DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

STUDY GUIDE

PHY114

FLUIDS, HEAT & MODERN PHYSICS

Credits: 8

Textbooks

(i) “Physics” by Cutnell & Johnson, 8th or 9th Edition

(ii) “College Physics” by Serway & Vuille – 8th or 9th Edition

Course Coordinator:

Miss Luyanda Ndevu

You will need:

Notebook; Ruler; Pen; Pencil; Calculator & Maths Set box

Welcome to Physics 114 module in particular Heat and Hydrodynamics at the first year

level,
 PHY 114:GENERAL INFORMATION

The purpose of this pamphlet is to give you some general information about the course.
Lecturer Office Telephone Duration
Miss Luyanda
Livingstone Hall in Room GF011 6 weeks
Ndevu
Assessment

1. Term tests dates: Two term tests will be written during the semester.
Test 1 Test 2
TBA TBA

2. Tutorial classes: To be conducted on Wednesdays (11h40- 13h00) and

Fridays (9h00-10h30).
3. Preparation: Students must read the work before coming to class, listing possible
Questions for discussions.
4. Experiments: Weekly experimental sessions relevant to the course content will be
Conducted in the laboratories.
5. Examination: A final 2-hour internally moderated examination will be written
towards the end of the semester.
6. Class mark: the composition of the class mark is as follows:

Tutorials Experiments Term test 1 Term test 2 Class mark

10% 20% 35% 35% 100%

7. DP Calculation: = (0.7 x Av. Tests) + (0.3) x (Av. Practs) + (0.1) x

(Av. Assignments)

8. 5% will be deducted from your DP if you miss more than 2

Tutorial Classes
9. Final mark: (FM) = (DP + Exam Mark)/2

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

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 The following sections comprise the Study Guide, which will be used for
setting tests and examinations. Course notes will also be made available
to students on a weekly basis.

Chapter 9 (in Textbooks)

Fluids Dynamics
• This chapter introduces basic properties of solids and liquids.
– Includes some properties of gases.
States of Matter:
1. Solid

 Has a definite volume and shape.

2. Liquid

 Has a definite volume but not a definite shape.

3. Gas – unconfined

 Has neither a definite volume nor shape.

A fluid is a collection of molecules that are randomly arranged and held

together by
weak cohesive forces and by forces exerted by the walls of a container.
 Both liquids and gases are fluids.

DEFINITION OF MASS DENSITY: The mass density of a substance is the mass

of a substance divided by its volume: ρ = density = mass/Volume (Units
are kgm-3)

Exercise - 1: Blood as a Fraction of Body Weight

The body of a man whose weight is 692 N contains about 5.2x10-3 m3 of
blood.
(a) Find the blood’s weight and express it as a percentage of the body
weight.

Pressure: Definition is force applied on a unit area. P = Force/Area

Variation of Pressure with Depth

• Fluids have pressure that varies with depth.

• If a fluid is at rest in a container, all portions of the fluid must be in

static equilibrium.

• All points at the same depth must be at the same pressure.

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  Otherwise, the fluid would not be in equilibrium.

 This is independent of the shape of the container.

Exercise - 2: The Force on a Swimmer

A reservoir has a surface area of 50 km2 and an average depth of 40 m.

What is the mass of water held in the dam?

Solution
Solving equation ρ = m/V for m gives m = ρV. The volume V of the reservoir
is its surface area A times its average depth h:
V = Ah = (50 km2) (40m) = 2 ×109m3
The density of water ρ is 1.0 × 103. Substituting V and ρ into the expression
for mass gives
M = (1×103 kg/m3) (2×109m3) = 2.00×1012 kg

Pressure and Depth in a Static Fluid:

∑ F y =P2 A−P1 A−mg=0

P2 A=P1 A +mg

Remember that mass, m = ρV and V = Area x height (V = Ah)

So, P2 A=P1 A +ρ Vg
2 A=P1 A +ρ
Becomes,P Ahg
P2 =P1 +ρ hg
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Then

• The pressure does not depend upon the shape of the

container

The Mercury Manometer

A manometer is attached to a container of gas to determine its pressure. ,
Before the manometer is attached, both sides of the manometer are open to
the atmosphere. After the container is attached, the mercury on the side
attached to the container rises 12cm above its previous level.
(a) What is the gauge pressure of the gas in Pa? (Pgauge = Pabsolute – Patmosphere)
(b)What is the absolute pressure of the gas in Pa?

Solution:

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The mercury column is higher on the side connected to the container, so we
know that the pressure of gas is lower than the atmospheric pressure.
(a) If one side of the column goes up by 12 cm, then the other column goes
down by 12 cm, so the difference in the mercury levels is 24 cm. Since
h = -24cm
Pgas + ρgh = Patm
Pgas - Patm = -ρgh
Pgauge = -13600kg/m3 x 10m/s2 x (0.24m)
Pgauge = - 32kPa
(b)Now Pgas = Patm – ρgh = 101kPa – 32kPa = 69kPa ->

PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE:

Any change in the pressure applied to a completely enclosed fluid is

transmitted,
unchanged diminished to all parts of the fluid and enclosing walls.

Point A and B are in the same level, then

P2 =P1 + ρ g ( 0 m ) , so P2 = P1.
Then
( )
F2 F1 A2
= F 2=F 1
A 2 A 1 , gives A1

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The volume of liquid pushed down on the left must equal the volume pushed
up on the right.
A 1 Δx 2
=
Since the volumes are equal, A1 Δx1= A 2 Δx 2 , then A 2 Δx 1 .

( ) ( )
A Δx 1
F 2=F 1 2 =F 1
A1 Δx 2
Substitute this in

But we define Work = Force x distance

Then F 2 Δx 2 =F1 Δx 1 which means Work1 = Work2

This is a consequence of Conservation of Energy

Archimedes’ Principle:

Any fluid applies a buoyant force to an object that is partially or

completely immersed in it; the magnitude of the buoyant force
equals the weight of the fluid that the object displaces:

F  Wfluid
B 
Magnitude of Weight of
buoyant force displaced fluid

F B=P2 A−P1 A=( P2 −P1) A

F B =ρ ghA

FB=ρVunderbracealignl mas⏟s of ¿ fluid ¿¿g¿

displaced ¿

If the object is floating, then the magnitude of the buoyant force is equal to
the magnitude of its weight.

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Exercise- 3 : Crown Example

Archimedes was asked, “Is the crown made of pure gold?”(See Diagram
below).
He weighed the crown in air and in water, and observed that:
Crown’s weight in air = 7.84 N and
Weight in water (submerged) = 6.84 N
Buoyant force (B) will equal the apparent weight loss.
 Difference in scale readings will be the buoyant force.
Since the crown is in equilibrium, sum of y-forces: ΣF = B + T2 – Fg = 0 then
B = Fg – T2; (Weight in air – apparent “weight” in water)
Archimedes’ principle says B = ρgV. Find V then find Density of the crown.

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Example - 4: A Swimming Raft made of solid square pinewood.
Determine whether the raft floats in water and if so; how much of the raft is
beneath the surface.

V raft =( 4.0 m )( 4.0 m )( 0.30 m ) =4.8 m3

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 F max
B =ρ Vg= ρwater V water g

¿ ( 1000 kg /m3 )( 4 . 8 m3 )( 9 . 80 m/s 2 )

¿ 47000 N
W raft =m raft g= ρ pine V raft g

¿ ( 550 kg / m 3 ) ( 4 . 8 m 3 ) ( 9 . 80 m / s 2 )

¿ 26000 N< 47000 N

Since the weight of the raft is less than the maximum Buoyant Force, FB,
then the raft floats! So, the Wraft = Fbuoyant = 26000N = ρwaterVwaterg
26000N = (1000kg/m3).(4m).(4m).(h).(10m/s2)
Then h = 0.16 m

Hydrostatics – Fluids at Rest Practice Problems

1. The pressure of a gas contained in a cylinder with a movable piston is 300 Pa. The area of the
piston is 0.5 m2. Calculate the force that is exerted on the piston.
2. A swimming pool of width 9.0 m and length 24.0 m is filled with water to a depth of 3m. Calculate
pressure on the bottom of the pool due to the water.
3. What is the pressure on the side wall of the pool at the junction with the bottom of the pool in the
previous problem?
4. What is the total force on the bottom of the pool due to the water in the problem 3
5. A block of wood of mass 3.5 kg floats in water. Calculate the buoyant force on the block.
6. A floating object displaces 0.6 m3 of water. Calculate the buoyant force on the object and the
weight of the object.

Hydrodynamics – fluid flow:

Types of Fluid Flow

 Laminar flow
 Steady flow

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  Each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path.
 The paths of the different particles never cross each other.
 Every given fluid particle arriving at a given point has the same
velocity.
 Turbulent flow
 An irregular flow characterized by small whirlpool-like regions.
 Turbulent flow occurs when the particles go above some critical
speed.
 Fluid flow can be compressible or incompressible.
 Most liquids are nearly incompressible.
 Fluid flow can be viscous or non-viscous.
 Viscosity shows the degree of internal friction in the fluid. This
internal friction, or viscous force, is associated with the resistance
that two adjacent layers of fluid have to moving relative to each other.
Viscosity causes part of the kinetic energy of a fluid to be converted to
internal energy.
 An incompressible, non-viscous fluid is called an ideal fluid.
 When the flow is steady, streamlines are often used to represent the
trajectories (paths) of the fluid particles

Ideal Fluid Flow:

There are four simplifying assumptions made to the complex (difficult) flow
of fluids to make the analysis easier .
 The fluid is non-viscous – internal friction is neglected

• An object moving through the fluid experiences no viscous

forces.

 The flow is steady – all particles passing through a point have

the same velocity.

• The velocity, density, and pressure at each point in the fluid

do not change with time

 The fluid is incompressible – the density of the

incompressible fluid remains constant.

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  The flow is irrotational – the fluid has no angular momentum
about any point.

Bernoulli’s Equation:

Mass of the fluid that comes in = Mass of fluid that comes out

So then, ⏟
Δm= ρV = ρ A vΔt
distance

Δm1
Δm2 =ρ 1 A 1 v 1
= ρ2 A 2 v 2 Δt
Δt

EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

The mass flow rate has the same value at every position along a tube that
has a single entry and a single exit for fluid flow. (Same fluid, same density,
ρ1 = ρ2)

ρ1 A1 v 1 =ρ2 A2 v 2

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 A1 v 1= A 2 v 2
The product of the cross-sectional area of a pipe and the fluid speed is a
constant
– Speed is high where the pipe is narrow and speed is low where
the pipe has a large diameter
Volume Flow rate, Q, is defined as: Q = Av
Exercise -5: A Garden Hose
A garden hose has an unobstructed opening with a cross sectional area of
2.85x10-4m2. It fills a bucket with a volume of 8.00x10-3m3 in 30 seconds.
Find the speed of the water that leaves the hose through
(a) the unobstructed opening and
(b) an obstructed opening with half as much area.

Bernoulli’s Equation: (Check www.youtube.com.)

Observations:

1. The fluid accelerates toward the lower pressure regions.

2. According to the pressure-depth relationship, the pressure is
lower at higher levels, provided the area of the pipe does not
change.

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W nc=( 2 mv 21 +mgy 1 )−( 2 mv 22 +mgy 2 )
1 1
W =( ∑ F ) s=( ΔF ) s=( ΔP ) As=( P2 −P1 ) V

We equate the two statements, and we solve for BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

( P2 −P1 ) V =( 2 mv 21 +mgy 1 )−( 2 mv 22 +mgy 2 )

1 1

( P2 −P1 ) =( 2 ρv 21 + ρ gy 1 )−( 2 ρv22 + ρ gy 2 )

1 1

In steady flow of a non-viscous, incompressible fluid, the pressure, the

fluid speed, and the elevation at two points are related by:

P1 + 12 ρv21 + ρ gy 1 = P2 + 12 ρv 22 + ρ gy 2
___________________________________________________

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Example - 6: Atomizer and Bernoulli’s Equation

 A stream of air passes over one end of an open tube.

 The other end is immersed in a liquid.
 The moving air reduces the pressure above the tube.
 The fluid rises into the air stream.
 The liquid is dispersed into a fine pray of droplets.

Example - 7: Efflux Speed

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The tank is open to the atmosphere at the top. Find an expression for the
speed of the liquid leaving the pipe at the bottom.

1 2 1 2
P1 + 2 ρv1 +ρ gy 1 =P2 + 2 ρv 2 +ρ gy 2

P1=P2=P atm
y 2− y 1=h
1
2
ρv 21 = ρ gh

v 1=√ 2 gh

Chapter 9 - Tutorial Problems

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1. (a) Calculate the weight of a cylindrical column of water with a height h = 40 m and
radius
r = 1.00 m.
(b) Calculate the force exerted by air on a disk of radius 1.00 m at the water’s
surface.
(c) What pressure at a depth of 40.0 m supports the water column?

2. A container is filled to a depth of 20.0 cm with water. On top of the water fl oats a
30.0-cm-thick layer of oil with density of 700 kg/m3. What is the absolute pressure at
the bottom of the container?

3. In a huge oil tanker, salt water has flooded an oil tank to a depth of 5.00 m. On top of
the water is a layer of oil 8.00 m deep, as in the cross-sectional view of the tank in
figure below. The oil has a density of 0.700 g/cm3. Find the pressure at the bottom of
the tank. (Take 1 025 kg/m3 as the density of salt water.)

4. Water flowing through a garden hose of diameter 2.74 cm fills a 25.0-L bucket in
1.50 min.
(a) What is the speed the water leaving the end of the hose?
(b) A nozzle is now attached to the end of the hose. If the nozzle diameter is one-
third the diameter of the hose, what is the speed of the water leaving the nozzle?

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5. A raft is made of wood and has a density of 600 kg/m3. Its surface area is 5.70 m2,
and its volume is 0.60 m3. When the raft is placed in fresh water as in Figure 9.24, to
what depth h is the bottom of the raft submerged?

6. In a car lift used in a service station, compressed air exerts a force on a small piston
of circular cross section having a radius of r1 = 5.00 cm. This pressure is transmitted
by an incompressible liquid to a second piston of radius r2 = 15.0 cm.
(a) What force must the compressed air exert on the small piston in order to lift a car
weighing 13300 N? Neglect the weights of the pistons.
(b) What air pressure will produce a force of that magnitude?
(c) Show that the work done by the input and output pistons is the same.

7. A small ferryboat is 4.00 m wide and 6.00 m long. When a loaded truck pulls onto it,
the boat sinks an additional 4.00 cm into the river. What is the weight of the truck?

8. A sample of an unknown material appears to weigh 300 N in air and 200 N when
immersed in alcohol of density 700 kg/m3.
What are (a) the volume and (b) the density of the material?

9. A water hose is used by a gardener to fill a 30-liter bucket. (One litre = 1 000 cm3.)
The gardener notices that it takes 1.00 min to fill the bucket. A nozzle with an
opening of cross-sectional area 0.500 cm2 is then attached to the hose. The nozzle is
held so that water is projected horizontally from a point 1.00 m above the ground.
Over what horizontal distance can the water be projected?

10. A liquid (ρ = 1.65 g/cm3) flows through two horizontal sections of tubing joined end to
end. In the first section, the cross-sectional area is 10 cm2, the flow speed is 275
cm/s, and the pressure is 1.20x105 Pa. In the second section, the cross-sectional area
is 2.50 cm2. Calculate the smaller section’s (a) flow speed and (b) pressure.

11. Water pressurized to 3.5 x 105 Pa is flowing at 5.0 m/s in a horizontal pipe which
contracts to 1/3 its former area. What are the pressure and velocity of the water after
the contraction?

*********************************************8

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 Chapter 10:
Temperature & Heat
After completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
1.1 Define temperature and the instrument used to measure it.
1.2 Convert from one temperature scale to another.
1.3 Understand the effect of both linear and volume thermal expansion and how to
prevent it.
1.4 Understand the concept of specific heat capacity, internal energy & latent heat of
phase change.
1.5 Understand the concept of conservation of energy.
1.6 Do problems on the above.
Thermal Physics
• Thermal physics is the study of
– Temperature
– Heat
– How these affect matter
• Descriptions require definitions of temperature, heat, and internal
energy.
• Heat leads to changes in internal energy and therefore to changes in
temperature.
• Gases are critical in harnessing internal energy to do work.
• The process by which energy is exchanged between objects because of
temperature differences is called heat.
• Objects are in thermal contact if energy can be exchanged between
them.
• Thermal equilibrium exists when two objects are in thermal contact
with each other and there is no net exchange of energy between them.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:

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 • If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third
object, C, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
– Object C could be the thermometer.
• Allows a definition of temperature.
Temperature from the Zeroth Law:

• Temperature is the property that determines whether an object is in

thermal equilibrium with other objects.
• Two objects in thermal equilibrium with each other are at the same
temperature.
Thermometers:

• Used to measure the temperature of an object or a system.

• Make use of physical properties that change with temperature.
• Many physical properties can be used.
– Volume of a liquid
– Length of a solid
– Pressure of a gas held at constant volume.
– Volume of a gas held at constant pressure.
– Electric resistance of a conductor
– Color of a very hot object
• A mercury thermometer is an example of a common thermometer.
• The level of the mercury rises due to thermal expansion.
• Temperature can be defined by the height of the mercury column.

Temperature Scales:
• Thermometers can be calibrated by placing them in thermal contact
with an environment that remains at constant temperature.

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 – Environment could be mixture of ice and water in thermal
equilibrium.
– Also commonly used is water and steam in thermal equilibrium.

Celsius Scale:

• Temperature of an ice-water mixture is defined as 0° C.

– This is the ice point or the freezing point of water.
• Temperature of a water-steam mixture is defined as 100° C.
– This is the steam point or the boiling point of water.
• Distance between these points is divided into 100 segments or
degrees.

Kelvin Scale:

• When the pressure of a gas goes to zero, its temperature is –273.15°

C.
– This temperature is called absolute zero.
• This is the zero point of the Kelvin scale.
– –273.15° C = 0 K
• To convert: TC = T – 273.15
– The size of the degree in the Kelvin scale is the same as the size
of a Celsius degree.

Fahrenheit Scales:

• Most common temperature scale used in the US.

• Temperature of the ice point is 32° F.
• Temperature of the steam point is 212° F.
• 180 divisions between the points

Converting Among Temperature Scales:

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 T C =T K −273. 15
9
T F = T C +32
5
5
T C = ( T F−32 )
9
9
ΔT F= ΔT C
5

Example:
The temperature gradient between the skin and the air is regulated by cutaneous
(skin) blood flow. If the cutaneous blood vessels are constricted, the skin
temperature and the temperature of the environment will be about the same. When
the vessels are dilated, more blood is brought to the surface. Suppose during
dilation the skin warms from 72.0°F to 84.0°F.
(a) Convert these temperatures to Celsius and find the difference.
(b) Convert the temperatures to Kelvin, again finding the difference.

Solution
(a) Convert the temperatures from Fahrenheit to Celsius and find the difference.
5
T C= ( T −32 )
9 F
Convert the temperatures, using , then find the difference.
(b) Convert the temperatures from Fahrenheit to Kelvin and find their difference.
Convert the temperatures, using the answers for Celsius found in part (a):
T C =T K −273. 15

Gas Thermometer:

• Temperature readings are nearly independent of the gas.

– As long as the gas pressure is low.
– The temperature needs to be well above the temperature at
which the gas liquefies.
• Pressure varies with temperature when maintaining a constant volume.

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 Thermal Expansion:
• The thermal expansion of an object is a consequence of the change in
the average separation between its constituent atoms or molecules.
• At ordinary temperatures, molecules vibrate with a small amplitude.
• As temperature increases, the amplitude increases.
– This causes the object to expand.
Linear Expansion:
• For small changes in temperature:

ΔL=αL 0 ΔT
Lf − L 0= αL0 ( T f −T 0 )
• α, the coefficient of linear expansion, depends on the material
Area Expansion:

• Two dimensions expand according to:

ΔA = A f − A 0 =γA 0 ΔT
– γ is the coefficient of area expansion and γ = 2α for solids

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Volume Expansion:

• Three dimensions expand:

ΔV =V f −V 0 =βV 0 ΔT
– β = 3α for solids
– For liquids, the coefficient of volume expansion, β, is given in the
tables.

Examples of Thermal Expansion

1. A length of lead piping is 50 m long at a temperature of 16°C. When hot

water flows through it the temperature of the pipe rises to 80°C. Determine
the length of the hot pipe if the coefficient of linear expansion of lead is 29 ×
10 −6 (°C)-1
Solution:
Data: Length L0 = 50 m, Temperature, T0 = 16°C, Tf = 80°C and
α = 29 × 10 −6 (°C)-1
Length of pipe at 80°C is given by:
L f = L0 [1 + α.(Tf – T0 )] = 50m[1 + (29 × 10 −6 )(80 - 16)] = 50.0928 m

2. A rod of metal is measured at 285 K and is 3.521 m long. At 373 K the rod is
3.523 m long. Determine the value of the coefficient of linear expansion for
the metal.
Solution:
Data: Length L0 = 3.521 m, Lf = 3.523 m, temp T0 = 285 K and temp Tf = 373
K
Length Lf = L0 [1 + α.(Tf – T0 )]
Or 3.523 = 3.521[1 + α.(373 - 285)] = 3.521 + (3.521)(α)(88)
Therefore, coefficient of linear expansion, α = 6.45 × 10 −6 K −1

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3. A copper transmission line has a length of 40 m between its supports at 20°C.
Determine the increase in length at 50°C if the coefficient of linear expansion
of copper is 17 × 10−6 (°C)-1.
Solution:
Length Lf = L0 [1 + α(Tf – T0 )] = L0 + L0 α(Tf – T0 )
Hence, increase in length, Lf – L0 = L0 α.(Tf – T0 )
= (40.0 m)(17 × 10 −6 K −1 )(50 – 20)°C
= (40.0)(17 × 10 −6 )(30) = 0.0204 m or 20.4 mm

4. A brass measuring tape measures 2.10 m at a temperature of 15°C.

Determine the increase in length when the temperature has increased to
40°C
Assume the coefficient of linear expansion of brass to be 18 × 10 −6 (°C)-1.
Solution:
Data: Length L0 = 2.10 m; temp T0 = 15°C; Tf = 40°C and α = 18 × 10−6 (°C)-
1

Length Lf = L0[1 + α(Tf – T0)] = L0 + L0 α(Tf – T0 )

Hence, increase in length = L0 α(Tf – T0 )
= (2.10 m) (18 × 10−6 (°C)-1)(40 – 15)°C = (2.10)m(18 × 10 −6
)(25)
= 0.000945 m or 0.945 mm

5. A pendulum of a ‘grandfather’ clock is 2.0 m long and made of steel.

Determine the change in length of the pendulum if the temperature rises by
15 K. Assume the coefficient of linear expansion of steel to be 15 × 10 −6 K −1.
Solution:
Length Lf = L0 [1 + α(Tf – T0 )] = L0 + L0 α(Tf – T0)
Hence, increase in length = L0 α(Tf – T0 )
= (2.0 m)(15 × 10−6 (°C)-1)(15 K) = (2.0)(15 × 10−6 )(15)
= 0.00045 m or 0.45 mm

6. A temperature control system is operated by the expansion of a zinc rod

which is 200 mm long at 15°C. If the system is set so that the source of heat
supply is cut off when the rod has expanded by 0.20 mm, determine the
temperature to which the system is limited. Assume the coefficient of linear
expansion of zinc to be 31 × 10−6 (°C)-1.
Solution:
Length L0 = 200 mm = 0.20 m, Lf = 200 + 0.20 mm = 200.2 mm = 0.2002,
Temp T0 = 15°C
Therefore, the length Lf = L0 [1 + α(Tf – T0 )] = L0 + L0 α(Tf – T0 )
Hence, increase in length = L0 α(Tf – T0)
L f – L0 = 0.2002 – 0.20 = (0.20)(31 × 10−6 )( Tf - 15)
(Show skipped steps)
The temperature to which the system is limited, Tf = 32.26 + 15 = 47.26°C

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7. A brass shaft is 15.02 mm in diameter and must be inserted in a hole of
diameter 15.0 mm. Determine by how much the shaft must be cooled to
make this possible, without using force. Take the coefficient of linear
expansion of brass as 18 × 10−6 (°C)-1.
Solution:
Length Lo = 15.02 mm = 0.01502 m, Lf = 15 mm = 0.015 m
Length, Lf = L0 [1 + α(Tf – T0)]
i.e. 0.015 = 0.01502[1 + (18 × 10 −6 (°C)-1)(Tf – T0)]
0.015 = 0.01502 + (0.01502)( 18 × 10 −6 )( Tf – T0 )
i.e. 0.015 – 0.01502 = (0.01502)( 18 × 10 −6 )(Tf – T0 )
Hence T f – T0 = -73.98 °C
The shaft must be cooled by 74 °C

8. A silver plate has an area of 800 mm 2 at 15°C. Determine the increase in the
area of the plate when the temperature is raised to 100°C. Assume the
coefficient of linear expansion of silver to be 19 × 10−6 (°C)-1.
Solution:
Af = A0 [1 + γ (Tf – T0)]
i.e. A f = A0 [1 + 2α(Tf – T0 )] since γ = 2α,
i.e. A f = A0 + A0 2α (Tf – T0)
Hence, area increase = A0. 2α (Tf – T0)
= (800×10−6m2)(2 19×10-6(°C)-1)(100−15)°C
= 800 × 10−6 × 2 ×19 × 10-6 × 85
= 2.584 ×10 −6 m2 or 2.584 mm2

9. At 10 °C a thermometer contains 440 mm3 of alcohol. Determine the

temperature at which the volume is 480 mm3 assuming that the coefficient of
volume expansion of the alcohol is 12 × 10 −4 (°C)-1.
Solution:
Vf = V0 [1 + β (Tf – T0)]
So 480 ×10−9 = 440×10−9 [1 + (12 × 10−4) (Tf - 10)]
From which, 480 = 440 + 440(12 × 10−4) (Tf - 10)
And then, 480 – 440 = 440(12 × 10−4) (Tf - 10)
Such that, (Tf - 10) = 75.76 °C
Temperature, Tf = 75.76 + 10 = 85 °C

Tutorial Problems

10. A zinc sphere has a radius of 30.0 mm at a temperature of 20°C.

If the temperature of the sphere is raised to 420°C, determine the
increase in:
(a) the radius,
(b) the surface area,
(c) the volume of the sphere.

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 (Assume the coefficient of linear expansion for zinc to be 31 × 10 −6
(°C)-1.)

11. A block of cast iron has dimensions of 50 mm by 30 mm by 10

mm at 15°C. Determine the increase in volume when the temperature
of the block is raised to 75°C.
(Assume the coefficient of linear expansion of cast iron to be 11 × 10 −6
(°C)-1)

12. Two liters of water, initially at 20°C, is heated to 40°C. Determine

the volume of water at 40°C if the coefficient of volumetric expansion
of water within this range is 30 × 10−5 (°C)-1.
13. Determine the increase in volume, in liters, of 3 m 3 of water
when heated from 20 °C to boiling point if the coefficient of volume
expansion is 2.1 × 10−4 (°C)-1 (1 litre ≈ 10−3 m3 )

14. Determine the reduction in volume when the temperature of 0.5

litre of ethyl alcohol is reduced from 40°C to - 15°C. Take the
coefficient of cubic expansion for ethyl alcohol as 1.1 × 10 −3 (°C)-1

Energy Transfer

• When two objects of different temperatures are placed in thermal

contact, the temperature of the warmer decreases and the
temperature of the cooler increases.
• The energy exchange ceases when the objects reach thermal
equilibrium.
• The concept of energy was broadened from just mechanical to include
internal:
– Made Conservation of Energy a universal law of nature

Internal Energy

• Internal Energy, U, is the energy associated with the atoms and

molecules of the system:

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 – Includes kinetic and potential energy associated with the random
translational, rotational, and vibrational motion of the particles
that make up the system.
– Also includes any potential energy bonding the particles
together.

Heat Compared to Internal Energy: - Heat involves a transfer of

energy.

Heat:
• Heat is the transfer of energy between a system and its environment
because of a temperature difference between them.
– The symbol Q is used to represent the amount of energy
transferred by heat between a system and its environment.

Heat and Specific Heat:

• Q = m c ΔT
• ΔT is always the final temperature minus the initial temperature.
• When the temperature increases, ΔT and ΔQ are positive and energy
flows into the system.
• When the temperature decreases, ΔT and ΔQ are negative and energy
flows out of the system.

Calorimeter:

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 • Used in one technique for determining the specific heat of a substance.
• A calorimeter is a vessel that is a good insulator which allows a thermal
equilibrium to be achieved between substances without any energy
loss to the environment.
• Analysis performed using a calorimeter.
• Conservation of energy applies to the isolated system.
• The energy that leaves the warmer substance equals the energy that
enters the water.
• Qcold = -Qhot
• Negative sign keeps consistency in the sign convention of ΔT.
• In some cases, it may be difficult to determine which materials gain
heat and which materials lose heat.
• You can start with ΣQk = 0
• Qk is the energy of the kth object.
• Each Q = m c ΔT
• Use Tf – Ti
• You don’t have to determine before using the equation which
materials will gain or lose heat.

Phase Changes:

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 • A phase change occurs when the physical characteristics of the
substance change from one form to another.
• Common phases changes are:
– Solid to liquid – melting
– Liquid to gas – boiling.
• Phases changes involve a change in the internal energy, but no
change in temperature (Latent Heat)
• The energy Q needed to change the phase of a given pure substance is
– Q = ±m L
• L is the called the latent heat of the substance
– Latent means hidden.
– L depends on the substance and the nature of the phase
change
• Choose a positive sign if you are adding energy to the system and a
negative sign if energy is being removed from the system.
• SI unit of latent heat are J / kg.
• Latent heat of fusion, Lf, is used for melting or freezing.
• Latent heat of vaporization, Lv, is used for boiling or condensing.
• See table with the latent heats for various substances.
Sublimation:
• Some substances will go directly from solid to gaseous phase.
– Without passing through the liquid phase
• This process is called sublimation.
– There will be a latent heat of sublimation associated with this
phase change.

Consider Example: 1-kg of ice at -30°C to Steam at 120°C.

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 Example: Specific Heat of an Unknown Metal
A sample of unknown metal of mass 0.55 kg is heated up to a temperature of 75°C. The hot
metal is then placed inside an aluminum calorimeter that contains 0.5 kg of water at 15.5°C.
The mass of the aluminum cylinder is 0.1 kg. When the contents of the calorimeter reach
equilibrium, the temperature inside is 18.8 °C.
(a) Find the specific heat of the unknown metal.
(b) Determine from the tables what the metal is.

Solution:
Heat flows out of the sample (Qs < 0) and into the water and aluminum cylinder (Qw > 0; Qa
> 0). Assuming that no heat into or out of the surroundings,
Qsample + Qwater + Qaluminum = 0
For each substance, the heat is related to temperature change. Substituting Q = mcΔ T for
each, gives:
mscsΔTs + mwcwΔ Tw + macaΔ Ta = 0 (1)
The following table helps organize the given information:
Sample Water Aluminum
Mass (m) 0.55 kg 0.5 kg 0.1 kg
Specific Heat (c) Cs (unknown) 4186 J/(kg.°C) 900 J/(kg.°C)
Heat Capacity (mc) 0.55 kg x cs 2093 J/(kg.°C) 90 J/(kg.°C)
Ti 75 °C 15.5 °C 15.5 °C
Tf 18.8 °C 18.8 °C 18.8 °C
ΔT -56.2 °C 3.3 °C 3.3 °C
(a) Solving Equation (1) for cs:

mw c w ΔT w +ma c a ΔT a
c s =−
ms ΔT s
(2093 )(3 .3 )J /kg+(90)(3 . 3)J /kg
c s =−
(0. 55 kg )(−56 .2 °C )
c s =230 J (kg .° C )
(b) The metal could be silver! (From Tables @ the back.)

Making Ice – Blocks:

Ice tube trays are filled with 0.5 kg of water at 20°C and placed into the freezer
compartment of the refrigerator. How much energy must be removed from the water to turn
it into ice?
Solution:
For liquid water going from 20°C to 0°C, Q1 = mcwΔT1,
where ΔT1 = 0°C - 20°C = -20°C.
Since ΔT1 is negative, Q1 is negative; therefore, heat must flow out of the water in order for
its temperature to decrease.
Next, the water freezes. The heat is found from the latent heat of fusion (water – to - ice):
Q2 = -mLf

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Since heat flows out, Q2 is also negative. (Negative for freezing and Positive for melting)
Finally, the ice is cooled to -5.0°C:
Q3 = mciceΔT3
Where ΔT3 = -5.0°C – 0.0°C = -5.0°C
We use the subscripts on the specific heat to distinguish the specific heat of ice from that of
water.
The total heat is: Qtotal = mcwΔT1 – mLf + mciceΔT3
Qtotal = m{cwΔT1 – Lf + ciceΔT3}
Now, look up the constants cw, cice and Lf substitute the values:
Qtotal = 0.5kg x {-837200 J/kg1 – 333700 J/kg -10500 J/kg}
Qtotal = -214 kJ
So, 214 kJ of heat flows out of water to make ice tubes/blocks.

Temperature conversions – Tutorial

1) On the moon the surface temperature ranges from 375 K during the day to 1x102 K at
night. What are these temperatures on the (a) Celsius and (b) Fahrenheit scales?

2) Convert the following temperatures to their values on the Fahrenheit and Kelvin scales:
(a) the boiling point of liquid nitrogen, -196°C (b) human body temperature, 37.0°C

3) A constant-volume gas thermometer has a pressure of 5x103 Pa when the gas

temperature is 0.00 °C. What is the temperature (in °C) when the pressure is 2x103 Pa?

4) At what common temperature are the Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures the same?

Solved Heat Examples:

1. How much heat is needed to convert 1 kg of ice at -10°C to steam at 100°C? Remember
ice and water do not have the same specific heat.
Solution:
In general the heat necessary to warm a material that doesn’t change phase is:
Q = ΔT.c.m = m.c. ΔT

Where here the temperature change is in degrees Celsius, the specific heat c is in
J/kg°C, and the mass is in kg. Also in general, the energy required to change the
phase of a mass m with heat of transformation L is: Q = m.L

Qtotal = Qice + Qice+water + Qwater + Qwater+steam

Qtotal = 20.5 kJ + 334 kJ + 418.4 kJ + 2257 kJ = 3030 kJ (Show)

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2. If 400g of ice at -2°C is placed in 1 kg of water at 21°C what is the product when
equilibrium is reached?
Solution:

First, we need to determine if the ice will completely melt. To do this we find the
heat necessary to heat ice to 0°C and then to melt it.

Qmelt = Qice + Qice+water = 135.24 kJ (Show)

Now the maximum amount of heat that the water can give before beginning to freeze
is:
Qwater = 87.9 kJ (Show)

Since this is smaller than the amount of heat necessary to completely melt but far
more than the amount necessary to warm the ice to 0°C we now know that the water
will warm all the ice to 0°C and melt some fraction of the ice. We already know that
1.64 kJ is necessary to warm the ice to 0°C, so the remaining 86.224 kJ available from
the water will go toward melting the ice.

The amount of ice melted is then m = 0.258 kg (Show)

Thus, we’re left with about 1.258 kg of water and 0.142 kg of ice, all at 0°C.

3. To find Cx, the specific heat of material X, I place 75g of it in a 30g copper calorimeter
that contains 0.065kg of water, all initially at 20°C. When I add 0.1kg of water at 80°C,
the final temperature is 49°C. What is Cx?
Solution:
Here we want to make use of conservation of energy, namely the heat absorbed by
the original amount of material X, the calorimeter and the initial water is equal to the
heat lost by the added hot water. This gives us the equation:

(mxCx + mcopperCcopper + mwaterCwater) ΔTinitial.components = mhot.waterChot.water.ΔThot.water

Cx = 2180 J/(kg.°C) (Show all calculations leading to this!)

Heat Tutorial Problems

1. How much heat must be absorbed by 375 grams of water to raise its temperature by 25°
C?

2. What mass of water can be heated from 25° C to 50° C by the addition of 2825 J?

3. What is the final temperature when 625 g of water at 75° C loses 7.96 x 104 J?

4. A copper cylinder has a mass of 76.8 g and a specific heat of 0.092 cal/g·C. It is heated
to 86.5° C and then put in 68.7 g of turpentine whose temperature is 19.5° C. The final
temperature of the mixture is 31.9° C. What is the specific heat of the turpentine?

5. A 65.0 g piece of iron at 525° C is put into 635 g of water at 15° C. What is the final
temperature of the water and the iron?

6. 5.0 g of copper was heated from 20°C to 80°C. How much energy was used to heat Cu?
(Specific heat capacity of Cu is 0.092 cal/g °C)

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7. How much heat is absorbed by 20g granite boulder as energy from the sun causes its
temperature to change from 10°C to 29°C? (Specific heat capacity of granite is 0.1
cal/gºC)

8. How much heat is released when 30 g of water at 96°C cools to 25°C? The specific heat
of water is 1 cal/g°C.

9. If a 3.1g ring is heated using 10.0 calories, its temperature rises 17.9°C. Calculate the
specific heat capacity of the ring.

10.The temperature of a sample of water increases from 20°C to 46.6°C as it absorbs 5650
calories of heat. What is the mass of the sample?
(Specific heat of water is 1.0 cal/g °C)

11.The temperature of a sample of iron with a mass of 10.0 g changed from 50.4°C to
25.0°C with the release of 47 calories of heat. What is the specific heat of iron?

12.A 4.50 g coin of copper absorbed 54 calories of heat. What was the final temperature of
the copper if the initial temperature was 25°C? The specific heat of copper is 0.092
cal/g°C.

13.A 155 g sample of an unknown substance was heated from 25°C to 40°C. In the process,
the substance absorbed 569 calories of energy. What is the specific heat of the
substance?

14.What is the specific heat of an unknown substance if 2.50 g sample releases 12 calories
as its temperature changes from 25°C to 20°C?

Heat Extra Problems

(1) When you take a bath, how many kilograms of hot water (50 °C) must you mix with cold
water (12.0 °C) so that the temperature of the bath is 36.0 °C? The total mass of water
(hot plus cold) is 190 kg. Ignore any heat flow between the water and its external
surroundings.

(2) How much heat must be added to 0.45 kg of aluminum to change it from a solid at 130
°C to a liquid at 660 °C (its melting point)? The latent heat of fusion for aluminum is 4.0
× 105 J/kg.

(3) A person eats a container of yogurt. The Nutritional Facts label states that it contains
240 Calories (1 Calorie = 4186 J). What mass of perspiration would one have to lose to
get rid of this energy? At body temperature, the latent heat of vaporization of water is
2.42 × 106 J/kg.

(4) A block of material has a mass of 130 kg and a volume of 4.6 x 10-2 m3. The material has
a heat capacity C = 750 J/(kg·C°) and β = 4.6 × 10-5(C ° ) – 1. How much heat must be
added to the block to increase its volume by 1.2 x 10-5 m3?

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(5) When 4200 J of heat are added to a 0.15-m-long silver bar, its length increases by 4.3 x
10-3 m.
What is the mass of the bar?

(6) A block of material has a mass of 130 kg and a volume of 4.6 x 10-2 m3. The material
has a specific
heat capacity and coefficient of volume expansion, respectively, of 750 J/(kg·C°) and
4.6 × 105(C ° ) – 1.
How much heat must be added to the block to increase its volume by 1.2 x 10-5 m3?

(7) The latent heat of vaporization of water at body temperature (37.0 °C) is 2.42x106 J/kg.
To cool the
body of a 75-kg jogger [average specific heat capacity = 3500 J/(kg·C°)] by 1.5 C°, how
many kilograms
of water in the form of sweat must be evaporated.

(8) A rock of mass 0.20 kg falls from rest from a height of 15 m into a pail containing 0.35
kg of water. The rock and water have the same initial temperature. The specific heat
capacity of the rock is 1840 J/(kg·C°). Ignore the heat absorbed by the pail itself and
determine the rise in the temperature of the rock and water.

************************

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 Chapter 11:
Heat transfer
After completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

2.1 Define heat and relate the concept of temperature.

2.2 Discuss the three ways for heat transfer.

2.3 Discuss some applications where this concept is used.

2.4 Do problems on the above.

Summary

 Heat is transferred through convection, conduction, and

radiation.

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  Convection is the process in which heat is carried from one place to
another by the bulk movement of a fluid.
 Conduction is the process whereby heat is transferred directly
through a material,
1. One mechanism for conduction occurs when the atoms or molecules in
a hotter part of the material vibrate or move with greater energy than
those in a cooler part.
2. By means of collisions, the more energetic molecules pass on some of
their energy to their less energetic neighbors.
• The rate of conduction depends on the properties of the substance.
• In general, metals are good conductors.
– They contain large numbers of electrons that are relatively
free to move through the metal.
– They can transport energy from one region to another.
• Conduction can occur only if there is a difference in temperature between
two parts of the conducting medium.

The heat Q, conducted during a time t through a bar of length L and

cross-sectional area A is: ( kA ΔT ) t

Q=
L

Conduction, equation:
• The slab of material allows energy to transfer from the region of higher
temperature to the region of lower temperature:
Q ( T Hot −T cold )
P= =kA
Δt L
• A is the cross-sectional area,

Page 37 of 70
Conduction, Equation Explanation:
• A is the cross-sectional area
• Through a rod, Δx = L
• P is in Watts when Q is in Joules and t is in seconds
• k is the thermal conductivity of the material
– Good conductors have high k values and good insulators
have low k values
–

Example - 1: Layered insulation

One wall of a house consists of plywood backed by insulation. The thermal conductivities of
the
insulation and plywood are, respectively, 0.030 and 0.080 J/(s·m·Co), and the area of the wall
is 35m2.
Find the amount of heat conducted through the wall in one hour.

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 Q=Q insulation =Qplywood

[ ( kA ΔT ) t
L ] insulation
[
=
( kA ΔT ) t
L ]
plywood

[ 0 .030 J / ( s⋅m⋅C∘ ) ] A ( 25 . 0∘ C−T ) t = [ 0 . 080 J / ( s⋅m⋅C ∘) ] A (T −4 . 0∘ C ) t

0 . 076 m 0 . 019 m

T =5 . 8∘ C

[ 0 . 030 J / ( s⋅m⋅C ∘) ] ( 35 m 2 ) ( 25. 0∘ C−5 . 8∘ C )( 3600 s )

Q insulation =
0 . 076 m
Q Insulation=9. 5×105 J

Warm up on this one!

Find the energy transferred in 1.00 h by conduction through a concrete wall

2.0 m high, 3.65 m long, and 0.20 m thick if one side of the wall is held at
20°C and the other side is at 5°C.
( T h −T c )
Q=kA t
Strategy: Use L

Heat Transfer: - Tutorial

1. One end of an iron poker is placed in a fire where the temperature is 502 °C, and the
other end is kept at a temperature of 26 °C. The poker is 1.2 m long and has a radius of
5x10-3 m. Ignoring the heat lost along the length of the poker, find the amount of heat
is conducted from one end of the poker to the other in 5.0 s.

2. A refrigerator has a surface area of 5.3 m2. It is lined with 0.075-m-thick insulation
whose thermal
conductivity is 0.030J/(s.m.°C). The interior temperature is kept at 5 °C, while the
temperature at the
outside surface is 25 °C.
How much heat per second is being removed from the refrigerator?

3. The amount of heat per second conducted from the blood capillaries beneath the skin to
the surface is 240 J/s. The energy is transferred 2x10-3 m through a body whose surface
area is 1.6 m2. Assuming that the thermal conductivity is that of body fat, determine the
temperature difference between the capillaries and the surface of the skin.

Page 39 of 70
4. Due to a temperature difference ΔT, heat is conducted through an aluminum plate
that is 0.035 m thick. The plate is then replaced by a stainless-steel plate, that has the
same temperature difference and cross-sectional area. How thick should the steel plate
be so that the same amount of heat per second is conducted through it?

5. The ends of a thin bar are maintained at different temperatures. The temperature of the
cooler end is 11 °C, while the temperature at a point 0.13 m from the cooler end is 23
°C and the temperature of the warmer end is 48 °C. If heat flows only along the length
of the bar (the sides are insulated), find the length of the bar.
***********************

Convection:
• Energy transferred by the movement of a substance.
– When the movement results from differences in density, it is
called natural convection.
– When the movement is forced by a fan or a pump, it is called
forced convection.

Convection Current Example:

• The electric heater warms the air in the lower region of the room.
• The warm air is less dense, so it rises to the ceiling.
• The denser, cooler air sinks
• A continuous air current pattern is set up as shown.
Radiation:
• Radiation does not require physical contact.
• All objects radiate energy continuously in the form of electromagnetic
waves due to thermal vibrations of the molecules.

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 • Rate of radiation is given by Stefan’s Law, P = σ A e T4

• The electromagnetic waves carry the energy from the fire to the
hands.
• No physical contact is necessary.

Radiation equation:

• P = σ A e T4
– The power is the rate of energy transfer, in Watts.
– σ = 5.669 6 x 10-8 W/m2.K4
• Called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
– A is the surface area of the object.
– e is a constant called the emissivity
• e varies from 0 to 1
– T is the temperature in Kelvins

Energy Absorption and Emission by Radiation:

• The rate at which the object at temperature T with surroundings at To

radiates is
– Pnet = σ A e (T4 - To4)
– When an object is in equilibrium with its surroundings, it radiates
and absorbs at the same rate.
• Its temperature will not change.
Ideal Absorbers:

• An ideal absorber is an object that absorbs all the energy incident on

it: e = 1
• This type of object is called a black body.

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 • An ideal absorber is also an ideal radiator of energy.
• An ideal reflector absorbs none of the energy incident on it: e
=0

Applications of Radiation:

• Clothing
– Black fabric acts as a good absorber.
– White fabric is a better reflector.
• Thermography
– The image of the pattern formed by varying radiation levels is
called a thermogram.
• Body temperature
– Radiation thermometer measures the intensity of the infrared
radiation from the eardrum.

Chapter 12:
Ideal gas law & Kinetic Theory
12.1 Define Molar mass, Mole and Avogadro’s number:
One mole of a substance contains as many particles as there are
atoms in 12 grams of the isotope cabron-12. The number of atoms per
mole is known as Avogadro’s number, NA. NA = 6.022x1023 mol-1;
mparticle N m
n= =
mparticle N A Mass per mole
Where n = number of moles, and N is number of atoms.

N
n=
NA
The mass per mole (in g/mol) of a substance has the same numerical
value as the atomic or molecular mass of the substance (in atomic
mass units).
For example, Hydrogen has an atomic mass of 1.00794 g/mol, while
the mass of a single hydrogen atom is 1.00794 u.
Example 1: The Hope Diamond and the Rosser Reeves Ruby

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 The Hope diamond (44.5 carats) is almost pure carbon. The Rosser Reeves
ruby (138 carats) is primarily aluminum oxide (Al2O3). One carat is equivalent
to a mass of 0.200 g.
Determine
(a) the number of carbon atoms in the Hope diamond and
(b) the number of Al2O3 molecules in the ruby.

Solution: m ( 44 . 5 carats ) [ ( 0 .200 g ) / ( 1 carat ) ]

(a)
n= = =0 . 741 mol
Mass per mole 12 .011 g /mol
N=nN A =( 0 .741 mol ) ( 6 . 022×1023 mol−1 )=4 . 46×1023 atoms

(b) m ( 138 carats ) [ ( 0. 200 g ) / ( 1 carat ) ]

n= = =0 .271 mol
Mass per mole ⏟
101 . 96 g/ mol
2 (26 . 98 )+3 (15 . 99 )

N=nN A =( 0 .271 mol ) ( 6 . 022×1023 mol−1 )=1 . 63×10 23 atoms

12.2 An ideal gas is an idealized model for real gases that have sufficiently
low densities.
The condition of low density means that the molecules are so far apart that
they do not
interact except during collisions, which are effectively elastic.
THE IDEAL GAS LAW
The absolute pressure of an ideal gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin
temperature and the number of moles of the gas and is inversely proportional
to the volume of the gas.
nRT
P=
V
PV = nRT

PV =nRT =N
( )R
NA
T =NkT

Where R 8 . 31 J / ( mol⋅K )
k= = =1 . 38×10−23 J / K
N A 6 . 022×10 mol 23 −1

Example 2 : Oxygen in the Lungs

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In the lungs, the respiratory membrane separates tiny sacs of air(pressure
1.00x105Pa) from the blood in the capillaries. These sacs are called alveoli.
The average radius of the alveoli is 0.125 mm, and the air inside contains
14% oxygen.
If the air behaves as an ideal gas at 310K, find the number of oxygen
molecules in one of these sacs.

Solution:

PV = NkT, so
N= =
5
[
PV ( 1 .00×10 Pa ) 3 π ( 0 . 125×10 m )
4 −3 3
]
kT ( 1 .38×10−23 J / K ) ( 310 K )

N=1 . 9×10 14
But 14% of these N molecules = 0.14 x N

14 % . N =( 1 .9×1014 ) ×( 0 .14 )=2 .7×1013

Consider a sample of an ideal gas that is taken from an initial to a final state,
with the amount of the gas remaining constant.
PV = nRT, then
PV
=nR= constant
T
So, we can conclude that,P f V f Pi V i
=
Tf Ti
If T is constant then, PfVf = PiVi gives a Boyles Law

If P is constant, then ,V f Vi gives Charles Law

=
Tf Ti

Summary

 At constant temperature, the pressure is inversely proportional to the volume, or P α 1/V

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 

 The absolute pressure of an ideal gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature and the

number of moles of the gas and is inversely proportional to the volume of the gas,

nRT
P=
 The Ideal Gas Law equation is V

 Boyles law states PiVi = PfVf (at constant T)

Vi V f
=
 Charles’ Law states that
Ti Tf when P is constant.

Chapter 13:
Thermodynamics

After completion of this chapter you should be able to:

4.1 Know and understand the Zeroth Law of thermodynamics.
4.2 Understand the concept of Adiabatic and Diathermal wall.
4.3 State the first Law of thermodynamics.
4.4 Relate the concepts of Specific Heat capacities & 1st Law of thermodynamics.
4.5 Define the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics.
4.6 Do problems on the above.
Summary

 Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that is built upon the fundamental laws that heat and

work obey.

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 The collection of objects on which attention is being focused is called the system, while everything

else in the environment is called the surroundings.

 Walls that permit heat flow are called di-athermal walls, while walls that do not permit heat flow

are called adiabatic walls.

 The Zeroth Law of thermodynamics states - Two systems individually in thermal

equilibrium with a third system are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
 The First Law of Thermodynamics - The internal energy of a system changes due to heat
and work: ΔU =U f −U i =Q−W
 Heat is positive when the system gains heat and negative when the system loses heat.
 Work is positive when it is done by the system and negative when it is done on the system.
 A quasi-static process is one that occurs slowly enough that a uniform temperature and

pressure always exist throughout all regions of the system.

 isobaric: occurs at constant pressure.

 isochoric: occurs at constant volume.

 isothermal: occurs at constant temperature.

 adiabatic: no transfer of heat

 The second Law of Thermodynamics: THE HEAT FLOW STATEMENT

 Heat flows spontaneously from a substance at a higher temperature to a substance at a

lower temperature and does not flow spontaneously in the reverse direction.

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Chapter 5:
The nature of the atom
After completion of this chapter you should be able to:
5.1 Understand the concept of a black body & photon.
5.2 Understand the concept of an atom and its behavior.
5.3 Explain the Bohr atomic model & concept of orbits.
5.4 Explain the difference between Pascehen, Balmer & Lyman series in a hydrogen atom;
5.5 Explain how E-rays are produced & its application.
5.6 Do problems on the above.
Summary
 In the Bohr model, a photon is emitted when the electron drops from a larger,
higher-energy orbit to a smaller, lower energy orbit.
 Em = E p + E k

kZe 2
E= 12 mv 2 −
 Then r2

Ei −E f =hf

h
Ln =mv n r n =n n=1 , 2 , 3 , …
2π Page 47 of 70
 c
f=
 Recall λ


Radioactivity
After completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

6.1 Understand the Nuclear structure.

6.2 Understand the following concepts, Atomic number, Atomic mass, Nucleon number

& isotopes;

6.3 Understand the 3 types of radioactive decay.

6.4 Understand the concept of radioactive dating.

6.5 State the environmental and healthy effects due radioactive substances.

6.6 Do problems on the above.

Radioactive Decay Rates and Half Lives:

What determines when an unstable nucleus decays? Radioactive decay is a quantum-mechanical
process that can only be described in terms of probability. Given a collection of identical
nuclides, they do not all decay at the same time, and there is no way to predict which one decays
when. The decay probability for one nucleus is independent of its history and of the other nuclei.
Each radioactive nuclide has a certain decay probability per unit time, written lambda, λ, (no
relation to wavelength). The probability per unit time is also called the decay constant. Since
probability is a pure number, the decay constant has SI units: s-1 (probability per second).
Decay constant = (probability of decay) ÷ (unit time)
The probability that a nucleus decays during a short time interval Δt is λΔt.

Page 48 of 70
After a certain time t, the number of the remaining nuclei N in radioactive decay (number that
has not decayed), is:
N (t )=N 0 e− λt
Where No is the initial number of nuclei.
A plot of N(t) versus time (t)

Half-life:
Radioactive decay is often described in terms of the half-life, that is, the time during which half
of the nuclei decay (½N0). After two half-lives, one quarter of the nuclei remain, after m half-
ln2 0. 693
T 1= =
lives, (½) remain. {Remember this formula:
m 2 λ λ }
Example: Radioactive Decay of Nitrogen-13:
The half-life of 13N is 9.965 min.
(a) If a sample contains 3.20 x 1012 nuclei of 13N at t = 0, how many 13N nuclei are present 40
minutes later?
ln2
T 1=
2 λ
(b) Find the decay constant λ. (Recall )

Solution:
(a) Half of the nuclei are left after one half-life, then (½ x ½) = (½)2 left after two half-lives and
(½)4 after four half-lives. Then N(t) = (½)4No = No/16 = 2 x 1011nuclei remain.

Page 49 of 70
 ln 2 0. 693 −1
ln2 λ= = =0 . 0695 s
T 1= T 1 9 . 965
2 λ 2
(b) Since , then

Summary
 Nuclei that contain the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons
are known as isotopes.


 The mutual repulsion of the protons tends to push the nucleus apart. What then, holds the nucleus
together? >The strong nuclear force.

 As nuclei get larger, more neutrons are required for stability.

 The neutrons act like glue without adding more repulsive force.
 The half-life of a radioactive decay is the time in which ½ of the radioactive
nuclei disintegrate.
 Since ln 2
N=N o e− λt then T 1/2= (Know this equation!)
λ
=================================================================

PHY114 Tutorial 4 – (Ideal Gas Law)

1. Hemoglobin has a molecular mass of 64 500 u. Find the mass (in kg) of one molecule of hemoglobin.

2. The active ingredient in the allergy medication Claritin contains carbon (C), hydrogen (H), chlorine (Cl),
nitrogen (N), and oxygen (O). Its molecular formula is C22H23ClN2O2. The standard adult dosage utilizes
1.572 × 1019 molecules of this species. Determine the mass (in grams) of the active ingredient in the
standard dosage.

3. The artificial sweetener NutraSweet is a chemical called aspartame (C 14H18N2O5). What is (a) its molecular
mass (in atomic mass units) and (b) the mass (in kg) of an aspartame molecule?

Page 50 of 70
 4. A mass of 135 g of a certain element is known to contain 30.1 x 1023 atoms. What is the element?

5. A bicycle tire whose volume is 4.1 x 10-4 m3 has a temperature of 296 K and an absolute pressure of 4.8 x
105 Pa. A cyclist brings the pressure up to 6.2 x 105 Pa without changing the temperature or volume. How
many moles of air must have been pumped into the tire?

6. It takes 0.16 g of helium (He) to fill a balloon. How many grams of nitrogen (N2) would be required to fill
the balloon to the same pressure, volume, and temperature?

7. A 0.030-m3 container is initially evacuated. Then, 4.0 g of water is placed in the container, and, after some
time, all the water evaporates. If the temperature of the water vapor is 388 K, what is its pressure?

8. What is the density (in kg/m3) of nitrogen gas (molecular mass = 28 u) at a pressure of 2.0 atmospheres
and a temperature of 310 K?

Atomic Structure & Atomic Decay

Multiple Choice

Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. An energy of 13.6 eV is needed to ionize an electron from the ground state of a hydrogen atom. What wavelength is
needed if a photon accomplishes this task?
a. 60 nm
b. 80 nm
c. 70 nm
d. 90 nm
e. 40 nm

2. An electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from the n = 4 to the n = 3 energy state. Determine the energy (in
eV) of the emitted photon.
a. 0.54
b. 0.66
c. 0.85
d. 1.51
e. 10.2

3. An electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from the n = 3 to the n = 1 energy state. Determine the
wavelength of the emitted photon (in nm).
a. 1006
b. 209
c. 306
d. 103
e. 821
4. The ground state configuration of chlorine (Z = 17) is
a. 1s2 2s2 2p5 3s2 3p6
b. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
c. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 3d1
d. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 4s1
e. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 3p7
5. An alpha particle is emitted from a radioactive source with energy of 5 MeV. How fast is it moving (in m/s)? (m =
4.002603 u, 1 u = 1.66  1027 kg.)

Page 51 of 70
 a. 2.4  107
b. 1.5  107
c. 3.7  107
d. 4.6  107
e. 2.1  107
6. The isotope, tritium, has a half-life of 12.3 years. Assume we have 10 kg of the substance. What will be the
disintegration constant (in s1)?
a. 5.6  102
b. 5.6  108
c. 3.2  107
d. 1.8  109
e. 1.6  106

7. The isotope, tritium, has a half-life of 12.3 years. Assume we have 10 kg of the substance. How much tritium will be
left after 30 years?
a. 0.20 kg
b. 1.8 kg
c. 0.18 kg
d. 1.7 kg
e. 4.1 kg
8. How many radioactive atoms are present in a sample that has an activity of 0.5 Ci and a half-life of 10 years? (1
curie = 3.7  1010 decays/s)
a. 9.5  1012 atoms
b. 8.4  1012 atoms
c. 7.3  1012 atoms
d. 6.5  1012 atoms
e. 2.7  105 atoms
9.What value of Z (atomic number) and A (mass number) result in the following alpha decay?

a. Z = 92; A = 238
b. Z = 91; A = 238
c. Z = 90; A = 234
d. Z = 93; A = 238
e. Z = 88; A = 236

10. What value of Z (atomic number) and A (mass number) result in the following -decay?

a. Z = 5; A = 14
b. Z = 4; A = 10
c. Z = 6; A = 14
d. Z = 7; A = 14
e. Z = 7; A = 13

11. What value of Z (atomic number) and A (mass number) result in the following -decay?

a. Z = 6; A = 12
b. Z = 5; A = 8

Page 52 of 70
 c. Z = 6; A = 11
d. Z = 8; A = 12
e. Z = 8; A = 11

12. What value of Z (atomic number) and A (mass number) result in the following gamma decay?

a. Z = 5; A = 12
b. Z = 4; A = 8
c. Z = 7; A = 12
d. Z = 6; A = 12
e. Z = 6; A = 11

13.In beta decays

a. a proton changes to a neutron.
b. a neutron changes to a proton.
c. an electron is present in the nucleus before the decay.
d. (a), (b) or (c) may occur.
e. only (a) or (b) may occur.

14. The chart below shows part of the radioactive series beginning with the isotope . The isotope marked with an X
is

a.
.
b.
.
c.
.
d.
.
e.
.

15. The chart below shows part of the radioactive series beginning with the isotope . The isotope marked with an
X is

a.
.
b.
.
c.
.
d.
.
e.
.

Page 53 of 70
 Atomic Structure & Atomic Decay: Answer Section
MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. ANS: D 2. ANS: B 3. ANS: D 4. ANS: B

5. ANS: B 6. ANS: D 7. ANS: B 8. ANS: B
9. ANS: C 10. ANS: D 11. ANS: A 12. ANS: D
13. ANS: E 14. ANS: C 15. ANS: B

REVISION RESOURCE
June Exams – 2019

Question 1(20)
(a) A glass bottle of Savannah is sealed with a screw cap. The absolute pressure of the carbon dioxide inside the
bottle is 2 x 105 Pa. Assuming that the top and bottom surfaces of the cap each have an area of 4 x 10-4 m2,
obtain the magnitude of the force that the screw thread exerts on the cap in order to keep it on the bottle. The air
pressure outside the bottle is 1 x 105 Pa. (10)

(b) The volume of liquid flowing per second is called the volume flow rate Q and has the units of m3/s. The flow
rate of a liquid through a needle during an injection can be estimated with the following equation:
πRn ( P)
Q=
8 ηL

Page 54 of 70
 The length and radius of the needle are L and R, respectively, both of which have the units m.
The pressures at opposite ends of the needle is P which has the dimensions of kg.m-1.s-2. The symbol η
represents the viscosity of the liquid and has the dimensions of kg.m-1.s-1.
The symbol π stands for pi and, like the number 8 and the exponent n, has no dimensions.
Using unit analysis, determine the value of n in the expression for Q. (10)

Question 2 (20)
(a) A hydraulic lift raises a 2000-kg automobile when a 500-N force is applied to the smaller piston. If the smaller
piston has an area of 10 cm2, what is the area of the larger piston? (5)

(b) At what common temperature are the Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures the same? (5)

(c) The main water line enters a house on the first floor and has a pressure of 5 x 105 Pa.
(i) A faucet on the second floor, 8 m above the first floor, is turned off. What is the pressure at this faucet? (5)
(ii) How high could a faucet be before no water would flow from it, even if the faucet were open? (5)

Question 3 (20)
(a) In a huge oil tanker (big ship), salt water has flooded an oil tank to a depth of 6 m. On top of the water is a layer
of oil 8 m deep, as in the cross-sectional view of the tank in figure below. The oil has a density of 0.800 g/cm3.
Find the pressure at the bottom of the tank. (Take 1 025 kg/m3 as the density of salt water.)

(10)
4 4 o
(b) Given that Lf = 33.5 x 10 J/kg; Lv = 22.6 x 10 J/kg; Cice = 2000J/kg; Cw = 4186 J/(kg. C). Calculate the heat
needed for a 1-kg block of ice at –20oC to evaporate at 100 °C. (10)

Question 4 (20)
(a) A rod made from a particular alloy is heated from 30 °C to the boiling point of water. Its length increases by
8.8 × 10-4 m. The rod is then cooled from 30 °C to the freezing point of water. By how much does the rod
shrink? (10)

(b) The brass bar ( = 19x10-6) and the aluminum bar ( = 23x10-6) in the drawing are each attached to an
immovable wall. At 0 °C the air gap between the rods is 2.4 × 10-2 m. At what temperature will the gap be
closed?

Page 55 of 70
 (10)

Question 5 (20)
(a) How many Joules of heat are required to raise the temperature of 4 kg of water from freezing point to the
boiling point? (5)

(b) How much heat (in Joules) is needed to convert 1.00 kg of ice at -20°C into water at 0°C? (5)

(c) A person eats strawberry yoghurt. The Nutritional Facts label states that it contains 245 Calories (1 Calorie =
4.186 J). At body temperature, the Lv of water is 2.42 × 106 J/kg.
What mass of perspiration would one have to lose to get rid of this energy? (5)
(d) In an hour, a 65-kg jogger can generate 8x105 J of heat. How much would his body temperature rise if he did
not sweat? (5)
o
(Take heat capacity, Chuman = 3500 J/(kg. C)

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

June Exams - 2015

Question 1(20)
(c) A glass bottle of beer is sealed with a screw cap. The absolute pressure of the carbon
dioxide inside the bottle is 2.8 x 105 Pa. If the top and bottom surfaces of the cap each
have an area of 4.1 x 10-4 m2, obtain the magnitude of the force that the screw thread
exerts on the cap in order to keep it on the bottle.
The air pressure outside the bottle is 1.013x105 Pa.
(5)

(d) A ball of mass 2 kg having diameter of 0.50 m falls in the swimming pool. Calculate its
buoyant force and volume of water displaced.
(5)

(e) Water pressurized to 3.5 x 105 Pa is flowing at 5.0 m/s in a horizontal pipe which
contracts to ¼ its former area. What are the pressure and velocity of the water after the
contraction? (10)

Question 2 (20)
(c) One end of an iron poker is placed in a fire where the temperature is 502 °C, and the
other end is kept at a temperature of 26 °C. The poker is 1.2 m long and has a radius of
5x10-3 m.
Find the amount of heat conducted from one end of the poker to the other in 5.0 s.

Page 56 of 70
(d) At what temperature are the Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures the same?
(5)

(e) A steel beam is used in the construction of a skyscraper. By what fraction ΔL/L0 does the
length of the beam increase when the temperature changes from that on a cold winter
day (–20 °F) to that on a summer day (+100 °F)?
(7)

Question 3 (20)
b. The length of each edge of an aluminum cube is 0.050 m. The cube is heated to 145 °C
from 25 °C. What is the increase in the volume of the cube?
(10)

c. A rod made from a particular alloy is heated from 30 °C to the boiling point of water. Its
length increases by 8 × 10-4 m. The rod is then cooled from 30 °C to the freezing point of
water. By how much does the rod shrink?
(10)

Question 4 (20)

(a) A simple pendulum consists of a ball connected to the end of a thin brass wire. The
period of the pendulum is 2.1200 seconds. The temperature rises by 150°C and the
length of the wire increases. Determine the period of the heated pendulum.
(14)
(b) A patient recovering from surgery is being given fluid intravenously. The fluid has a
density of 1030 kg/m3, and 9.5 x 10-4 m3 of it flows into the patient every six hours. Find
the mass flow rate in kg/s. (6)
Question 5 (20)
(a) Given that Lf = 33.5 x 104J/kg; Lv = 22.6 x 104 J/kg; Cice = 2000J/kg; Cw = 4186 J/(kg.oC).
Calculate the heat needed for a 1-kg block of ice at –20oC to evaporate at 100 oC.
(8)

(b) One end of a wire is attached to a ceiling, and a solid brass ball of density 8890 kg/m3, is
tied to the
lower end. The tension in the wire is 150 N. What is the radius of the brass ball?
(6)

(c) The input piston has a radius of 0.010 m and the output plunger has a radius of 0.150
m.
The combined weight of the car and the plunger is 20500 N. Suppose that the input
piston has a
negligible weight, and surfaces of the piston and plunger are at the same level.
What is the required input force? (6)

*******************End******************

Page 57 of 70
Test 1 - 2012
Question 1 (25)

(a) Define the following concepts:

1. Density ; Pressure ; Gauge Pressure 3x (3) = (9)
2. Pascal’s law ; Archimedes Principle 2x (5) = (10)

(b) Suppose the pressure acting on the back of a swimmer’s hand is 1.2x105 Pa.
The surface area of the back of the hand is 8.4x10-3m2.
(i) Determine the magnitude of the force that acts on it. (5)
(ii) Discuss the direction of the force. (1)

Question 2 (25)

(a) (i) A stonecutter's chisel has an edge area of 0.7 cm2. If the chisel is struck with a force of
42 N, what is the pressure (in Nm-2) exerted on the stone? (5)

(ii) A hydraulic lift raises a 2000-kg automobile when a 500-N force is applied to the smaller
piston. If the smaller piston has an area of 10 cm2, what is the cross-sectional area of the
larger piston? (5)

(iii) A dictator has built a bunker for his use in emergencies. Its dimensions are shown below.
When it floods during a tropical storm, the gauge pressure at point A, in Pa, is

(5)

(b) The main water line enters a house on the first floor. The line has an absolute pressure of
1.9 x 105 Pa.
(i) A faucet on the second floor, 6.50 m above the first floor, is turned off.
What is the absolute pressure at this faucet? (5)
(ii) How high could a faucet be before no water would flow from it, even if the faucet were
open? (5)

Question 3(25)

(a) A glass bottle of soda is sealed with a screw cap. The absolute pressure of the carbon dioxide
inside the bottle is 2 x 105 Pa. Assuming that the top and bottom surfaces of the cap
each have an area of 4.0 x 10-4 m2, obtain the magnitude of the force that the screw thread
exerts on the cap in order to keep it on the bottle. The air pressure outside the bottle is
1.0x105 Pa. (10)

(b) One end of a wire is attached to a ceiling, and a solid brass ball of density 8890 kg/m3, is tied to the
lower end. The tension in the wire is 150 N. What is the radius of the brass ball? (10)

(c) The input piston has a radius of 0.010 m and the output plunger has a radius of 0.150 m.

Page 58 of 70
 The combined weight of the car and the plunger is 20500 N. Suppose that the input piston has
a negligible weight, and surfaces of the piston and plunger are at the same level. What is the
required input force? (5)

Question 4 (25)

(a) The body of a man whose weight is 690 N contains about 5.2x10-3 m3 of blood.
(i) Find the blood’s weight and (2)
(ii) express it as a percentage of the body weight. (3)

(b) The raft is made of solid round pinewood. Determine whether the raft floats in water.
and if so, how much of the raft is beneath the surface. The measurements of the pinewood are such that its
radius is 4.0m and height is 0.3m and its density is 550kg/m3. (15)

(c) State the equation of continuity in the flow of a fluid. (5)

******The End!******
PHY114 – Test 1 - 2011

Question 1 (25)

(a) (i) A stonecutter's chisel has an edge area of 0.7 cm2. If the chisel is struck with a force of
42 N, what is the pressure (in Nm-2) exerted on the stone? (3)
(ii) All people come very close to being able to float in water. What is the volume (in m 3) of a
50-kg woman? (3)
(iii) A hydraulic lift raises a 2000-kg automobile when a 500-N force is applied to the smaller
piston. If the smaller piston has an area of 10 cm2, what is the cross-sectional area of the
larger piston? (3)
(iv) Water pressurized to 3.5  105 Pa is flowing at 5.0 m/s in a horizontal pipe which
contracts to 1/3 its former area. What are the pressure and velocity of the water after the
contraction? (3)
(v) A dictator has built a bunker for his use in emergencies. Its dimensions are shown below.
When it floods during a tropical storm, the gauge pressure at point A, in Pa, is

(3)

(b) The main water line enters a house on the first floor. The line has an absolute pressure of
1.9 x 105 Pa.
(i) A faucet on the second floor, 6.50 m above the first floor, is turned off.
What is the absolute pressure at this faucet? (5)

Page 59 of 70
 (ii) How high could a faucet be before no water would flow from it, even if the faucet were
open? (5)

Question 2

(a) A glass bottle of soda is sealed with a screw cap. The absolute pressure of the carbon dioxide
inside the bottle is 1.8 x 105 Pa. Assuming that the top and bottom surfaces of the cap
each have an area of 4.1 x 10-4 m2, obtain the magnitude of the force that the screw thread
exerts on the cap in order to keep it on the bottle. The air pressure outside the bottle is one
atmosphere. (10)

(b) A bar of soap, when weighed in air, has a weight of W = 2.1N. When completely
immersed in water, however, it has a weight of Win water = 1.4N. Find the volume
of the bar of soap. (5)

[ L ]3
(c) The volume of liquid flowing per second is called the volume flow rate Q and has the dimensions of [ T ] .
The flow rate of a liquid through a hypodermic needle during an injection can be estimated with the following
πRn ( P2−P 1 )
Q=
equation: 8 ηL
The length and radius of the needle are L and R, respectively, both of which have the dimension [L].
The pressures at opposite ends of the needle are P2 and P1,
[M]
both of which have the dimensions of [ L ] [ T ] 2 . The symbol ή represents the viscosity of the liquid and has
[M ]
the dimensions of [ L ][ T ] .
The symbol π stands for pi and, like the number 8 and the exponent n, has no dimensions.
Using dimensional analysis, determine the value of n in the expression for Q. (10)

Question 3

(a) At what common temperature are the Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures the same?
(5)
(b) The Concorde is 62 m long when its temperature is 23 °C. In flight, the outer skin of this
supersonic aircraft can reach 105 °C due to air friction.
The coefficient of linear expansion of the skin is 2x10-5(oC)-1.
Find the amount by which the Concorde expands. (5)
(c) A copper kettle contains water at 24 °C. When the water is heated to its boiling point, the volume of the kettle
expands by 1.2 × 10-5 m3. Determine the volume of the copper kettle at 24 °C. (5)
(d) A steel beam is used in the construction of a skyscraper. By what fraction ΔL/L0 does the length of the beam
increase when the temperature changes from that on a cold winter day (–15 °F) to that on a summer day
(+105 °F)? (10)
Question 4
(a) At the bottom of old mercury-in-glass thermometer is a 45-mm3 reservoir filled with mercury. When the
thermometer was placed under your tongue, the warmed mercury would expand into a very narrow cylindrical
channel, called a capillary, whose radius was 1.5 x 10-2 mm. Marks were placed along the capillary that
indicated the temperature. Determine how far (in mm) the mercury would expand into the capillary when the
temperature changed by 1.0 C°. (10)

Page 60 of 70
(b) The brass bar and the aluminum bar in the drawing are each attached to an immovable wall. At 25°C the air gap
between the rods is 1.3 × 10-3 m. At what temperature will the gap be closed?

(10)

(c) A rod made from a particular alloy is heated from 23 °C to the boiling point of water. Its length increases by
8.47 × 10-4 m. The rod is then cooled from 23 °C to the freezing point of water. By how much does the rod
shrink?

PHY114 (Test 2 May 2012)

Question 1 (25)

(e) At what common temperature are the Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures the same? (5)

(f) How many Joules of heat are required to raise the temperature of 4 kg of water from 0 to the boiling point?

(5)
(g) How much heat (in Joules) is needed to convert 1.00 kg of ice at -20°C into water at 0°C? (5)

(h) A person eats a glass of strawberry yoghurt. The Nutritional Facts label states that it contains 245 Calories
(1 Calorie = 4.186 J). At body temperature, the latent heat of vaporization of water is 2.42 × 106 J/kg. (5)
What mass of perspiration would one have to lose to get rid of this energy?

(i) In an hour, a 65-kg jogger can generate 8x105 J of heat. How much would his body temperature rise if he did
not sweat? (5)
(Take heat capacity, Chuman = 3500 J/(kg.oC)

Question 2 (25)
(a) A rod made from a particular alloy is heated from 25.0 °C to the boiling point of water. Its length increases
by 8.5×10-4 m. The rod is then cooled from 25.0 °C to the freezing point of water. By how much does the
rod shrink? (10)

(b) A steel beam (α = 19x10-6) is used in the construction of a skyscraper. By what fraction ΔL/L0 does the
length of the beam increase when the temperature changes from that on a cold winter day (–15 °F) to that
on a summer day (+115 °F)? (8)

(c) A brass ( = 19x10-6) baseball bat has a length of 0.73 m at a temperature of 20oC. When the temperature
of the bat is raised, the bat expands by 0.00016m. Determine the final temperature of the bat. (7)
Question 3 (25)
(c) Given that Lf = 33.5 x 104J/kg; Lv = 22.6 x 104 J/kg; Cice = 2000J/kg; Cw = 4186 J/(kg.oC). Calculate the
heat needed for a 1-kg block of ice at –20oC to evaporate at 100 oC. (15)
(d) How much heat must be added to 0.45 kg of aluminum to change it from a solid at 130 °C to a liquid at 660
°C (its melting point)?
The latent heat of fusion for aluminum is Lf = 4.0 × 105 J/kg; and cal = 900J/(kg.°C). (10)
Question 4 (25)
(a) The brass bar and the aluminum bar in the drawing are each attached to an immovable wall. At 25 °C the
air gap between the rods is 1.4 × 10-3 m. At what temperature will the gap be closed? (15)

Page 61 of 70
(b) A small plastic container, called the coolant reservoir, catches the radiator fluid that overflows when an
automobile engine becomes hot. The radiator is made of copper with β = 51x10-6(C°)-1 and the coolant has an
expansion coefficient of β = 4.0x10-4 (C°)-1. If the radiator is filled to its 1.5-litre capacity when the engine is
cold (6°C),how much overflow will spill into the reservoir when the coolant reaches its operating temperature
(92°C)? (10)

****The End!****

Marks: 100
Time: 1½ hrs
Question 1 (25)

(c) At what common temperature are the Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures the same?
(5)
(d) The Concorde is 62 m long when its temperature is 23 °C. In flight, the outer skin of this aircraft can reach
105°C due to air friction. The coefficient of linear expansion of the skin is 2x10-5(oC)-1.
Find the amount by which the Concorde expands. (5)

(e) The Eiffel Tower, in France, is a steel structure whose height increases by 18 cm when the temperature
changes from -9 °C to +41 °C. What is its height (in meters) at the lower temperature?
{ steel = 12x10-6 (oC)-1} (5)

(f) A steel beam is used in the construction of a skyscraper. By what fraction ΔL/L0 does the length of the
beam increase when the temperature changes from that on a cold winter day (–15 °F) to that on a summer
day (+105 °F)? (10)

Question 2 (25)

(a) A hammer has an edge area of 2 cm2. If the hammer is struck with a force of 42 N, what is the pressure (in N/m2)
exerted on the stone? (5)

(b) A hydraulic lift raises a 2000-kg automobile when a 500-N force is applied to the smaller piston.
If the smaller piston has an area of 10 cm2, what is the cross-sectional area of the larger piston? (5)

(c) A cell phone, when weighed in air, has a weight of Win air = 5,5N. When completely immersed in water,
however, it has a weight of Win water = 3.5N.
Find the volume of the cell phone. (5)

(d) The main water pipe enters a house on the first floor. The line has pressure of 3 x 105 Pa.
(i) A faucet/tap on the second floor, 7 m above the first floor, is turned off.
What is the pressure at this faucet? (5)
(ii) How high could a faucet be before no water would flow from it, even if the faucet were
open? (Pa = 1.013x 105 Pa) (5)

Question 3(25)

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(a) A bottle of Coke is sealed with a screw cap. The absolute pressure of the carbon dioxide inside the bottle is
2 x 105 Pa. Assuming that the top and bottom surfaces of the cap each have an area of 4.0 x 10-4 m2, obtain the
magnitude of the force that the screw thread exerts on the cap in order to keep it on the bottle.
The air pressure outside the bottle is 1.0x105 Pa. (10)

(b) A spherical brass ball of density 8890 kg/m3,is hanging from a ceiling attached to a wire. The tension in the
wire is 150 N. What is the radius of the brass ball? (10)

(c) The input piston has a radius of 0.010 m and the output plunger has a radius of 0.150 m. The combined weight of
the car and the plunger is 20500 N. Suppose that the input piston has a negligible weight, and surfaces of the piston
and plunger are at the same level. What is the required input force? (5)

Question 4 (25)

(a) The body of a man whose weight is 690 N contains about 5.2x10-3 m3of blood.
(i) Find the blood’s weight , (ρ = 1060 kg/m3) (2)
(iii) Express it as a percentage of the body weight. (3)

(j) A rod made from a particular alloy is heated from 22.0 °C to the boiling point of water.
Its length increases by 8.5× 10-4 m. The rod is then cooled from 22.0 °C to the freezing point of water.
By how much does the rod shrink? (10)
m3
(k) The volume of liquid flowing per second is called the volume flow rate Q and has the units of s . The flow
rate of a liquid through a hypodermic needle during an injection can be estimated with the following equation:
πRn ( P2−P 1 )
Q=
8 ηL
The length and radius of the needle are L and R, respectively, both of which have the units of length, L. The
pressures at opposite ends of the needle are P2 and P1,
kg
2
both of which have the units of ms . The symbol η represents the viscosity of the liquid and has the units of
kg
ms . The symbol π stands for pi and, like the number 8 and the exponent n, has no dimensions. Using units’
analysis, determine the value of n in the expression for Q.
(10)

******The End of Part One!******

June 2017 Exams (Hydrodynamics & Heat)

Question: 1(20)
(a) A woman purchases a “gold” crown at a pawn shop. After she gets home, she hangs it
from a scale and finds its weight to be 7.84 N (outside the water). She then weighs the

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 crown while it is immersed in water, and now the scale reads 6.86 N. Is the crown made
of pure gold?

(10)

(b) A container is filled to a depth of 20 cm with water. On top of the water floats a 30-cm-
thick layer of oil with density of 700 kg/m3. What is the absolute pressure at the bottom
of the container? (Diagram) (10)
Question 2: (20)

(a) The length of each edge of an aluminum cube is 0.050 m. The cube is heated to 145 °C
from 25 °C.
What is the increase in the volume of the cube? (7)
(b) Water pressurized to 3.5 x 105 Pa is flowing at 5.0 m/s in a horizontal pipe which
contracts to 1/3 its former area. What are the pressure and velocity of the water after
the contraction? (5)
(c) A liquid (ρ = 1.65 g/cm3) flows through two horizontal sections of tubing joined end to
end. In the first section, the cross-sectional area is 10 cm2, the flow speed is 275 cm/s,
and the pressure is 1.20x105 Pa. In the second section, the cross-sectional area is 2.50
cm2. Calculate the smaller section’s (i) flow speed and (ii) pressure. (8)

Question: 3 (20)
a. One end of an iron poker is placed in a fire where the temperature is 480 °C, and the
other end is kept at a temperature of 30 °C. The poker is 1.2 m long and has a radius of
5x10-3 m. Find the amount of heat conducted from one end of the poker to the other in
5.0 s. (8)

b. At what temperature are the Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures the same?
(5)
c.An aluminium beam is used in the construction of a skyscraper. By what fraction ΔL/L0
does the length of the beam increase when the temperature changes from that on a cold
winter day (–20 °F) to that on a summer day (+120 °F)? (7)

Question: 4 (20)

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(a) A simple pendulum consists of a ball connected to the end of a thin brass wire. The
period of the pendulum is 2.1300 seconds. The temperature rises by 185°C and the
length of the wire increases. Determine the period of the heated pendulum.
(14)

(b) Show that the coefficient of volume expansion, β, is related to the coefficient of linear
expansion, α, through the expression β = 3α.
(6)

Question: 5 (20)
(a) A block of material has a mass of 130 kg and a volume of 4.6 x 10-2 m3. The material has
a heat capacity C = 750 J/(kg·C°) and β = 4.6 × 105(C ° ) – 1. How much heat must be
added to the block to increase its volume by 1.3 x 10-5 m3?
(6)
(b) One end of a wire is attached to a ceiling, and a solid brass ball of density 8890 kg/m3,
is tied to the lower end. The tension in the wire is 200 N.
What is the radius of the brass ball?
(6)
(c) In a car lift used in a service station, compressed air exerts a force on a small piston of
circular cross section having a radius of r1 = 5.00 cm. This pressure is transmitted by an
incompressible liquid to a second piston of radius r2 = 15.0 cm.
(i) What force must the compressed air exert on the small piston to lift a car weighing
15500 N? Neglect the weights of the pistons.
(4)
(ii) Show that the work done by the input and output pistons is the same.
(4)

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