pressure of individual gases
Cp : Specific heat capacity at constant pressure
in mixture
Cv : Specific heat capacity at constant volume 8) Graham’s law of diffusion:
: Density of gas Graham’s law of diffusion states that, rate of
N : Number of molecules diffusion of gas varies inversely as the square
root of density of gas.
NA : Avagadro’s number
: Adiabatic exponent (Cp / Cv) 1
r
f : Degree of freedom
v : Speed of gas molecules 9) Avagadro’s law:
Q : Heat energy It states that under similar conditions of
U : Internal energy of gas pressure and temperature equal volumes of all
gases contain equal number of molecules.
DEFINITIONS
PV = nRT
1) Gas: 10) Root mean square speed (vrms):
Type of matter that does not have any fixed It is the square root of the mean of squares of
shape or volume. individual speeds of the molecules of gas.
2) Ideal gas: 11) Average speed:
Gas in which, size of molecule and force of It is the arithmetic mean of speed of the
interaction between molecules is considered molecules of a gas.
zero. 12) Most probable speed:
3) Real gas: It is the speed possessed by maximum number
of molecules of a gas sample.
The gas that shows deviation from ideal gas
13) Degree of freedom:
behaviour is called a real gas.
Number of possible independent ways in which
4) Avagadro’s number (NA): the position and configuration of the system
It is the number of carbon atoms contained in may change.
12 gms of C-12 carbon. 14) Law of equipartition of energy:
NA = 6.023 × 10 23 In a gas sample, in thermal equilibrium, the
5) Boyle’s law: total internal energy of the gas is divided
equally among all the degree of freedom.
It states that the volume of a given amount of
15) Gram specific heat capacity (c):
gas varies inversely as its pressure, provided its
Amount of heat energy required by unit mass
temperature is kept constant.
of gas to rise its temperaure by 1°C (or) 1 K.
PV = Constant
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Kinetic Theory Of Gases
16) Molar specific heat capacity (c): 6) Translational K.E. of a gas,
Amount of heat energy required by 1 mole of
gas in order to rise its temperature by 1°C or 3
K .E.T nRT
1 K. 2
17) Heat capacity: 7) Energy per molecule per degree of freedom is
Heat energy consumed by gas sample to rise is
temperature by 1°C or 1 K. 1
KT
18) Adiabatic exponent (): 2
It is the ratio of Cp to Cv of a gas. 8) Energy per mole per degree of freedom is
Cp
1
Cv RT
2
FORMULAE 9) Internal energy (U):
1) Ideal gas equation:
a) PV = nRT f
For one molecule KT
RT 2
b) P
M f
For n moles of gas nRT
KT 2
c) P
µ 10) Change in internal energy of a gas sample is,
d) PV = NKT
f
2) Real gas equation: U nRT nC v T
2
n2 a
P ( V nb) nRT 11) For a given gas,
V2
R
where a, b are Vander waal’s constants a) C v f
3) Pressure exerted by a gas 2
2 b) Cp – Cv = R
P e (If Cp & Cv are molar specific heat capacities)
3
where e is translational KE per unit volume of R
gas. c) C p Cv
M
1 2 (If Cp & Cv are gram specific heat capacities)
and P vrms ; = Density of gas
3
4) R.M.S. speed, Cp
d)
3 RT 3P 3KT Cv
vrms
M µ
2
Average speed, e) 1
f
8 RT 8P 8 KT
vavg
M µ R R
f) Cv ; Cp
Most probable speed, 1 1
2 RT 2P 2KT 12) Degree of freedom (f) (Excluding vibrational
vmp energies):
M µ
i) Monoatomic = 3, (3 Translational)
5) In a given gas sample vrms vavg vmp ii) Diatomic (or) polylinear = 5, (3 Translational
+ 2 Rotational)
8
vrms : vavg : vmp 3 : : 2 iii)Poly non-linear = 6, (3 Translational
+ 3 Rotational)
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Kinetic Theory Of Gases
13) For a mixture of gases: GRAPHS
1) Boyle’s law:
n1C p1 n2C p2 .....
C p (mix.)
n1 n2 .....
n1Cv1 n2Cv2 ..... 1
P ; T = constant
Cv (mix.) V
n1 n2 .....
C p(mix)
mix
Cv (mix)
2) Charle’s law:
Absolute temperature of mixture,
V
f1n1T1 f2 n2T2 .....
Tmix.
f1n1 f2 n2 .....
P = constant
14) Heat energy supplied to a gas
Q mC ab T or Q nC molar T T
Cab = gram sp. heat capacity
Cmolar = molar sp. heat capacity
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Simple Harmonic Motion
Quick Revision SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
TERMINOLOGY 4) Amplitude :
T : Time period [s] The maximum value of displacement from
: Angular frequency [rad’s] equilibrium position is called as amplitude.
x : Displacement of particle from mean 5) Phase :
position [m] The state of particle with respect to its position
and direction of motion is called as phase.
V : Velocity [m/s]
6) Initial phase :
a : Acceleration [m/s2] The initial state of particle is said to be initial
k : Spring constant [N/m] phase.
m : Mass of block [kg] 7) Free oscillation :
When a system is displaced from its
Ms : Mass of spring [kg]
equilibrium position and released, it oscillates
F : Force [N] with the natural frequency and the oscillations
A : Amplitude [m] are called as free oscillation.
: Initial phase or epech 8) Forced or driven oscillation :
If an external agency maintain the oscillations
K.E. : Kinetic energy [ J ]
then it is called as forced or driven oscillation.
P.E. : Potential energy [ J ] 9) Resonance :
T.E. : Total energy [ J ] The phenomenon of increase in amplitude
R : Resultant amplitude [m] when driving force is close to natural
frequenccy of oscillator is called resonance.
s : Resultant initial phase angle
FORMULAE
Fd : Damped force [N]
1) Linear simple harmonic motion
b : Damping constant
F = –kx
F(t) : External force [N]
F0 : Amplitude of external force [N] F kx
a 2 x
m m
d : Forced frequency
k
0 : Natural frequency
m
I : Moment of inertia
2 m
C : Torsinal constant T 2
k
DEFINITIONS
F = –kx
1) Periodic motion :
ma = –kx
A motion that repeat itself at regular interval
of time is called periodic motion. k
a x
2) Time period : m
The smallest time interval after which the
d2 x
motion repeats itslef is called the time period. 2
2 x
dt
3) Simple harmonic motion :
Incase of motion of particle moves back and d2 x
2 x 0
forth about fixed point throught a force which dt 2
is directly proportional to displacement but
opposite in direction the motion is called as V A2 x2
simple harmonic motion. x A sin(t )
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Simple Harmonic Motion
2) Equation of SHM 6) Pendulum in lift
i) Particle starting from extreme right i) If lift is at rest
x A cos(t )
l
Angle measured from positive x axis. T 2
g
ii) Particle starting from mean position
ii) If lift is moving upward with an acceleration
x A sin t
[a]
Angle measure from negative y axis.
3) Energy in SHM l
If x A sin t T 2
ga
1 1 iii) If lift is moving downward with an
K.E. m2 ( A2 x 2 ) K( A2 x 2 )
2 2 acceleration [a]
1 l
K.E. K( A 2 A2 sin 2 t ) T 2
2 ga
1 iv) If lift is under free fall
KA2 cos2 t
2 T
1 1
1 1 1 t 0
P.E. m2 x 2 kx2 KA2 sin2 t T
2 2 2
v) Pendulum accelerating horizontally
1
T .E. K .E. P.E. KA 2 l
2 T 2 1
1 ( g2 a2 ) 2
K.E.average KA 2
4 7) Second pendulum
T=2S
1
KA2
P.E.average g
4 l
4) Comparison of two SHM 2
8) Pendulum of large length
x1 A1 sin( t 1 )
1
x2 A2 sin( t 2 ) T 2
1 1
g
x x1 x2 l R
x A1 sin( t 1 ) x A2 sin( t 2 ) if l
x R sin( t ) R
T 2 84.6 min
g
R A12 A22 2 A1 A2 cos( 1 2 )
9) Compound pendulum
A sin 1 A2 sin 2
tan 1 I
A1 cos 1 A2 cos 2 T 2
mgl
5) Simple pendulum
10) Torsional pendulum
l I
T 2 T 2
g C
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Simple Harmonic Motion
11) Motin of a ball in a tunnel through earth 16) Damped simple harmonic motion
F Fd Fs
R
T 2 84.6 min M a bV kx
g
d2 x dx
12) Oscillating of a floating body in a liquid M 2
b kx
dt dt
h s d2 x dx
T 2 M 2
b kx 0
g l dt dt
bt
13) Oscillating of a liquid column in a V-tube.
2m
x Ae cos( ' t )
h
T 2 2
g k b
'
14) Simple pendulum in a liquid m 2m
l s 2
T 2 T
2
g (s l ) k b
15) Spring System m 2 m
F kx
17) Forced oscillation and resonance
k
m F (t ) F0 cos( t )
m
T 2 d2 x dx
k m 2
b kx F0 cos t
dt dt
Spring in sereis
1 1 1 x(t ) A cos( d t )
K eff K1 K 2
F0
A 1
[m2 ( 2 2d )2 2d b2 ]2
v0
tan
d x0
Spring in a parallel
V0 = Initial velocity
Keff K1 K 2
If mass of spring [Ms] considered then i) Small damping driving frequency far from
natural frequency
Ms
m
3 F0
T 2 A
K M(2 2d )
Reduced mass
ii) Driving frequency closed to natural
Mr
T 2 frequency
K
M1 M 2 F0
Mr A
M1 M 2 d b
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Simple Harmonic Motion
GRAPHS 3) x A cos t
1) F Vs x V A sin t
a 2 A cos t
2) x A sin t
V A cos t
a 2 A sin t
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Waves
Quick Revision WAVES
TERMINOLOGY FORMULAE
A : Amplitude 1) Wave velocity (v) :
: Wavelength
v : Wave velocity v f
T k
K : Wave number
T : Tension in string 2) Intensity of wave (I) :
: Mass per unit length I 2 2 f 2 A 2 v
: Density of medium 3) Energy density :
Y : Young’s modulus of elasticity 2 2 f 2 a 2 v
B : Bulk modulus of elasticity Energy density
V
P : Pressure
R : Universal gas constant 4) Velocity of transverse wave :
T : Temperature T
M : Molar mass v (in stretched string)
I : Intensity
: Angular
: Modulus of rigidity v (in solid)
TYPES OF WAVES 5) Velocity of sound wave :
1) On The Basis Of Medium:
i) Mechanical Waves : Required medium for Elasticity of medium
v
their propagation ex.: Waves on string, and Density of medium
spring etc.
ii) Non-mechanical Waves : Do not require E
v
medium for their propagation ex.: Light,
radio waves, X-rays etc.
2) On The Basis Of Vibration Of Particle: Y
v (in solids)
i) Transverse waves : Particle of medium
vibrates in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of waves ex.: B
movement of string of sitar v (in liquid and gaslong medium)
ii) Longitudinal waves : Particles of medium
6) Newton’s formula :
vibrate in the direction of wave motion. ex.:
sound wave travel through air. P
3) On The Basis Of Energy Propagation: v
i) Progressive wave : These waves propagates
energy in medium. Ex. : Sound wave 7) Laplace correction :
ii) Stationary wave : Energy is not propagated YP
by these waves. ex.: waves in a string, waves v Y = 1.41 for air
in organ pipes.
4) Amplitude : Maximum displacement from YRT
mean position. v
M
5) Wavelength : It is equal to the distance travelled
by the wave during the time in which any 8) Equation of plane progressive wave :
particle of medium completes one vibration. y( x1t ) A sin( t kx ) (general equation)
6) Angular wave number : Number of wavelengths
where = Initial phase
in the distance 2 .
7) Wave velocity (v) : It is the distance travelled = Wave number
by the disturbance in one time period. A = amplitude
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Waves
Various Form Destructive interference:
Phase difference, 180 or (2n 1)
i) y A sin( t kx) , Let 0
= 1, 2, 3, .........
2
ii) y A sin t x Path difference (2 n 1) (odd multiple of )
2 2
Amin A1 A2
2 2 2
iii) y A sin t
T
x
I min I1 I 2 2 I1 I 2 I1 I 2
11) Stationary wave :
t x equation, y 2A sin
kx cos t
y A sin 2 Amplitude of wave
T
Node : The points where amplitude is
9) Particle velocity minimum
VP = –v × slope of wave at that point. Distance between two successive nodes is
2
10) Interference of sound waves : When two waves Antinode : The points of maximum amplitude.
of same frequency, same velocity moves in same Distance between two successive antinodes
direction.
is .
2
y1 A1 sin(t )
y2 A2 sin( t )
after superposition. 12) Stenting wave can string
frequency of vibration = frequency of wave
Anet A12 A22 2 A1 A2 cos
v 1 T
Intensity ( I ) I 1 I 2 2 I1 I 2 cos
13) i) Fundamental frequency or first harmonic
Constructive interference: 1 T 1 T
n1
Phase difference 0 or 2n 2l
ii) Second harmonic or first overtone :
Path difference (even multiple of ) 1 T
2 h2
Resultant amplitude,
1 T
h2 2n2
Amax A1 A2 l
iii) Third harmonic or second over tone.
Resultant intensity
1 T
h3
I max I 1 I 2 2 I 1 I 2
2 3 T
I1 I 2 h3
2l
3n1
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Waves
14) Standing wave in organ pipe : Open organ pipe
Closed organ pipe {Vs = Velocity of sound} Vs
Resonance frequency f1 [fundamental frequency or 1st harmonic]
2l
Vs
f1 [fundamental frequency 1st harmonic]
4l
2V s
f2 [2nd harmonic or 1st overtone]
2l
3Vs
f2 [3rd harmonic or 1st over tone]
4l
15) Beat frequency
Beat frequency = No. of beats per second
= Difference in frequency of
two source
= n1 n2
5V Doppler effect :
f3 s [5th harmonic or 2nd overtone]
4l apparent frequency
v v0
fapp factual
v vsource
Note : choose plus / minus signs based on
situation
v = velocity of sound.
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Electrostatics (I+II)
Quick Revision ELECTROSTATICS (I+II)
TERMINOLOGY 8) Electric flux:
Q/q : Charge Flux linking an area is defined as the number
Fc : Force between the charges of field lines passing through given area
E : Electric field intensity perpendicularly.
: Linear charge density 9) Gauss’s law : Flux linking any closed surface
: Surface charge density 1
: Volume charge density is always equal to times the net charge
0
0 : Permittivity of free space enclosed by the surface.
: Permittivity of medium 10) Electric potential:
r : Relative permittivity Electric potential at a point in a field is defined
as the amount of work done in bringing a unit
k : Dielectric constant
positive test charge from infinity to that point.
: Electric flux 11) Potential difference:
n̂ : Unit vector along normal The potential difference between two points is
r : Distance from charge / body centre defined as the amount of work done in bringing
R : Radius unit positive charge from one point to another.
: Gradient 12) Electric potential energy:
V : Electric potential / Potential difference (Voltage) Work done in bringing a charge particle from
infinity to a point in field, will store as potential
dr : Small change in position vector
W : Work done energy in the charge.
13) Equipotential surface:
p : Dipole moment
It is the surface where the potential at any point
u : Potential energy of the surface has the same value.
C : Capacitance 14) Electric dipole:
b/w : Between Two equal and opposite charges, separated by
DEFINITIONS a finite distance constitute a dipole.
1) Charge : 15) Dipole moment:
It is the fundamental property of matter due to Product of magnitude of either of the charges
which matter experiences the effect of electric in a dipole and the dipole length is known as
and magnetic fields. dipole moment.
2) Linear charge density: 16) CORONA Discharge:
Charge per unit length of a body. When the electric field on the surface of
3) Surface charge density:
Charge per unit surface area at the body. conductor ( ) exceeds the electric strength
4) Volume charge density: of air, the air becomes conducting and the
Charge per unit volume of the body. surface of conductor loses charge. This action
5) Electric field: usually occurs at sharp points, where will be
The region of influence surrounding a charged high. This phenomena is known as ‘CORONA
body upto which it can influence other charge Discharge’.
particles. 17) Capacitance:
6) Electric field intensity: Capacitance of a body is defined as the amount
Number of field lines passing throught uniform. of charge required per unit rise of potential of
or the body.
Force acting per unit charge placed in the field. 18) Condenser OR Capacitor:
7) Neutral point (Null point): An arrangement of conductors which increases
Point where resultant electric field intensity is the capacity of the one conductor at relatively
zero. low potential is called as capacitor or condenser.
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Electrostatics (I+II)
19) Series Combination: 5) Electric field intensity due to point charge
Two or more capacitors are said to be in series
if same amount of charge passes through all the
capacitors one after the other.
1 Q
20) Parallel Combination: E
4 0 r 2
Two or more branches are said to be in parallel
if they are connected between same set of points direction : away from charge if q is +ve towards
(or) if they have same voltage across them. charge if q is –ve.
FORMULAE 6) Null point : q Q
1) Quantization of charge : Like charge
net charge on any body is given by ne d
x
n : number of electrons supplied to the body or Q
removed from the body. 1
q
2) Coulomb’s law : Force between two charges
Unlike charge
d
x
Q
1 Q1Q2 1
F q
4 0 r 2 (for air medium)
7) Electric flux :
1 Q1Q2 For a closed surface
F (for other media)
4 ( k 0 ) r 2 ( E)d cos E ds
3) ds ds nˆ
1 Q1Q2
F
40 ( r t t k )2
4) Force on a charge particle placed in electric 8) Electric flux for uniform field is
field.
ES cos E S
max ES when lines are perpendicular to
surface.
F = qE
min 0 when liens are parallel to surface.
ve for leaving flux.
in vector form F qE ve for entering flux.
9) Number of field lines coming out (or) entering
direction of F and E is same if q is +ve and
opposite if q is –ve. q
in for a charge ‘q’ is .
0
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Electrostatics (I+II)
10) Electric field due to charged wire / cyling 14) Field due to uniformly charged conducting
plate
E
20 r
E
0
11) Field due to charged circular arc at centre C(EC)
Q 15) Field due to uniformly charged conducting
sphere / spherical shell
+ + +
Q+ + +
+ +
R + +
+ R + P
O +r
Q +
R + +
+ +
C ++ +
EC + + +
E = 0 (inside point; r < R)
2 kQ
EC sin 1 Q
2
R 2 0 4 0 R2 (at surface; r = R)
1
where k 4 and should be in radian. 1 Q
0 40 r 2 ; (at outside; r > R)
12) Field due to uniformly charged ring at a point
16) Electric field due to uniformly charged non-
an axis.
conducting sphere
r
E
3 0 ; (at inside point ; r < R)
Q x 1 Q
Eaxis 3
4 0
( R2 x )
2 2 4 0 R 2 ; (at surface; r = R)
13) Field due to uniformly charged sheet 1 Q
4 0 r 2 ; (at outside; r > R)
17) Electric field at a point inside the cavity of
conducting sphere
E
2 0
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Electrostatics (I+II)
18) Field inside the cavity of uniformly charged 24) Potential due to charged wire / rod:
non-conducting sphere P
+ ++ ++ ++ ++
L
+ + + r x
+ ++ E O O'
3 0 Uniform x L
+ +O O’ Vp ln
++ + + + field 40 x
+ +
+ ++ +
+ ++ 25) Potential due to charged disc:
+
O - centre of sphere ++++
O’ - centre of cavity
+++
+++
P
++ + x
Note : In all above formulae, incase of any other ++++
+
medium than air, replace 0 with k 0 .
Vp ( R 2 x 2 x)
K = dielectric constant. 2 0
19) Electric potential at any point ‘p’:
R
Vcentre
W p 20
Vp
q0 26) Potential due to uniformly charged conducting
sphere (Or) spherical shell:
Where W p is work done in bringing charge
+
q0 from to point p. + + ++
R
+ ++ +
++
20) Potential due to point charge: P
++ +
r
++
1 Q ++
Vp r + ++
4 0 r Q P
21) Potential difference between two points A & B: 1 Q
V
4 0 R (At any point inside sphere: r R )
WA B
VB V A
q0 1 Q
4 0 r (At point outside sphere: r > R)
where WA B is work done in moving charge q0
27) Potential due to uniformly charged non-
from A to B. conducting sphere:
22) Electric field due to group of charges q1, q2, q3,
++
......., qn is ++ +++
+ + + +R+ + + P
+ + ++ +++
V V1 V2 V3 ...... Vn + + + + + ++
++ ++ +++
++ +++ +
r
++ +
1 q1 q2 qn
......
40 r1 r2 rn Q 3 R2 r 2
V
n
4 0 R3 2
1 qi
V
4 0
r
i 1
(At any point inside sphere : r < R)
i
1 Q
23) Potential due to uniformly charged ring:
4 0 R (At point on surface: r = R)
1 Q ++
Vp
+++ +++++ +
++
40 2 2 1 Q
++ +++++ +
R x P
4 0 r (At point outside sphere: r > R)
x
1 Q
++
++
Vcentre 3
4 0 R Vcentre Vsurface
2
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Electrostatics (I+II)
28) Potential energy stored between two point 36) Electric dipole moment:
charges:
P
1 Q1Q2 r
U Q1 Q2 –q l +q
4 0 r
P ql
29) Potential energy of a charge placed in electric 37) Dipole placed in uniform field:
field:
+
U = qV
V - Potential at point where charge is placed P
30) Potential energy of two charge system placed –
in external field:
Torque = P E PE sin
(i)
V1 r V2
max = PE at = 90°
q1 q2
min = 0 at = 0°/180°
(ii) Fnet = 0 at any value of .
1 q1 q 2 (iii) Potential energy of dipole
U q1 v1 q2 v2
4 0 r U PE cos P.E -
Umax = PE at = 180°
31) Work to be done by external agent to change Unstable equilibrium position
the distribution of charges in a system: Umin = –PE at = 0°
W U f Ui Stable equilibrium position
Uf : Final potential energy of system (iv) Time period of oscillations performed by dipole
Ui : Initial potential energy of system when disturbed at stable equilibrium position
32) Work done in moving a charge particle between ( = 0°) is
two points in a field: I
WA B q( V B V A ) By external agent T 2
PE
= q( V B V A ) By electric field where I is moment of inertia of dipole.
Where, WA B : Work done in moving charge q 38) Electric field due to dipole:
(i) Axial line (End-on position):
from A to B.
33) Gain in kinetic energy of a charge particle when P P
accelerated through a potential difference of E
–q +q
V volt is
K .E . q( V ) r
34) Relation between electric field and potential is 1 2P
FAxis 3
E V 4 0 r
V ˆ V ˆ V ˆ (ii) Equitorial line (Broad-on Position)
E i j k
x y z E P
V E.dr
rB
V A VB E.dr
rA
–q P +q
where, dr dxiˆ dyjˆ dzkˆ
1 P
35) n small drops of V volt each are combine to form Eeq .
40 r 3
big drop, then potential of big drop is
VBig n 2/3 Vsmall Angle between P and E is 180°.
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Electrostatics (I+II)
(iii) At any point: (iii) At any point:
E M
r
r
– +
–q O +q –
+
P
1 P
E 3cos 2 1 1 P cos
40 r 3 VM
4 0 r 2
1
tan tan 41) Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor:
2
39) Electric force between two dipoles: A
A
Air C
P1 P2 d
(i) – + – + d
r
d
1 6 P1 P2 A
F A
4 0 r 4 C K 0
d
K
+
P1
P2 K
(ii) – +
r 0 A
C
–
l
dl
K
1 3P1 P2 l
F
4 0 r 4
K1 K2
40) Electric potential due to dipole:
(i) Axial line: 0 A
C
l l
d (l1 l2 ...) 1 2 ...
P K1 K2
P l1 l2
– +
r
42) Relation between voltage on a capacitor and
1 P charge stored in it:
VP
40 r 2
Q = C.V
P 43) In Series combination
P – r +
1 1 1 1
.....
1 P C eff . C1 C2 Cn
VP
4 0 r 2
In Parallel combination
(ii) Equitorial line:
V=0 (At any point on equitorial line) Ceff . C1 C 2 ..... C n
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Electrostatics (I+II)
44) Charging of a capacitor: 46) Induced charge on dielectric:
Q0 –Qi +Qi
C + – +
+ – +
+ – + 1
+ – + Qi Q0 1
q + – +
+ – + K
+ – +
+ – +
47) Effect of dielectric on capacitor:
V
Physical Quantity Before Dielectric After Dielectric Placed
Total work done by battery = CV2 Placed With cell Without cell
Capacitance C0 = 0A / d KC0 KC0
1 2
Energy stored in capacitor = CV Voltage V0 V0 V0 / K
2
Charge stored Q0 = C 0V0 KQ0 Q0
1
Heat loss in process = CV 2
2 Electric field
E0 = V 0 / d E0 E0 / K
between plates
45) Sharing of charges:
1
Energy stored U0 C V2 KU0 U0 / K
C 2 0 0
+ 1–
Force between the Q 20
V1 F0 KF0 F0 / K
plates 2 A0
q
48) Force between the plates of capacitor:
Q2
F
C2 2 A 0
V2
49) Capacitance of spherical capacitor:
Let (V1 > V2)
R
Sharing takes place until both the capcitors get
a common voltage across them. C 40 R
The common voltage is given by
C1V1 C2 V2
VC b
C1 C 2 a ab
C 40
Loss in energy in the process is ba
1 C1C2
Heat loss = (V1 V2 ) 2
2 C1 C 2 b a b2
C 40
Initial charge on capacitors:
ba
Q1 C1V1
Q2 C2 V2 b a
Final charges (after sharing): C 4 0 b
C1
Q '1 C1VC (Q1 Q2 ) 50) n identical small drops are combined to form
C1 C 2
a big drop, then
CBig = n1/3 CSmall
C2
Q '2 C2 VC (Q1 Q2 ) VBig = n2/3 VSmall
C1 C 2 UBig = n5/3 USmall
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Electrostatics (I+II)
51) Sharing of charges: GRAPHS
1) Force between two charges (vs) distance
q
R1 R2 between them
Q1 Q2
Common potential
1 Q1Q2
R V R2 V2 F
VC 1 1 4 0 r 2
R1 R2
R1 R2
Heat loss = 20 (V1 V2 ) 2
K1 R2 2) E due to point charge w.r.t. distance
Final charges
R1
Q11 (Q1 Q2 )
R1 R2
1 Q
R2 E
Q 1
(Q1 Q2 ) 4 0 r 2
2
R1 R2
52) Capacitance of cylindrical capacitor:
R2
3) E due to charged wire w.r.t. distance
R1
L
E
1
E
r 20 r
r
20 L 4) E due to uniformly charged ring on axis (vs)
C distance from centre:
R
ln 2
R1
E
53) Energy density (energy stored or unit volume) +
++ + ++ +
+++ + ++ + ++
R/ 2
1
0 E2 R/ 2 r
+ ++
2 +
where, E : Electric field intensity in medium E is max .at x R / 2
Note:
All the formulae given are for air medium. In
case of another medium, replace 0 with K0, Q x
E
where K is dielectric constant of the given 40 ( R x2 )3/2
2
medium.
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Electrostatics (I+II)
5) E due to conducting sphere / spherical shell 9) Potential due to uniformly charged non-
w.r.t. distance from centre: conducting sphere (vs) distance from centre:
10) Torque on dipole (vs) angle () made by dipole
6) E due to uniformly charged non-conducting
with field:
sphere:
11) Potential energy of dipole (vs) angle () made
7) Potential due to point charge (V) versus by dipole with electric field:
distance (r):
12) Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor (C) vs.
distance between the plates:
1 Q
V
4 0 r
8) Potential due to conducting sphere/spherical
shell (vs) distance from centre:
13) Energy stored (U) vs. voltage across capacitor:
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Current Electricity
Quick Revision CURRENT ELECTRICITY
TERMINOLOGY 8) Series combination:
Q/q : Charge Two or more resistors are said to be in series,
V : Voltage / Potential difference OR Potential if same current flows through all of them.
/E : e.m.f. 9) Parallel combination:
i : Electric current Two or more branches are said to be in parallel,
if they are connected between same set of points
R/r : Electric resistance
(or) if they have same potential difference
G : Conductance (voltage) across them.
: Resistivity 10) Effective resistance:
: Conductivity The total hindrance/opposition faced by current
Vd : Drift velocity in the circuit.
: Relaxation time 11) Ohmic and non-ohmic conductor:
j : Current density Conductors that obey Ohm’s law are known as
A : Area of cross-section ohmic conductors and those do not obey Ohm’s
H : Heat energy released across resistor law are known as non-ohmic conductors.
P : Power 12) Resistor:
K : Potential gradient A resistor is a two terminal electrical component
DEFINITIONS that implements electrical resistance as a circuit
element.
1) Electric current:
13) Cell / Battery:
It is defined as the rate of flow of charge with
respect to time. It is the source of electrical energy. It converts
chemical energy to electrical energy.
2) Current density:
14) Electromotive force (e.m.f.):
Current density at a point inside the conductor
The total work that the cell can do on one
is defined as the amount of current flowing per
coulomb of charge in driving the charge
unit area in a direction normal to the current.
through circuit.
3) Drift speed (vd):
15) Internal resistance:
The free electrons within the metal, in addition
The resistance offered by the cell to the current
to its random motion, acquires a small velocity
in circuit is known as internal resistance.
towards the positive end of conductor. This
velocity is called drift velocity. 16) Terminal voltage:
4) Relaxation time: The potential difference between the terminals
of the cell.
The average time gap between two successive
17) Maximum power transfer theorem:
collisions of free electrons is known as
relaxation time. The power delivered across external resistance
is maximum, when the value of external
5) Ohm’s law:
resistance will be equal to the internal
Under given physical conditions, the current
resistance of cell.
produced in the conductor is proportional to
18) Kirchhoff’s first law:
the potential difference across the conductor.
At any junction, the sum of currents entering
6) Electrical resistance:
the junction must be equal to the sum of
The hindrance offered by a conductor to the currents leaving the junction.
flow of current is called the electrical resistance
19) Kirchhoff’s second law:
of the conductor.
The algebraic sum of voltages around any
7) Resistivity:
closed loop of a circuit must be equal to zero.
Resistivity of any material is defined as the
20) Potential gradient:
resistance of that material having unit length
Potential drop per unit length.
and unit area of cross-section.
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Current Electricity
FORMULAE 14) Terminal voltage (V) of a cell:
1) Electric current: V = E – ir While discharging of cell
dq V = E + ir While charging of cell
Q
i or i V = E When cell is open branch
dt t
V = 0 When cell is short circuited
2) If charge q is moving in a circle of radius r with
15) Energy delivered across a resistor:
speed v, the current is
qv V2
i H i 2 Rt t Vit
2r R
3) Ohm’s law
16) Power delivered across a resistor:
V
I V2
R P i2 R Vi
V - Voltage (potential difference) across body R
4) Relation between electric current & drift speed: 17) Resistance of a bulb (or) any device:
i 2
Vrated
R
A Prated
i neAVd Vrated = Rated voltage of bulb
Prated = Rated power of bulb
n : Density of free electrons
18) Voltage division rule:
5) Relation between current density & drift speed:
I R1 R2
J neVd
A V1 V2 In series
6) Resistance of a conductor: i i
vR
l
R A
A V
l
1 V R
7) Conductance, G 1 1
R V2 R2
1 1 l
8) Conductivity
V1
R1
V And V2
R2
V
Resistivity RA
R1 R2 R1 R2
9) Relation between current density and electric
field: 19) Current division rule:
J . E (Another form of Ohm’s law) R1
I1
10) Mobility of a free electron: I
V
µ d
E I2
11) Temperature co-efficient of resistance: R2
R R1
2 1 I1 R2
R1 (t 2 t1 ) In parallel, I
R I 2 R1
R1 : Resistance at temperature t1
R2 : Resistance at temperature t2 R2
12) Effective resistance in series combination: I1 .I
R1 R2
Reff . R1 R2 ...... Rn
13) Effective resistance in parallel combination: R1
I2 .I
1 1 1 1 R1 R2
......
Reff . R1 R2 Rn
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Current Electricity
20) Cells in series: 23) In a balanced meter bridge:
r1 E1 r2 E2 rn En
R X
r eff. E eff. G
reff . r1 r2 ...... rn
A B
Eeff . E1 E2 ...... En (100 – l)cm
lcm O
*Follow sign convention for Eeff.
21) Cells in parallel:
r1 E
E1
E2 r2
R l
X 100 l
rn 24) Potential gradient of potentiometer wire AB is
En
V AB
K
reff. LAB
E eff.
1 1 1 1 VAB : Voltage on wire AB
......
reff . r1 r2 rn
LAB : Length of wire AB
E1 E2 E 25) In potentiometer experiment, comparison of
...... n
r r2 rn emfs of two cells:
Eeff . 1
1 1 1
......
r1 r2 rn E1 l1
* (Direct method)
E2 l2
*Follow sign convention while taking values of
emf.
l1 : Balancing length for cell E1
22) In a balanced Wheatstone bridge:
l2 : Balancing length for cell E2
C
R1 R2 E1 l1 l2
* (Sum of difference method)
i g =0 E2 l1 l2
A B
G
l1 : Balancing length when E1 supports E2
R3 R4
l2 : Balancing length when E1 opposes E2
D
26) In potentiometer experiment, the value of
* ig = 0 unknown emf is given by
* VC VD VC VD 0
E K.lbal.
R1 R3
* (Or) R1 R4 R2 R3
R2 R4 where, lbal. = Balancing length
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Current Electricity
27) In potentiometer experiment, internal 3) Deflection of galvanometer () vs resistane R2.
resistance of a cell can be determined using, R2 is variable and deflection is 0 when R2 = 0.
l i
G
r RSh 1 1
l2
R1 R2
RSh : Shunt resistance
O R2
l1 : Balancing length without shunt E
l2 : Balancing length with shunt E
i
R1 R2
GRAPHS
1) Current (I) vs voltage (V) for an ohmic conductor: i
E
I
R
R1 R2
= 1/
pe 4) The terminal voltage (V) of a cell vs. current
S lo
V drawn from cell:
V
V E Ir
E
2) Area under current–time graph gives amount V Ir E
of charge passed through the conductor.
I
O O
t2
y mx C
Q i.dt
t1
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Magnetic Effect Of Electric Current
Quick Revision MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
TERMINOLOGY 4)
Maxwell’s cork screw rule:
B : Magnetic field If a right handed screw be rotated along the
o : Permeability of vacuum wire so that it advanced in the direction of
n : Number of turns per unit length current, when the direction in which the thumb
: Frequency rotated give the direction magnetic field.
u : parallel component of velocity 5) Clock rule :
l : Length of conductor This rule gives the polarity of any face of the
: Torque coil in anticlockwise direction it behavers like
m : magnetic moment a north pole, if the current flows in clockwise
k : Spring constant direction, it behaves like south pole.
N : Number of total turns 6) Ampere’s circuital law:
Is : Current sensitivity It state that the line integral of the magnetic
Vs : Voltage sensitivity field B around any closed circuit is equal to o
: Deflection produced times the total current threading or passing
S : Shunt resistance through this closed circuit.
G : Galvanometer resistance 7) Lorentz force:
A : Ammeter resistance The total force experienced by a charged
Ig : Galvanometer current particle moving in a region where both electric
Is : Shunt current and magnetic field is present is called Lorentz
I : Total current force.
DEFINITIONS 8) Cyclotron:
1) Biot-Savart Law: It is device used to accelerate charged particles
According to this law, the magnitude of like, protons, deuterons and alpha particles to
very high speeds. Its working based on
magnetic field B is principle that charged particle can be
I) Directly proportional to current I through accelerated to very high energies by making it
the conductors. pass through the moderate electric field a
II) Directly proportional to length of number of times. This can be done with the help
conductor. of perpendicular magnetic field which throws
III) Directly proportional to sin the charged particle in circular path.
IV) Inversely proportional to square of the 9) Ampere:
distance of point ‘p’ from current element. One ampere is that value of steady current.
Idl sin Which on flowing in each of two parallel
dB 2 infinitely long conductors of negligible cross-
r
section placed in vacuum at distance of 1 m
0 Idl sin apart from each other, attracts or repel each
dB
4 r2 other with a force of 2 × 10–7 N between per
2) Tesla: meter of their length.
One tesla is the amount of magnetic field in 10) Principle of moving coil galvanometer:
which when a charge of 1 coulomb moves with A current carrying coil placed in a magnetic
velocity of 1 m/s in a direction perpendicular field experiences a current dependent torque,
to magnetic field, experiences a force of a 1 N. which tends to rotate the coil and produces
3) Right hand thumb rule: angular deflection.
If we hold the straight conductor in the grip of 11) Sensitivity of galvanometer:
our right hand in such a way that the extended A galvanometer is said to be sensitive it is
thumb points in the direction of thumb current, shows large scale deflection even when a small
then the direction of finger curl will give the current is passed through it or a small voltage
direction of magnetic field. is applied across it.
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Magnetic Effect Of Electric Current
12) Current sensitivity: 15) = N I BA sin
It is the deflection produced per unit current = MB sin
applied in galvanometer.
MB
13) Shunt:
16) In M.C.G.
A very low resistance connected in parallel to
k
galvanometer to convert it into ameter. I
14) Radial magnetic field: NBA
A magnetic field which always remain k
Figure of merit (G) =
perpendicular to plane of coil . It is achieved by NBA
inserting soft iron core between moving coil NBA
galvanometer. Concave shaped magnets are Current sensitivity ( I s )
I k
used to achieve this.
Is
FORMULAE Voltage sensitivity (Vs )
V IR R
o Idl sin 17) Conversion to ammeter
1) dB
4 r2
I gG GS
2) Magnetic field due to long straight conductor S A
I Ig , GS
I
B o [sin 1 sin 2 ]
4 a IS
Ig
o I GS
3) Infinitely long conductor : B 2 a 18) Conversion to voltmeter
o I V V
4) Circular loop centre : B R G , Ig , VR = G + R
2r Ig R G
o Ia 2
5) Axis of ring : B GRAPHS
2(r 2 a 2 ) 3 / 2
6) Solenoid interior : B = o nI 1) Variation of magnetic field from centre of wire
1
7) Solenoid end : B = nI B
2 o
8) Force on moving charge in magnetic field
F = B qv sin
F q(v B)
mv Bq r 2 m
9) r v T Bq
Bq m
B2 q 2 r 2 O r=R r
10) K.E.
2m
2) Variation of magnetic field at axis of circular coil.
2 mv cos B
11) Pitch = vllT
Bq
B0
12) Force current carrying wire
F I (l B ) F B I l sin
13) Force per unit length
II
f 0 1 2
2 r
14) Force on wire of length ‘L’
0 I 1 I 2 L
f
2 r x = -r / R O x=r/2
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Magnetism And Matter
Quick Revision MAGNETISM AND MATTER
TERMINOLOGY 7) Unit pole strength: Unit magnetic pole strength
B : Magnetic field may be defined as that pole strength which
when placed in vacuum at a distance of 1 meter
qm : Pole strength
apart from identical pole, repels it from a force
o : Permeability of vacuum
of 10–7 newton.
t : Time taken
8) Magnetic dipole: An arrangement of equal and
: Torque
opposite magnetic poles separated by a certain
e : Charge on electron distance called a magnetic dipole.
h : Planck’s constant
9) Magnetic dipole moment (M): The magnetic
BH : Horizontal component of magnetic field dipole moment of a magnetic dipole is defined
Bv : Vertical component of magnetic field as the product of its pole strength and its
: Angle of dip magnetic length. S.I. unit of magnetic dipole
V : Volume moment is Am2.
m : Pole strength 10) Magnetic field lines: Magnetic field lines may
I : Intensity of magnetisation be defined as the curve, the tangent to which
at any point gives the direction of magnetic field
M : Magnetic dipole moment
at that point. It may also be defined at the path
m : Susceptibility along which a unit magnetic pole would tend
H : Magnetising force to move if free to doso.
C : Curie’s constant 11) Bohr Magneton: It is defied as the magnetic
DEFINITIONS moment associated with an electron due to its
orbital motion in the first orbit of hydrogen
1) Magnetic field: The space around a magnet in
atom.
which its influence can be felt.
2) Uniform magnetic field: A magnetic field is 12) Magnetising field (H): When a magnetic
said to be uniform if it has same magnitude and material is placed in magnetic field a
direction at all points of that region. magnetism induced in it. The magnetic field
3) Magnetic poles (m): The regions of apparently that in vacuum and induced magnetism is
concentrated magnetic strength in a magnet called magnetising field.
where magnetic attraction is maximum. 13) Magnetic Induction (B): The total magnetic
4) Magnetic axis : The line passing the poles of field inside a magnetic material is the sum of
magnet is called the magnetic axis of magnet. equal magnetic field and additional magnetic
5) Magnetic length: The distance between two field produced by magnetisetion of material ,
poles of a magnet is called magnetic length. and is called magnetic induction B.
6) Coulomb’s law of magnetic force: The law states 14) Magnetising field intensity: The ability of
that the force of attraction or repulsion between magnetising field to magnetise a material
two magnetic poles is directly proportional to medium is called magnetising field intensity. Its
their pole strength and inversely proportional to
magnitude may be defiled as number of ampere
square of distance between them.
turns flowing round the unit length of solenoid
q
m m q required to produce given magnetic field.
F o 12 2
4 r
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Magnetism And Matter
15) Intensity of magnetisation (I): The magnetic when l < < r
moment developed per unit volume of material
when placed in magnetising field is called o 2 M
Baxis =
intensity of magnetisation. 4 r 3
Intensity of magnetisation may also be defined
as the pole strength developed per unit cross o M
Beq. =
section of material. 4 r 3
16) Magnetic permeability: The magnetic
Torque = MB sin
permeability of a material is defied at the ratio
of its magnetic induction B to magnetic intensity W = U = –MB ( cos 2 – cos 1)
H.
M = NIA
17) Relative permeability: It is defined as the ratio
of permeability of the medium to the neh
l B B. ds 0
permeability of free space. 4 me
18) Magnetic Susceptibility: It is defiled as the
ratio of intensity of magntisation to the Bv
magnetic field intensity H. tan B BH2 Bv2
BH
19) Diamagnetic materials: These are those
substances which develop feeble magnetisation 0 2 Mr 2M
in the opposite direction of magnetising field. BH 2 2
0 3
4 ( r l ) 4 r
Such substance are free to repelled by magnets
and tend to move from stronger to weaker parts
B
of field. 0 (1 m )
H
20) Paramagnetic material: These are those
substances which develop feeble magnetisation
r 1 m
in the direction of magnetising field. Such 0
substances are freely attracted by magnets and
tend to move from weaker to a strong magnetic I
m
field. H
21) Ferromagnetic substance: There are those
materials which develop strong magnetisation C
m (Curie’s Law)
in the direction of magnetising field. They are T
attracted by magnets and tend to move from
weaker to stronger part. B 0 ( H I )
FORMULAE GRAPHS
Magnetic dipole moment : M = qm × 2l 1) Intensity of magnetisation as a function of H/T
0 qm1 qm2
F
4 r 2
0 2 Mr I
Baxis
4 ( r l 2 )3/ 2
2
0 M
Beq.
4 ( r l 2 )3/ 2
2
H/T
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Magnetism And Matter
2) m T graph for diamagnetic material 4) Hysteresis curve for soft iron core
B
m
H
O T
dia
5) Hysteresis curve for ferromagnetic material
3) m – T graph for paramagnetic material B
m H
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Electromagentic Induction
Quick Revision ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
TERMINOLOGY 6) Eddy currents: Eddy currents are the induced
B : Magnetic Field current set up inside the body of conductor
wherever the magnetic flux linked with it
: Magnetic flux
changes.
: Angle between area vector & magnetic field
N : Number of turns of coil 7) Inductance: It is the inherent property of all the
n : Number of turns per unit length coils by virtue of which they opposes any
change in the strength of current flowing
e : e.m.f (Induced)
through the coil. Its S.I. unit is Henry (H).
E : e.m.f. (Induced)
e0 : E0 = maximum e.m.f. 8) Mutual inductance: Wherever there is change
: Initial flux in current flowing in one coil, an induced emf
appears in neighbouring coil. This property is
: Final flux
called as mutual inductance. Its SI unit is also
: Angular velocity Henry (H).
: f = Frequency of revolutions
L : Self inductance 9) Motional E.M.F.: The emf induced across the
ends of a conductor due to its motion in
M : Mutual Inductance
magnetic field is called motional e.m.f. Its
K : Coefficient of coupling magnitude is same as given by Faraday’s second
v : Velocity of motion law.
o : Magnetic permeability of free space
Methods of generating induced em.f.:
DEFINITIONS
1) Magnetic flux (): It is the number of magnetic i) Changing the magnetic field
field lines passing through a surface
perpendicularly. Its S.I. unit is weber (Wb). Its ii) Changing the area in magnetic field
CGS unit is maxwell. 1 weber = 108 maxwell.
2) Faraday’s first law: Wherever the amount of iii) Changing the relative orientation of B & A
magnetic lines of force (magnetic flux) passing
through a a coil changes an emf called induced 10) Sparking: When the break of a circuit is very
emf is produced in the circuit. This induced emf quick, the circuit is switched off, a large self
exists as long as the change of flux continues. induced emf is set up in the circuit in the same
3) Faraday’s second law: The magnitude of direction as original emf. It creates a big spark
induced emf is directly proportional to rate of across the switch.
change of magnetic flux.
11) Coefficient of coupling: Coefficient of coupling
4) Lenz’s law : The direction of induced current
of two coils gives us a measure of manner in
is such that it tends to oppose the cause of its
which two coils are coupled together. It relates
creations.
their coefficient of self inductance to mutual
5) Fleming’s right hand rule: According to this
inductance.
rule if we stretch thumb and first two fingers
of our right hand in three mutually 12) Electromagnetic damping: When the coil of
perpendicular directions such that the first
galvanometer oscillates between magnetic field,
finger points in direction of magnetic field and
an induced current sets up in coil which
thumb shows the direction of motion of
conductor, than central finger points in the opposes it’s motion. This phenomenan is called
direction of induced current. electromagnetic damping.
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Electromagentic Induction
FORMULAE o N 2 A
16) L
1) B.A BA cos l
Nd 1 2
2) e 17) U LI
dt 2
MdI
3) e 2 1 18) e
t dt
Negative sign indicates that induced emf. o N1 N 2 A
19) M = o n1n2 Al
opposes the change in magnetic flux. l
4) e = E = Blv
M
e Blv 20) K
5) I= L1 L2
R R
21) I = Io e–(R/L) t
[2 1 ] N d 22) I = Io [ 1 – e –Rt/L]
6) I
tR R dt GRAPHS
1 2
7) e Bl [ e.m.f is induced across the rod of I) i
2
I0
length ‘l’]
8) E = Eo sint
= 2 or = 2 f I = 0.63I 0
9) Eo = NBA
Eo NBA
10) Io = =
R R
t = t
Eo
11) I o
R
12) = LI II) i
LdI
13) e I0
dt
14) L1 + L2 + L3 + .............Ln = L
when inductors are in series
L1L2
15) L L L when 0.37I 0
1 2
when inductors are in parellel
t= t
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Alternating Current
Quick Revision ALTERNATING CURRENT
TERMINOLOGY 8) Inductive reactance:
Eav. : Average EMF It is a measure of effective opposition offered
Erms : RMS EMF to current flow by the inductor. It has same unit
Iav. : Average current as resistance. But it differs from resistance at it
Irms : RMS current doesn’t generate any heat when current passes
I0 : Peak current / Max. Current / Amplitude through them.
E0 : Peak voltage / Max. Voltage / Amplitude voltage
9) Capacitative reactance:
: Frequency
: Angular frequency It is the measure of effective opposition offered
XL : Inductive reactance to current flow by a capacitor. It also has same
XC : Capacitative reactance unit as resistance. It doesn’t disssipate heat, so
Q : Quality factor its power consumption is zero.
r : Angular resonance frequency 10) Susceptance:
r : Resonance frequency
Reciprocal of reactance of AC circuit is called
: Phase angle
susceptance.
Z : Impedance
UL : Energy of inductor 11) Admittance:
UC : Energy of capacitor Reciprocal of impedance of AC circuit is called
DEFINITIONS admittance.
1) Alternating current: 12) Resonance:
A current whose magnitude changes
A series L-C-R circuit is said to be in resonance
continuously and direction changes periodically.
condition when current through it becomes
2) Amplitude:
maximum.
The maximum value attained by alternating
current in either direction is called its amplitude 13) Q–Factor:
or peak value denoted by I0. Q-factor is the ratio of resonant frequency to the
3) Time period: difference in frequency taken on both sides of
Time taken by alternating current to complete resonant frequency, such that at each frequency,
one cycle of its variations is called its time
period and is denoted by T. 1
the current amplitude becomes times the
4) Frequency: 2
The number of cycles completed per second by value at resonant frequency.
an alternating current.
14) Power factor:
5) Average voltage of AC:
It is defined as the value of direct current which Power factor is the ratio of true power
sends same charge in a circuit in same time as frequency to apparent frequency power at the
is sent by the given alternating current in its half constant frequency. For pure inductive and
time period. pure capacitative circuit, it is always zero.
6) R.M.S. value of AC: 15) Wattless current:
It is defined as that value of AC current which The current in circuit is said to be wattless if the
produces the same heating effect in a given average power consumed in the circuit is zero.
resistors as is produced by the given alternating
current when passed for the same time. 16) L–C oscillations:
7) Argand diagram: When a charged capacitor is allowed to
A diagram that represents alternating current discharge through a non-resistive inductor,
and voltage of the same frequency as rotating electrical oscillations of constant amplitude and
vectors along with proper phase angle between frequency are produced. These are called L–C
them is called phasor diagram or argand oscillations.
diagram.
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Alternating Current
FORMULAE 9) In L–C–R circuit,
I0
1) I rms 0.707 I 0 Erms
2 Z
I rms
E0
2) Erms 0.707 E0
2 1
2
Z R 2 ( XL XC )2 R 2 2 L
2I0 2 C
3) I av 0.637 I 0
2 E0 X L XC
4) Eav 0.637 E0 tan
R
5) XL 2L R
cos
In pure inductor, Z
E E 10) L–C–R at resonance,
I
XL 2L
X L XC
1
6) XC
2C 1
In pure capacitor, 2 LC
E Z=R
I E.2 C
XC
0
7) In R–L circuit,
tan 0
E E0 sin t
I I 0 sin(t ) cos 1
Erms r L 1 L
Z R 2 X L2 11) Q factor r
I rms 2 1 R R C
X L 2L 12) Power in LCR,
tan
R R
Pav Eav I av cos
R R
cos 13) R.M.S. Power = Prms = Erms Irms cos
Z R X L2
2
Power factor,
8) In R–C circuit,
E E0 sin t R R
14) cos
Z R ( X L XC ) 2
2
I I 0 sin(t )
Erms 1 1 2
Z R 2 XC2 , where XC 15) U L LI
I rms 2 C 2
16) Average power in inductive circuit = 0
X 1
tan C 17) Average power in capacitative circuit = 0
R 2CR
R R 1 2 Q2
cos 18) U C CV
Z R 2 XC2 2 2C
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Alternating Current
GRAPHS 6) In purely resistive circuit, voltage and current
1) Variation of resistance v/s frequency: are in same phase.
VR I
R
7) In R–L circuit, voltage leads by some angle .
VL V
2) Inductive reactance v/s frequency
VR I
XL
8) In purely capacitative resistance circuit, voltage
lags by current.
VR
I
3) Capacitative reactance v/s frequency
XC VC V
9) L–C–R circuit voltage and current
VL
V
R VL – VC
4) Purely inductive circuit. Voltage leads by 90°.
VL VR I
VC
10) Band width of a series resonant circuit
E0
90° I0
I R
E0
5) In purely capacitative circuit, voltage lags by I
R 2
current by 90°.
1 r 2
Lower side Upper side
Bandwidth
band band
VC
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Electromagnetic Waves
Quick Revision ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
TERMINOLOGY 3) Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction:
ID : Displacement current This law states that emf produced in any coil
IC : Conduction current is directly proportional to rate of change of
magnetic flux.
E : Electric field
4) Modified Ampere’s Law:
E : Electric flux
This states that line integral of magnetic field
A : Area around any closed circuit is equal to µ0 times
C : Capacitance the sum of conduction current and
displacement current.
c : Speed of light
K : Propagation constant 4) Electromagnetic wave:
: Wavelength An electromagnetic wave is a wave radiated by
an accelerated charge and which propagates
µ0 : Permeability of free space
through space as coupled electric and magnetic
: Permittivity of free space- fields, oscillating perpendicular to each other
and to the direction of propagation of the wave.
s : Direction of propagation of wave
UE : Average energy density of electric field 5) Radio waves:
UB : Average energy density of magnetic field These are produced by accelerated charges in
B : Magnetic field conducting wires. Frequency ranges from
500 KHz to 1000 MHz.
p : Momentum
U : Energy 6) Microwaves:
I : Intensity These gigahertz range waves are produced by
klystron and magnetron diodes. They are used
DEFINITIONS in radar and microwave ovens.
1) Displacement current:
7) Infrared waves:
It is the current which comes into existance, in
addition to conduction current, whenever the These are emitted by atoms and molecules of
electric field and hence flux changes with time. hot bodies. These are used in physical therapy.
2) Property of continuity: 8) Visible rays:
The sum of conduction current and That part of electromagnetic waves which can
displacement current remain continuous along be detected by human eye and its wavelength
any closed path while, conduction current and ranges from 400 to 700 nanometer.
displacement current might not be individually 9) Ultraviolet rays:
continuous.
These are produced by special lamps and very
3) Maxwell’s equation: hot bodies like sun. It is harmful for humans.
1) Gauss’s law of electrostatics: It’s wavelength ranges from 400 nm to 0.6 nm.
1 10) X-rays:
The electric flux through a closed surface is These are produced by fast moving electrons
0
when they strike metal target.
times the total charge contained inside the
surface. Wavelength varies from 10 nm to 10–4 nm.
2) Gauss’s law of magnetism: 11) Gamma rays:
The net magnetic flux through any closed These are produced by nuclear reaction and
surface is always zero. radioactive nuclei. Wavelength ranges from
10–10 m to 10–14 m.
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Electromagnetic Waves
FORMULAE 9) Bz B0 sin( kx wt )
d (For a wave propagating along x-axis)
1) I 0 0 E
dt 1 1
2 2
10) U E 0 E0 0 Er.m.s .
d dE 4 2
2) I 0 0 ( EA) 0 A
dt dt 1 2 1 2
dV 11) U B 4µ B0 2µ Brms
0 0
3) I0 C
dt 2
1 2 1 2 Brms
4) .dl µ0 ( IC I D )
B 12) U av .
E B
2 0 rms 2µ0 rms
µ0
2
5) K U
13) p
c
1
c in vacuum p
6) 14) Intensity of wave ( I )
µ0 0 A
2
1 15) I U avC 0 Erms C
7) c in material medium
µr µ0 r 0 1
16) s µ ( E B)
8) Ey E0 sin( kx wt ) 0
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Ray Optics
Quick Revision RAY OPTICS
TERMINOLOGY R = Deviation for red colour
U = Object distance
R = Refractive index of red colour
v = Image distance
mean = Mean deviation
vi = Object velocity
= angle v = Refractive index of violet colour
h = No. of images fo = Focal length of objective piece
vm = Velocity of mirror fe = focal length of eyepiece
i = Angle of incidence y = Refractive index of yellow colour
r’ = angle of reflection
D = Last distance of distinct vision
r = Angle of refraction
mo = Magnification of object piece
f = Focal length
mi = Magnification of object eyepiece
m = Magnification = transverse
DEFINITIONS
m’ = Magnification - lateral
1) Reflection:
1 = Distance of object from focus Ray of light after incidenting on loundary
2 = Distance of image from focus separating two media comes back into the same
media then it is called as reflection of light.
2 = Refractive Index of medium in which 2) Refraction:
refracted ray is hare The bending of light ray passing from one
1 = Refractive index of medium in which medium to other medium is called refraction.
incident ray is hare 3) Optically rares medium:
= Deviation A medium in which velocity of light is more is
called optically rarer medium.
h = height of object
4) Optically denser medium:
h’ = Height of image
A medium is which velocity of light is less is
t = Thickness of glass slab called optically denser medium .
ic = Critical angle 5) Optical path:
R1 = Radius of curvature of first surface The distance travelled by light in vacuum in the
R2 = Radius of curvature of second surface same time in which it travels a given path length
in a medium is called optical path.
fl = Focal length of lens
6) Critical Angle:
fm = Focal length of mirror
The angle of incidence at which refracted angle
P = Power of lens is 90° when light travels from denser to rarer
feq = Equivalent focal length medium is called critical angle.
Peq = Equivalent power 7) Total internal reflection:
= wavelength When angle of incidence is greater then critical
angle then the ray come back in the same
h1 = Height of first image
medium after reflection is called as total
h2 = Height of second image internal reflection
e = Angle of imergence 8) Dispersion:
m = Minimum deviation When white light incident on prism then it
splitted into its own component is called
v = Deviation for violet colour dispersion of light.
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Ray Optics
FORMULAE 5) Object and image velocity
Reflection i) Velocity of object (v0) = velocity of image (v1)
ii) v1 = 2vm if mirror moves towards stationary
I) Plane Mirror:
object
i) Object distance = Image distance
6. Rotation of mirror : -
1) Deviation If plant mirror rotated by an angle keeping
incident ray constant then reflected ray rotated
by an angle 2
= 180 – 2i
i r 7. Law of reflection
i r
II) Spherical Mirror:
1) General equation
R
2) Image formed by two mirror f
2
360
m = m 1 1 1
f v u
360
a) If = even than n = m – 1 2) Magnification
i) Transverse magnification
360 h ' v f f v
b) If = odd then m
h u f u f
i) n = m –1, if object is at angle bisector ii) Longitudinal magnification
ii) n = m, if object is not at angle bisector
(v 2 v1 )
3) Height of plane mirror m'
(u2 u1 )
i) To see complete image in a plane mirror
If object is small
Height of person 2
Height of mirror v
2 m’ =
u
iii) Areal magnification
M = m2
3) Velocity of image
4m v2
v1 m 2 v o .v o
u2
4) Newton’s formula
f x1x2
ii) To see complete wall behind himself Refraction
Height of wall I) Shell’s Law and Law of Refraction
Height of mirror i) Absolute refractive index
3
4) Object time and image time If comparison with vaccum
i) If object time is in hour 4 3
Image time = 12h – Object time Ex : - w , g
3 2
ii) If object time is in hour and minute ii) Relative refractive index
Image time 11h60m – Object time
iii) If object time is in hour, minute and second 2
1 2
Image time = 11h59m60s – object time 1
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Ray Optics
iii) Snell’s Law II) Total internal reflection
sin i v1 1 1
2
1 2
sin ic
1 sin r v2 2
i r’
r ic
iv) = i – r, Light travels from rarer to denser
= r – i, Light travels from denser to rarer Height (h) = r 2 1
v) Apparent Depth:
r
Observer in rarer medium
h
, h = Actual height
h' h
ic
h’ = Apparent height
1
Shift = h 1
Observer in denser medium III) Refraction through spherical surface
h'
2 1 2 1
h
Shift = h ( –1) v v R
vi) Equivalent refractive index:
Observer in a rarer medium. 1 2
heff h1 h2 h3
eff
h'eff h1 h2 h3 O C I
R
1 2 3
h IV) Lens
h i) Lens formula
h 1 1 1
f v u
vii) Lateral shift:
ii) Magnification:
t sin(i r )
d Transverse magnification
cos r
h' f f v
i m
h f u f
Longitudinal magnification
t 2
v
d m'
u
Areal magnification
viii) Optical path:
Optical path = x ma = m2
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Ray Optics
iii) Lens maker’s formula ix) No. of images
No. of images = No. of material
1 2 1 1
1 3
f 1 R1 R2
2
Refractive index of lens = 2
Refractive index of surrounding medium = 2 1
If 2 = and 1 = 1 (air) 2
3
1 1 1
then 1 x) Refractive index of medium is same as that of
f R1 R2 surrounding
vi) Focus
f
f
f
xi) Refractive index of surrounding greater than lens
v) Cutting of lens f = – ive
f f f 2f 2f
xii) Focal length depends on medium
vi) Combination of Lens 1
f
1 1 1
.......... ....
f eq f1 f 2 xiii) Newton’s formula
Peq = P1 + P2 + ............ f x1x2
When lens are at distance ‘d’ xiv) Displacement method
f1 f2
1 1 1 d h h'1 h' 2
f eq f1 f2 f1 f2 d VI) Prism
Peq = P1 + P2 – dP1 P2
vii) Silvering of lens ||
A
|||
1 2 1
||||||||
i
f eq fl f m e
r1 r2
Plane convex lens u
||
R i) General Equation
f eq
2
||
|||
Convex lens
||||||||
R
f eq
2(2 1)
||
|
viii) Power of lens A = r1 + r 2
i+e=A+
1
P 2 sin i
f ( m)
1 sin r
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Ray Optics
ii) Minimum Deviation vii) Dispersion without deviation
i = e , = m , r 1 = r2 = r y = ’y
r=A/2 A ( y – ) = A’ ( ’y – )
m = 2 i – A
A m
sin R
2
V
A
sin
2
iii) Condition for grazing emergence
i sin1[ 2 1 sin A cos A]
A V) Defects in eyes
i) Myopia or short sightedness
V
v = f = shifted for point
ii) Hyper metropia or for sightdness
B C V = D = 25 cm
iv) Angular Dispersion v = shifted near point
= r – R = A (v – R) 1 1 1
f v u
R
v VI) Optical Instrument
Red i) Microscope
• Simple microscope
Violet a) Image at infinite
V=f
v
v) Dispersive power () D
m
f
mean
a) If mean = y
A( v R ) v R
f
y A ( 1) y 1
v R
b) If mean
2
vi) Deviation without dispersion b) Image of D
c = – f V<f
(v – R)crown = (v – R)flimt v=D
A ( v – R ) = A’ ( ’v – ’R ) D
m 1
f
I f O
D
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Ray Optics
• Compound microscope VII) Telescope
a) Image of infinite
a) Image of infinite
vo D
fe
Vo f e m
fo
L = vo + f e
L fo f e D Objective
m .
fo fe lens
Eyepiece
fe
ue
fo
ue
b) Image of D b) Image of D
vo D
1 fo fe
Vo fe m 1
fe D
L = vo + Ve
L D fo
m 1
fo fe
ue
uo
I
D
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Wave Optics
Quick Revision WAVE OPTICS
TERMINOLOGY 8) Monochromatic light:
Y1 : Displacement of first wave The light waves of only one wave is called
Y2 : Displacement of second wave monochromatic light.
a1 & a2 : Amplitude of first and second wave 9) Fringe width:
R : Resultant amplitude The distance between the centre of two adjacent
I1 & I2 : Intensity of the first and second wave bright or dark bonds is called as fringe width.
IR : Resultant intensity 10) Diffraction of light:
Imax : Maximum intensity The bending of light near the edges of an
Imin : Minimum intensity obstacle or slit and spreading into the region of
r : Amplitude ratio a geometrical shadow is known as diffraction
d : Distance between slit of light.
: Fringe width 11) Limit of resolution:
D : Distance between source and screen The smallest angular or linear separation
: Refractive index between the two points objects at which they
t : Thickness of glass slab appear to be just resolved is called limit of
a : Slit width resolution.
: Semi-angle made by object to the lens 12) Resolving power:
The reciprocal of the limit of resolution is called
DEFINITIONS
resolving power.
1) Wavefront: 13) Polarisation of light:
A locus of all the points of medium to which The phenomenon of limiting the vibration of
waves reaches simultaneously so that all points electric field vector in one direction in a plane
are in same phase is called wavefront. perpendicular to the direction of propagation
2) Wave normal: of light wave is called polarisation of light.
A perpendicular drawn to the surface of FORMULAE
wavefront at any point of a wavefront in the
1) Superposition of wave
direction of propagation of light is called wave
Y1 = a1 sin t
normal.
Y2 = a2 sin t +
3) Path difference:
Y = Y1 + Y2
The difference in the path lengths of two waves
Y = R sin t +
meeting at a point is called path difference.
4) Interference of light: R a12 a22 2a , a2 cos
The modification in the intensity of light I1 = Ka12 , I2 = Ka 22 , IR = K R2
[redistribution of light energy] produced by the
IR = a12 a22 2 a , a2 cos
superposition of two or more light waves is
called interference of light. For constructive interference [ 0 ,2 ,.....]
5) Constructive interference: Imax = (a1 + a2)2
The points of which resultant displacement is I max ( a1 a2 )2 (r 1)2
maximum, the waves reinforce each other and the
I min ( a1 a2 )2 (r 1) 2
interference is called constructive interference.
a
6) Destructive interference: r 1
The points at which resultant displacement is a2
minimum the waves reinforce each other and the
IR = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos
interference is called destructive interference.
7) Coherent sources: If = I1 = I2 = I
Two source of light most be emitting light IR = 4 I cos2
waves of equal frequency and which are in the 2
same phase or with constant phase difference Imax = 4 I
are known as coherent sources. I min = 0
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Wave Optics
2) Young double slit experiment c) Fringe width
Constructive pattern D
Path difference = n , n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ...... ,
d d D
Destructive pattern
Path difference = (2n – 1) 2 , n = 1, 2, ......
nd
2 Bright
2nd Dark
st
1 Bright
s1
D
.
S
1st Dark
Central Bright
st
s2 1 Dark d) In YDSE if n1 fringes are visible in a field of view
st
1 Bright with light of wavelength 1, while -n2 with light
nd
of wavelength 2 in the same field then
2 Dark
n11 n22
2nd Bright
e) If whole YDSE set up taken is taken in another
medium then changes os fringe with []
changes
2 2 1
P 1 1
f) Shifting of fringe pattern
x
s1 t
.
S d
C
s2
a) nth bright fringe from central maxima
D( 1)t ( 1)t
nD Fringe shift =
xn , n = 0, 1, 2............ d
d Additional path difference = ( – 1)t
b) nth fringe from central maxima If shift equivalent to m fringes then
D ( 1)t
xn ( 2n 1) m
, n = 1, 2, ..........
2d
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Wave Optics
3) Fraunhoffer diffraction [Single slit] 4) Resolving power of optical instrument
a) Telescope
Pp 1.22
Resolving limit = d
a
1 a
Resolving power =
d 1.22
a a = diameter of objective lens
b) Microscope
Resolving limit
2 sin
Numerical aperture = sin
5) Polarisation of light
D
Io/2
a) Secondary minima
a sin n = n , n = 1, 2, 3.......
Io
If n is small then a . n = n
b) Secondary minima Polarized
Unpolarized Light
Light
a sin n = ( 2n 1)
, n = 1, 2, 3.......
2 Malu’s Law:
c) Width of central maximum
Polarizer
First Minima
I1
x
Central Io I
Minima
x
Unpolarized Analyzer
First Minima
Light
Malus Law , I1 = I cos2
6) Brewster’s Law
= tan ip
2D 2 f
Width of central maxima = w = 2x = = Unpolarized Polarized
a a ip
Light Light
f = focal length of lens used
2
Angular width = 2 =
a
d) Intensity graph
7) Doppler’s Law
3 2
v Vr
2 3
a a a a a a v C
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Dual Nature Of Radiation & Matter
Quick Revision DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER
TERMINOLOGY 6) Matter waves (De Broglie waves):
E : Energy of photon According to De Broglie a moving material
: Wavelength particle sometimes acts as a wave and
: Frequency of photon sometimes as a particle.
c : Speed of light The wave associated with moving particle is
m : Mass of particle called matter wave or De Broglie wave.
h : Plank’s constant 7) Davisson–Germer experiment:
p : Momentum This experiment performed to verify the wave
I : Intensity nature of electron and concluded that electron
n : Number of emitted photons exhibit wave nature also, thus supporting the
P : Radiation power hypothesis given by de-Broglie regarding wave
W0 : Work function particle duality of matter.
0 : Threshold frequency FORMULAE
0 : Threshold wavelength 1) Work function (W0):
V : Potential
c
V0 : Stopping potential W0 0
T : Absolute temperature 0
k : Boltzmann’s constant 2) Einstein’s photoelectric equation:
: Glancing angle OR Bragg’s angle
E W0 K max
d : Distance between diffracting planes
DEFINITIONS 0 Kmax
1) Threshold frequency (0):
The minimum frequency of incident radiation K max ( 0 )
required to eject the electron from metal where, E = Energy of photon, Kmax = Maximum
surface. kinetic energy of emitted electron
3) Energy of photon:
If incident frequency 0 No photoelectric
effect. c
E
2) Threshold wavelength ( 0):
The maximum wavelength of incident radiation
12400
required to eject the electron from metal E (in eV)
surface. (Å)
If incident wavelength 0 No photoelectric 4) mass of photon:
Rest mass of photon is zero. But its effective
effect
mass is given by
3) Photo-electric effect:
The photo-electric effect is the emission of E
m
electrons from metal surface. These electrons c 2 c 2 c
are called photo electrons. Photo electric effect 5) Momentum of photon:
occurs when light strikes a metal surface.
4) Work function (W0): E
p mc
The minimum energy of incident radiation, c c
required to eject the electrons from metallic 6) Number of emitted photons:
surface is known as work function. Number of emitted photons emitted per second
5) Photon: from a source of monochromatic radiation of
According to Einstein’s quantum theory, light wavelength and power P is given by
propagates in the form of packets of energy,
P P
each packet being called photon. n
E
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Dual Nature Of Radiation & Matter
7) Intensity: GRAPHS
E P 1) Effect of intensity ( = Constant):
I
At A
Intensity ( I)
8) de-Broglie wavelength:
1 1 1
p m 2 mE p E 2I
9) de-Broglie wavelength associated with the I
charged particles:
12.27
electron Å By
V 2 mqV
–V 0 0 Potential ( V)
0.286
proton Å
V 2) Effect of frequency:
0.202
Deutron Å
Intensity
V
I = Constant
0.101
particle Å
V
10) de-Broglie associated with uncharged particles:
2
0.286 1
neutron Å
E (in eV)
–V 02 –V01 0 Potential ( V)
30.86
thermal neutron
T
11) Bragg’s law:
2 d sin n
D Interatomic distance
D sin n
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Atoms
Quick Revision ATOMS
TERMINOLOGY 3) Excited state:
e– : Charge on electron (1.6 × 10–19C) The state with higher energies than ground
me : Mass of electron state is called as excited state.
b : Impact parameter 4) Excitation energy:
: Scattering angle The energy required to take the e– or atom
x0 : Distance of closest approach froom ground state to excited state is called
Z : Atomic number excitation energy.
n : Principal quantum number 5) Excitation potential:
rn : Radius of nth orbit (Stationary orbit radius) The potential through which an e– should be
Vn : Velocity of e– in nth orbit accelerated to acquire this much energy is called
C : Speed of light as excitation potential.
0 : Permittivity of free space 6) Ionization energy:
h : Plank’s constant The minimum energy required to inize an atom
E = E2 – E1 : Energy of emitted photon (Radiation) is called ionization energy.
L : Angular momentum 7) Ionization potential:
: Frequency of emitted photon (Radiation) The potential difference through which e –
: Wavelength of emitted photon (Radiation) should be accelerated to acquire this much
T : Time period of electron energy is called as ionization potential.
K.E. : Kinetic energy of e– 8) Binding energy:
P.E. : Potential energy of e– The minimum amount of energy required to
T.E. : Total energy of e– separate e– from atom is called binding energy.
R : Rydberg’s constant (1.09 × 107 m–1) 9) Quantized energy level:
I.P. : Ionization potential Energy of e– in hydrogen atom in 1st, 2nd and
I.E. : Ionization energy 3rd orbit called quantized energy level.
E.E. : Excitation energy 10) Hydrogen spectrum:
E.P. : Excitation potential Hydrogen gas enclosed in a flask and heated
B.E. : Binding energy to high temperature, it emits radiation.
N : Number of spectral lines obtained due to If these radiations are passed through prism
transition of e– from nth orbit to lower and thus we get hydrogen spectrum.
n : Angular velocity of e– in nth orbit The most important feature in this spectrum is
DEFINITIONS that any some sharply defined wavelength exist
1) Bohr’s postulates: in the radiation (656.3 nm or 486.1 nm).
a) Electron revolves around the nucleus in 11) Lyman series:
circular orbit. Series arises due to transition of e – from
b) The orbit of the e– around the nucleus can different outer orbit to first Bohr’s orbit is called
take one some special values of radius, that lyman series.
orbit is called as stationary orbit. 12) Balmer series:
e– does not radiate energy from this orbit. Series arises due to transition of e – from
c) The energy of the atom has a definite value different outer orbits to second orbit is called
in a given stationary orbit (e– can jump from Balmer series.
one orbit to another). 13) Paschen series:
d) In stationary orbit, the angular momentum Series arises due to transition of e – from
of e– about the nucleus is an integral multiple different outer orbit to third orbit is called as
of h/2. Paschen series.
2) Ground state: 14) Series limit:
The state of an atom with the lowest energy The smallest wavelength emitted in series is
(–13.6 eV) is called its ground state. called as series limit.
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Atoms
FORMULAE Z2
12) T.E. 13.6 eV 2
1) m V V=0 n
Z 1e x0 Z2e For hydrogen atom,
E1 13.6 eV
E2 3.4 eV
Z1Z2 e 2 E3 1.51 eV
x0 ..... *** 1
20 mV 2
*** x0 E4 0.85 eV
m
E5 0.54 eV
2) b is less , is more
b=0 , = 180° Head on collision 1 2
1 1
13) RZ 2 2 ..... n2 n1
2 2
n1 n2
0 h n n2
3) rn .... rn n( n 1)
me 2 Z Z 14) Number of spectral lines (N) =
2
Ex.: n = 4
n2
0.53 Å N=6
Z n=
n =5
n =4
Ze 2 Z
3
n =3
4) Vn ..... Vn 2 5
20 hn n n =2
1 4 6
Z n = 1 (Ground state)
2.2 106 m/ s Absorption
n of energy
15) Series:
hc
5) E2 E1 .....Radiation Name Of Series n1 n2 Region
1) Lyman series 1 2, 3, 4, ..... Ultra violet
nh 2) Balmer series 2 3, 4, 5, ..... Visible
6) L mVn rn
2
3) Paschen series 3 4, 5, 6, ..... Infra red
2rn n3
7) Time period, T V ..... T 4) Brackett series 4 5, 6, 7, ..... Infra red
n Z2
5) P-Fund series 5 6, 7, 8, ..... Infra red
2 4
1 mZ e
8) K.E. me Vn2 e2 2 2 16) For hydrogen atom:
2 8 0 h n Z = 1
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, .....,
1 Ze e m Z2e 4
9) P.E. e2 2 2 n= E = 0
4 0 r 4 0 h n n=5 E5 = –0.54 eV
n=4 E4 = –0.85 eV
n=3 E3 = –1.51 eV
me Z 2 e 4
10) T.E. = K.E. + P.E.
8 20 h2 n2 n=2 E2 = –3.4 eV
12.75 eV
13.06 eV
10.2 eV
12.1 eV
13.6 eV
10.2 eV
Absorption Release
10.2 eV energy
P.E.
11) Relation : T.E. = K .E. n=1 E1 = –13.6 eV
2
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Nuclei
Quick Revision NUCLEI
TERMINOLOGY 6) Mass defect (m):
Z : Atomic number The difference between the sum of masses of
A : Mass number nucleons constituting a nucleus and the rest
R : Radius of nucleus mass of nucleus is known as mass defect.
R0 : 1.1 × 10–15 m 7) Binding energy:
: Density of nucleus The energy equivalent to the mass defect of the
m : Mass defect nucleus.
mp : Mass of proton 8) Binding energy per nucleon:
mn : Mass of neutron It is the average energy required to extract one
E : Energy nucleon from the nucleus.
C : Speed of light 9) Radioactivity:
dN The spontaneous transformation of an element
: Rate of disintegration into another with the emission of some particles
dt
is called radioactivity.
N : Number of atoms present at that time
: Decay constant 10) Laws of radioactivity decay:
N0 : Number of atoms present at initially (i) When a radioactive atom disintegrates, -
particle (nucleus of helium) then its atomic
t1/2 : Half life
number decreases by 2 units and atomic
tAvg. : Mean life mass decreases by 4 units.
MN : Mass of nucleus
decay
DEFINITIONS Z
X A Z 2Y A 4
1) Isotopes: (ii) The emission of -particle by radioactive
The atoms of an element, which have the same atom results in a daughter atom, whose
atomic number but different mass numbers, are atomic number is 1 unit more but mass
called isotopes. number is same as that of the parents atom.
Ex.: (i) 8O16, 8O17, 8O18 decay
(ii) 17O35, 17Cl37 Z
X A Z 1Y A
2) Isotones: decay
(iii) A XZ ZY A
The atoms whose nuclei have same number of
neutrons are called isotones. Because of -emission, there will no change
3) Isobars: in atomic number and atomic mass.
The atoms which have same mass number but (iv) According to radioactive decay law, the
different atomic numbers, are called isobars. rate of disintegration at any time t is
Ex.: (i) 1H3, 1He3 directly proportional to the number of
7
(ii) 2Li , 4Be 7 atoms present at that time t.
4) Atomic mass unit (a.m.u.):
dN dN
It is defined as (1/12)th of mass of one 6C12 atom. N or N
dt dt
1 a.m.u. = 1.660565 × 10 kg –27
5) Energy equivalent of atomic mass unit: or, N N 0 e t
According to Einstein’s mass-energy
11) Half life:
equivalence reaction, the energy equivalent of
mass m is given by Time interval in which the number of atoms
E = mc2 reduces to half of its initial value is called half
1 a.m.u. = 931.5 MeV life.
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12) Mean life or average life: FORMULAE
Average time for which the nuclei of the atoms 1) Radius of nucleus:
of radioactive substance exist, known as mean R R0 A 1/ 3
life or average life. 2) Nuclear density:
13) Activity of radioactive substance: Mass of nucleus
= 2.97 × 1017 kg/m3
It is defined as the number of disintegrations Volume of nucleus
takes place in the given sample per second.
3) E = mc2
14) Nuclear fission: 4) Mass defect (m):
The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into m [Zmp ( A Z)mn M N ]
two or more than two nuclei with liberation of
energy is called nuclear fission. 5) Binding energy = m 931.5 (in Mev)
[Zmp ( A Z)mn M N ] 931.5
Ex.: 92
U 235 0 n1
56 Ba141 30 Kr 141 3 0 n1 Q
6) Binding energy per nucleon:
15) Neutron reproduction factor (K):
Binding energy
Rate of production of neutrons A
K
Rate of loss of neutrons Mass defect
7) Packing fraction
If K = 1 ; Reaction will steady A
8) Law of radioactivity decay:
K > 1 ; Reaction will accelerate
dN
K < 1 ; Reaction will retard N
dt
16) Nuclear fusion:
N N 0 e t
In nuclear fusion two or more than two lighter
9) Half life (t1/2):
nuclei combine to form a single heavy nucleus.
17) Nuclear reactors (Main parts & their function): 0.693
t1/2
(i) Fuel : It is a fissionable material (U235)
1
(ii) Moderator : Used to slow down the 10) tavg.
neutrons
11) Activity of radioactive substance (A):
Ex.: Water, heavy water, graphite
dN
(iii) Control rods: These rods controls the A
dt
reaction by absorbing neutrons.
Ex.: Cadmium or Boron rods A N 0 e t
(iv) Coolent: The most commonly used A A0 e t , where N0 A0
coolents are liquid sodium and heavy
water
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Semiconductor Devices
Quick Revision SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
TERMINOLOGY 6) n–p–n Transistor:
ne : Concentration of free electrons
nh : Concentration of free holes
ni : Intrinsic concentration
µe : Mobility of electrons
µh : Mobility of holes
e : Drift speed of electrons 7) p–n–p Transistor:
h : Drift speed of holes
Fg : Energy gap (OR) Forbidden gap
V : Knee voltage
E : Emitter
B : Base 8) OR Gate:
C : Collector
I : Current
Ib : Base current 9) AND Gate:
Ic : Collector current
IE : Emitter current
V : Voltage 10) NOT Gate:
R : Resistance
i/p : Input
o/p : Output 11) NOR Gate:
RL : Load resistance
: Current transfer ratio
12) NAND Gate:
: Current amplification factor (Current gain)
AV : Voltage gain
f : Frequency
13) X–OR Gate:
: Efficiency
Y : Output
S.C. : Semiconductor 14) X–NOR Gate:
SYMBOLS
1) p-n Junction Diode:
p n DEFINITIONS
1) Energy Band Gap: (Eg) (Forbidden Energy Gap)
2) Zener Diode: The gap between the top of valence band and
bottom of conduction band is called the energy
band gap.
2) Conductors:
3) Photo Diode: Solids in which conduction band and valence
band overlap i.e., band gap is zero.
3) Insulators:
4) Light Emitting Diode (LED): Solids in which band gap is greater than 3 eV.
4) Semi Conductors:
Solids in which band gap is less than 3 eV.
5) Hole:
5) Solar Cell: The vacancy in valence orbit of semiconductor
atom with the effective positive electronic
charge is called a hole.
It behaves as an apparent free particle with
effective positive charge.
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Semiconductor Devices
6) Intrinsic Semi Conductor: 19) Forward Resistance And Reverse Resistance:
Pure semi conductors are known as intrinsic The resistance of the diode in forward and
semi conductor. reverse bias conditions are known as forward
7) Extrinsic Semi Conductor: resistance and reverse resistance respectively.
Impure semi conductors i.e., semi conductor 20) Cut-in Voltage OR Threshold Voltage: (V)
obtained after doping is known as extrinsic (Knee Voltage):
semi conductor. The forward voltage at which the diode current
8) Doping: increase significantly (exponentially) even for
The process of adding impurities to intrinsic a small resistance in the diode bias voltage.
semi conductor in order to rise its conducting 21) Reverse Breakdown Voltage (VRB):
levels is known as doping. The reverse voltage at which, the reverse
9) n–Type Semiconductor: current increases sharply and the diode gets
The extrinsic semiconductor obtained after destroyed is known as reverse breakdown
adding pentavalent impurities to an intrinsic voltage.
semiconductor is known as n-type 22) Rectifier:
semiconductor. A device (or) circuit which converts A.C.
10) p–Type Semiconductor: voltage to D.C. voltage.
The extrinsic semiconductor obained after 23) Zener Voltage (VZ):
adding trivalent impurities to an intrinsic The reverse voltage point at which the
semiconductor is known as p-type voltage across zener diode becomes stable and
semiconductor. reverse current rises sharply is called the zener
11) Trivalent Impurities: voltage (VZ).
Atoms with valency 3. 24) Avalanche Breakdown:
Ex.: Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (Al) It is the phenomenon of current carries
12) Pentavalent Impurities: multiplication due to collision of thermally
Atoms with valency 5. generated minority carries with crysted ions in
Ex.: Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorus (P) a reverse biased zener diode.
13) Depletion Region: (Junction Barrier) It takes place at zener voltage.
The space-charge region on either side of the 25) Transistor:
junction together is known as depletion region. It is a three terminal semiconductor device
14) Biasing: which can be used as an electronic switch (or)
In electronics, biasing is the setting of initial an amplifier.
operating condition (current and voltage) of an 26) Emitter:
active device. Region in a transistor which supplies majority
15) Forward Bias: charge carries for current flow.
When p-terminal of a diode is at higher 27) Base:
potential than n-terminal then the diode is said Region in a transistor which acts as a link
to be in forward bias. between the emitter and collector.
16) Reverse Bias: 28) Collector:
When n-terminal of a diode is at higher It is the region in a transistor, which collects
potential than p-terminal, then the diode is said majority of charge carriers.
to be in reverse bias. 29) Amplifier:
17) Forward And Reverse Voltage: Device which enhances the amplitude of input
The voltage across diode in forward bias signal voltage. Transistor in active region acts
condition and reverse bias conditions are as an amplifier.
known as forward voltage an reverse voltage 30) D.C. Current Gain ( DC):
respectively. Ratio of output current to input current in a
18) Forward And Reverse Current: transistor.
The current passing through device in its 31) A.C. Current Gain ( AC):
forward bias and reverse bias conditions are It is the ratio of change in output current to the
known as forward current and reverse current change in input current of a transistor.
respectively.
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Semiconductor Devices
32) A.C. Voltage Gain (AV): 8) Zener diode as voltage regulator:
It is the ratio of change in output voltage to RSe I IL
change in input voltage in a transistor.
33) Power Gain: VSc IZ
It is the ratio of output power to input power VZ RL
VPn
for a transistor operating in active region.
34) Transconductance (gm):
It is the ratio of change in output current to the
change in input voltage of a transistor. Vin VSe VZ I R I L RL
Se
35) Oscillator:
It is a device which delivers a.c. output wave I IZ I L
form of desired frequency from d.c. power. 9) Half wave rectifier
36) Logic Gates: i/p A.C. o/p Pulsating D.C.
Logic gates are the building blocks of digital- Half Wave
electronics, which work in accordance with Rectifier
some logical relationship between i/p and o/p
voltages. fi/p = fo/p
37) Truth Table: 10) Full wave rectifier
In logic gates, the relation between the possible i/p A.C. o/p Pulsating D.C.
values of i/p and corresponding o/p voltages are Full Wave
expressed in the form of a table called truth Rectifier
table.
FORMULAE fo/p = 2fi/p
1) For intrinsic semiconductor, 11) In a transistor (CE - Configuration)
ne nh ni I E IC I B
2) For extrinsic semiconductor, IC IC
;
ne .nh n 2
i IE IB
3) In p-type semiconductor,
1 1
nh ne 1
Holes : Majority carriers 12) Transistor as an amplifier (CE - Configuration)
Electrons : Minority carriers
IC
4) In n-type semiconductor, dc
IB
ne nh
Electrons : Majority carriers I
ac C
Holes : Minority carriers
I B VCE Constant
5) In semiconductors,
I I e Ih I C
gm gm ac
VBE Ri / p
Conductivity, e( ne µe nh µh )
6) In p–n junction diode V o / p Ro / p
• Forward current Diffusion current AV AV
Vi / p Ri / p
• Reverse current Drift current
• Reverse resistance AV gm Ro / p
7) In p–n junction diode
• In forward bias acts as closed switch Ro / p
Power gain 2
• In reverse bias acts as open switch Ri / p
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Semiconductor Devices
13) OR gate 20) Boolean algebra:
1 – High voltage signal
A B Y 0 – Low voltage signal
0 0 0 A, B – Imputs Can take value 0 (or) 1.
A Y = A+B 0 1 1 • 1×1=1 0+0=0
B 1 0 1 1×0=0 0+1=1
1 1 1 0×0=0 1+1=1
• A × A = A If A = 1
• o/p is high if atleast one i/p is high
• o/p is low when all i/p are low A+A=A A0
14) AND gate 1 + A = 1 If A = 0
0×A= 0
A B Y
0+A=A A1
0 0 0
• De-morgan’s law
A Y = A+B 0 1 0
B 1 0 0 ( A B) A . B
1 1 1
AB A B
• o/p is high when all i/p are high GRAPHS
• o/p is low if atleast one o/p is low 1) p–n junction diode:
15) NOT gate
A Y If (Forward current)
A YA 0 1
1 0
16) NOR gate
A B Y VRB
0 0 1 VReverse V Vforward
A Y A B 0 1 0
B 1 0 0
1 1 0
• o/p is high when all i/p are low Ir (Reverse current)
• o/p is low if atleast one i/p is high
17) NAND gate 2) Zener diode:
A B Y
0 0 1 If
A Y AB 0 1 1 VRB
B 1 0 1
1 1 0
18) NAND, NOR gates are known as universal
gates. Reverse Vt Forward
bias bias
19) Special gates:
X – OR (Exclusive OR gate)
A Y AB AB
B
X – NOR (Exclusive NOR gate)
Ir
A Y AB AB
B
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Semiconductor Devices
3) Half Wave Rectifier: 5) Photo Cell:
A X
mA
~ RL
Reverse bias Voltage
B Y I1
I2
Voltage at A
I3
t I4
mA
I4 > I 3 > I2 > I1
Illumination intensities
Voltage at RL
t 6) LED (Light Emitting Diode):
A
4) Full Wave Rectifier:
D1
X
V
RL o/p
D2
Y
7) Solar Cell:
Voltage at A
I
t
Voc
V
Voltage at B
t
Isc
Voc – Open circuit voltage
Isc – Short circuit current
o/p Voltage at
8) i/p characteristics of transistor (CE configuration):
t IB
V CE1 VCE2
VCE2 > VCE1
o/p Voltage with
capacitor filter
t V BE
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Semiconductor Devices
9) o/p characteristics of transistor (CE configuraion): 10) Transfer characteristics of transistor:
IC Vo/p
Active region (Amplifier) Active region Amplifier
(Closed switch operation)
IB = 30 µA
Saturation region
IB = 20 µA Cut off Saturation region
Open switch
Closed swith
IB = 10 µA
AV
IB = 0
V CE
Cut off region V i/p
(Open switch operation)
N r.
Items Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier
S
o.
D1 R1 V1
1. Circuit I/P R1 V0 I/P
D2
2. Input voltage
V0 V0 V0
t t
The value of Irms of input
3. alternating current I0 / 2 I0 / 2
I = I0 sin t
4. Output direct current I0 / 2I 0 /
5. Ripple factor 1.21 0.48
6. Maximum ‘’ 0.406 or 40.6% 0.812 or 81.2%
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