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Edexcel GCSE Physics Your notes

2.1 Describing Motion

Contents
2.1.1 Scalars & Vectors
2.1.2 Speed
2.1.3 Velocity
2.1.4 Distance-Time Graphs
2.1.5 Acceleration
2.1.6 Calculating Uniform Acceleration
2.1.7 Velocity-Time Graphs
2.1.8 Area under a Velocity-Time Graph
2.1.9 Measuring Speed

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2.1.1 Scalars & Vectors

Your notes
Scalar & Vector Quantities
All quantities can be one of two types:
A scalar
A vector
Scalars
Scalars are quantities that have only a magnitude
For example, mass is a scalar since it is a quantity that has magnitude without a direction
Distance is also a scalar since it only contains a magnitude, not a direction
Vectors
Vectors have both magnitude and direction
Velocity, for instance, is a vector since it is described with both a magnitude and a direction
When describing the velocity of a car it is necessary to mention both its speed and the direction in
which it is travelling
For example, the velocity might be 60 km per hour (magnitude) due west (direction)
Distance is a value describing only how long an object is or how far it is between two points - this
means it is a scalar quantity
Displacement on the other hand also describes the direction in which the distance is measured - this
means it is a vector quantity
For example, a displacement might be 100 km north

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Examples of Scalars & Vectors

The table below lists some common examples of scalar and vector quantities: Your notes
Scalars & Vectors Table

Some vectors and scalars are similar to each other

For example, the scalar quantity distance corresponds to the vector quantity displacement
Corresponding vectors and their scalar counterparts are aligned in the table where applicable

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Comparing Scalars & Vectors

The worked example below illustrates how to determine whether a quantity is a scalar or a vector Your notes

Worked example
Blu is in charge of training junior astronauts. For one of his sessions, he would like to explain the
difference between mass and weight.
Suggest how Blu should explain the difference between mass and weight, using definitions of scalars
and vectors in your answer.

Step 1: Recall the definitions of a scalar and vector quantity

Scalars are quantities that have only a magnitude
Vectors are quantities that have both magnitude and direction
Step 2: Identify which quantity has magnitude only
Mass is a quantity with magnitude only
So mass is a scalar quantity
Blu might explain to his junior astronauts that their mass will not change if they travel to outer
space
Step 3: Identify which quantity has magnitude and direction
Weight is a quantity with magnitude and direction (it is a force)
So weight is a vector quantity
Blu might explain that to his junior astronauts that their weight - the force on them due to
gravity - will vary depending on their distance from the centre of the Earth

Examiner Tip
Make sure you are comfortable with the differences between similar scalars and vectors, the most
commonly confused pairings tend to be:
Distance and displacement
Speed and velocity
Weight and mass

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2.1.2 Speed
Your notes
Calculating Speed
The speed of an object is the distance it travels every second
Speed is a scalar quantity
This is because it only contains a magnitude (without a direction)
For objects that are moving with a constant speed, use the equation below to calculate the speed:

Where:
Speed is measured in metres per second (m/s)
Distance travelled is measured in metres (m)
Time taken is measured in seconds (s)

A hiker might have an average speed of 2.0 m/s, whereas a particularly excited bumble bee can have
average speeds of up to 4.5 m/s

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Calculating Average Speed

In some cases, the speed of a moving object is not constant Your notes
For example, the object might be moving faster or slower at certain moments in time (accelerating
and decelerating)
The equation for calculating the average speed of an object is:

The formula for average speed (and the formula for speed) can be rearranged with the help of the
formula triangle below:

How to Use Formula Triangles

Formula triangles are really useful for knowing how to rearrange physics equations
To use them:
1. Cover up the quantity to be calculated, this is known as the 'subject' of the equation
2. Look at the position of the other two quantities
If they are on the same line, this means they are multiplied
If one quantity is above the other, this means they are divided - make sure to keep the order of
which is on the top and bottom of the fraction!

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In the example below, to calculate speed, cover-up 'speed' and only distance and time are left
This means it is equal to distance (on the top) ÷ time (on the bottom)
Your notes

How to use formula triangles

Worked example
Planes fly at typical speeds of around 250 m/s.Calculate the total distance travelled by a plane moving
at this average speed for 2 hours.

Step 1: List the known quantities

Average speed = 250 m/s
Time taken = 2 hours
Step 2: Write the relevant equation

Step 3: Rearrange for the total distance

total distance = average speed × time taken
Step 4: Convert any units
The time given in the question is not in standard units
Convert 2 hours into seconds:
2 hours = 2 × 60 × 60 = 7200 s
Step 5: Substitute the values for average speed and time taken

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total distance = 250 × 7200 = 1 800 000 m

Your notes

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2.1.3 Velocity
Your notes
Velocity
The velocity of a moving object is similar to its speed, except it also describes the object’s direction
The speed of an object only contains a magnitude - it’s a scalar quantity
The velocity of an object contains both magnitude and direction, e.g. ‘15 m/s south’ or ‘250 mph
on a bearing of 030°’
Velocity is therefore a vector quantity because it describes both magnitude and direction

The cars in the diagram above have the same speed (a scalar quantity) but different velocities (a vector
quantity). Fear not, they are in different lanes!

Velocity is the rate of change of

Displacement of an object from a
Fixed point

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2.1.4 Distance-Time Graphs

Your notes
Distance-Time Graphs
A distance-time graph shows how the distance of an object moving in a straight line (from a starting
position) varies over time

This graph shows a moving object moving further away from its origin
Constant Speed on a Distance-Time Graph
Distance-time graphs also show the following information:
If the object is moving at a constant speed
How large or small the speed is
A straight line represents constant speed
The slope of the straight line represents the magnitude of the speed:
A very steep slope means the object is moving at a large speed
A shallow slope means the object is moving at a small speed
A flat, horizontal line means the object is stationary (not moving)

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Your notes

This graph shows how the slope of a line is used to interpret the speed of moving objects. Both of these
objects are moving with a constant speed, because the lines are straight.
Changing Speed on a Distance-Time Graph
Objects sometimes move at a changing speed
This is represented by a curve
In this case, the slope of the line will be changing
If the slope is increasing, the speed is increasing (accelerating)
If the slope is decreasing, the speed is decreasing (decelerating)
The image below shows two different objects moving with changing speeds

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Your notes

Changing speeds are represented by changing slopes. The red line represents an object slowing down
and the green line represents an object speeding up.
Gradient of a Distance-Time Graph
The speed of a moving object can be calculated from the gradient of the line on a distance-time
graph:
∆y
speed = gradient =
∆x

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Your notes

The speed of an object can be found by calculating the gradient of a distance-time graph
∆ y is the change in y (distance) values
∆ x is the change in x (time) values

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Worked example
Your notes
A distance-time graph is drawn below for part of a train journey. The train is travelling at a constant
speed.

Calculate the speed of the train.

Step 1: Draw a large gradient triangle on the graph

The image below shows a large gradient triangle drawn with dashed lines
∆ y and ∆ x are labelled, using the units as stated on each axis

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Your notes

Step 2: Convert units for distance and time into standard units
The distance travelled = 8 km = 8000 m
The time taken = 6 mins = 360 s
Step 3: State that speed is equal to the gradient of a distance-time graph
The gradient of a distance-time graph is equal to the speed of a moving object:

∆y
speed = gradient =
∆x
Step 4: Substitute values to calculate the speed

8000
speed =
360
speed = 22. 2 m/s

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Worked example
Your notes
Ose decides to take a stroll to the park. He finds a bench in a quiet spot and takes a seat, picking up
where he left off reading his book on Black Holes.After some time reading, Ose realises he lost track of
time and runs home.A distance-time graph for his trip is drawn below:

a) How long does Ose spend reading his book?There are three sections labelled on the graph: A, B and
C.b) Which section represents Ose running home?
c) What is the total distance travelled by Ose?

Part (a)
Ose spends 40 minutes reading his book
The flat section of the line (section B) represents an object which is stationary - so section B
represents Ose sitting on the bench reading
This section lasts for 40 minutes - as shown in the graph below

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Your notes

Part (b)
Section C represents Ose running home
The slope of the line in section C is steeper than the slope in section A
This means Ose was moving with a larger speed (running) in section C
Part (c)
The total distance travelled by Ose is 0.6 km
The total distance travelled by an object is given by the final point on the line - in this case, the line
ends at 0.6 km on the distance axis. This is shown in the image below:

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Your notes

Examiner Tip
Use the entire line, where possible, to calculate the gradient. Examiners tend to award credit if
they see a large gradient triangle used - so remember to draw these directly on the graph itself!
Remember to check the units of variables measured on each axis. These may not always be in
standard units - in our example, the unit of distance was km and the unit of time was minutes.
Double-check which units to use in your answer.

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2.1.5 Acceleration
Your notes
Acceleration
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity
In other words, it describes how much an object's velocity changes every second
The equation below is used to calculate the average acceleration of an object:

Where:
a = acceleration in metres per second squared (m/s2)
Δv = change in velocity in metres per second (m/s )
t = time taken in seconds (s)
The change in velocity is found by the difference between the initial and final velocity, as written
below:
change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity
Δv = v − u

Where:
v = final velocity in metres per second (m/s)
u = initial velocity in metres per second (m/s)
The equation for acceleration can be rearranged with the help of a formula triangle as shown:

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Your notes

Speeding Up & Slowing Down

An object that speeds up is accelerating
An object that slows down is decelerating
The acceleration of an object can be positive or negative, depending on whether the object is
speeding up or slowing down
If an object is speeding up, its acceleration is positive
If an object is slowing down, its acceleration is negative (sometimes called deceleration)

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Your notes

A rocket speeding up (accelerating) and a car slowing down (decelerating)

Worked example
A Japanese bullet train decelerates at a constant rate in a straight line. The velocity of the train
decreases from 50 m/s to 42 m/s in 30 seconds.
(a) Calculate the change in velocity of the train.
(b) Calculate the deceleration of the train, and explain how your answer shows the train is
slowing down.

Part (a)
Step 1: List the known quantities
Initial velocity = 50 m/s
Final velocity = 42 m/s
Step 2: Write the relevant equation
change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity

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Step 3: Substitute values for final and initial velocity

change in velocity = 42 − 50 = −8 m/s Your notes
Part (b)
Step 1: List the known quantities
Change in velocity, Δv = − 8 m/s
Time taken, t = 30 s
Step 2: Write the relevant equation

Step 3: Substitute the values for change in velocity and time

a = −8 ÷ 30 = −0.27 m/s
Step 4: Interpret the value for deceleration
The answer is negative, which indicates the train is slowing down

Examiner Tip
Remember the units for acceleration are metres per second squared, m/s2In other words,
acceleration measures how much the velocity (in m/s) changes every second, m/s/s.

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Freefall
In the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with the same acceleration Your notes
This is called the acceleration due to gravity:
g = acceleration due to gravity = 10 m/s2

In the absence of air resistance, Galileo discovered that all objects (near Earth's surface) fall with an
acceleration of about 10 m/s2
This means that for every second an object falls, its velocity will increase by 10 m/s

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Estimating Accelerations
The acceleration of an object is a measure of how quickly its velocity changes Your notes
A typical family car, for example, takes around 10 seconds to go from 0 m/s to 27 m/s (roughly 60 mph)
This is an acceleration of about 2.7 m/s2
The table below gives some other typical accelerations:
Typical Accelerations Table

Examiner Tip
You should be able to estimate the magnitude of everyday accelerations. Memorise the examples
given in the table to develop a sense of the magnitude of different accelerating objects.

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2.1.6 Calculating Uniform Acceleration

Your notes
Calculating Uniform Acceleration
The following equation of motion applies to objects moving with uniform (constant) acceleration:
(final speed)2 − (initial speed)2 = 2 × acceleration × distance travelled

v2 − u2 = 2 × a × x
Where:
x = distance travelled in metres (m)
u = initial speed in metres per second (m/s)
v = final speed in metres per second (m/s)
a = acceleration in metres per second squared (m/s2)
This equation is used to calculate quantities such as initial or final speed, acceleration, or distance
travelled in cases where the time taken is not known

Worked example
A car accelerates steadily from rest at a rate of 2.5 m/s2 up to a speed of 16 m/s.Calculate how far the
car moves during this period of acceleration.

Step 1: Identify and write down the equation to use

The question says that the car 'accelerates steadily' - so the equation for uniform acceleration
can be used:
v 2 − u2 = 2 × a × x
Step 2: List the known quantities
Initial speed, u = 0 m/s (the car starts from rest)
Final speed, v = 16 m/s
Acceleration, a = 2.5 m/s2
Distance, x = ? (this needs to be calculated)
Step 3: Substitute known quantities into the equation and simplify where possible
162 − 02 = (2 × 2.5 × x)
This can be simplified to:
256 = 5 × x
Step 4: Rearrange the equation to work out the distance travelled

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x = 256 ÷ 5
x = 51.2 m Your notes

Examiner Tip
Writing out your list of known quantities, and labelling the quantity you need to calculate, is really
good exam technique. It helps you determine the correct equation to use, and sometimes examiners
award credit for showing this working.

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2.1.7 Velocity-Time Graphs

Your notes
Velocity-Time Graphs
A velocity-time graph shows how the velocity of a moving object varies with time
The red line represents an object with increasing velocity
The green line represents an object with decreasing velocity

Increasing and decreasing velocity represented on a velocity-time graph

Acceleration on a Velocity-Time Graph
Velocity-time graphs also show the following information:
If the object is moving with a constant acceleration/deceleration
The magnitude of the acceleration/deceleration
A straight line represents constant acceleration
The slope of the line represents the magnitude of acceleration
A steep slope means large acceleration (or deceleration) - i.e. the object's speed changes very
quickly
A gentle slope means small acceleration (or deceleration) - i.e. the object's speed changes very
gradually
A flat line means the acceleration is zero - i.e. the object is moving with a constant velocity

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Your notes

Interpreting the slope of a velocity-time graph

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Gradient of a Velocity-Time Graph

The acceleration of an object can be calculated from the gradient of a velocity-time graph Your notes
∆x
acceleration = gradient =
∆y

The gradient of a velocity-time graph can be found by dividing the change in velocity by the change in
time

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Worked example
Your notes
A cyclist is training for a cycling tournament.
The velocity-time graph below shows the cyclist's motion as they cycle along a flat, straight road.

(a) In which section (A, B, C, D, or E) of the velocity-time graph is the cyclist's acceleration the largest?
(b) Calculate the cyclist's acceleration between 5 and 10 seconds.

Answer:
Part (a)
Step 1: Recall that the slope of a velocity-time graph represents the magnitude of acceleration
The slope of a velocity-time graph indicates the magnitude of acceleration
Therefore, the only sections of the graph where the cyclist is accelerating are sections B and D
Sections A, C, and E are flat; in other words, the cyclist is moving at a constant velocity (therefore,
not accelerating)
Step 2: Identify the section with the steepest slope
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Section D of the graph has the steepest slope

Hence, the largest acceleration is shown in section D
Your notes

Part (b)
Step 1: Recall that the gradient of a velocity-time graph gives the acceleration
Calculating the gradient of a slope on a velocity-time graph gives the acceleration for that time
period
Step 2: Draw a large gradient triangle at the appropriate section of the graph
A gradient triangle is drawn for the time period between 5 and 10 seconds

Step 3: Calculate the size of the gradient and state this as the acceleration
The acceleration is given by the gradient, which can be calculated using:
∆y
a=
∆x

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5
a=
5 Your notes
a = 1 m/s2
Therefore, the cyclist accelerated at 1 m/s2 between 5 and 10 seconds

Examiner Tip
Use the entire slope, where possible, to calculate the gradient. Examiners tend to award credit if they
see a large gradient triangle used.
Remember to actually draw the lines directly on the graph itself, particularly when the question asks
you to use the graph to calculate the acceleration.

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2.1.8 Area under a Velocity-Time Graph

Your notes
Area under a Velocity-Time Graph
The area under a velocity-time graph represents the displacement (or distance travelled) by an
object

The displacement, or distance travelled, is represented by the area beneath the graph
If the area beneath the graph forms a triangle (i.e. the object is accelerating or decelerating), then the
area can be determined by using the following formula:
Area = ½ × Base × Height
If the area beneath the graph forms a rectangle (i.e. the object is moving at a constant velocity), then
the area can be determined by using the following formula:
Area = Base × Height
Determining Distance from a Velocity-Time Graph
Enclosed areas under velocity-time graphs represent total displacement (or total distance travelled)

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Your notes

Three enclosed areas (two triangles and one rectangle) under this velocity-time graph represents the
total distance travelled
If an object moves with constant acceleration, its velocity-time graph will comprise of straight lines
In this case, calculate the distance travelled by working out the area of enclosed rectangles and
triangles as in the image above

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Worked example
Your notes
The velocity-time graph below shows a car journey which lasts for 160 seconds.

Calculate the total distance travelled by the car on this journey.

Step 1: Recall that the area under a velocity-time graph represents the distance travelled
In order to calculate the total distance travelled, the total area underneath the line must be
determined
Step 2: Identify each enclosed area
In this example, there are five enclosed areas under the line
These can be labelled as areas 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, as shown in the image below:

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Your notes

Step 3: Calculate the area of each enclosed shape under the line
Area 1 = area of a triangle = ½ × base × height = ½ × 40 × 17.5 = 350 m
Area 2 = area of a rectangle = base × height = 30 × 17.5 = 525 m
Area 3 = area of a triangle = ½ × base × height = ½ × 20 × 7.5 = 75 m
Area 4 = area of a rectangle = base × height = 20 × 17.5 = 350 m
Area 5 = area of a triangle = ½ × base × height = ½ × 70 × 25 = 875 m
Step 4: Calculate the total distance travelled by finding the total area under the line
Add up each of the five areas enclosed:
total distance = 350 + 525 + 75 + 350 + 875
total distance = 2175 m

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2.1.9 Measuring Speed

Your notes
Typical Speeds
The table below gives some typical speeds (in m/s) for various everyday scenarios
Typical Speeds Table

Note that typical speeds of a person walking, running or cycling depends on a variety of factors, such
as:
Age
Terrain
Fitness
Distance
Similarly, typical speeds of transportation systems like cars or planes will depend on their:
Shape
Design
Cost
Purpose

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Worked example
Your notes
A student claims that people typically walk at 6 m/s.
a) State whether or not you agree with this claim and explain your reasoning.
b) Suggest a factor that can affect the typical speeds of a person walking.

Part (a)
The student’s claim is incorrect because 6 m/s is too fast
The typical speed that people walk at is about 1.5 m/s
Part (b)
Some factors that can affect the typical speeds of a person walking are:
The terrain might be wet, rocky or steep
The age of the person
The fitness of the person
The length of the walk or journey

Examiner Tip
You may be asked to recall typical values of speed for a person walking, running or cycling, or
comment on typical values of speed for different types of transportation system - so learn the values
in this table and have an idea about how they compare to each other.

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Measuring Speed
Speed is the distance travelled by an object every second Your notes
The simplest way to measure the speed of an object, is to time how long it takes to travel a known
distance and use the equation:

Choosing Equipment
To ensure a result for speed is as accurate as possible, choose the appropriate equipment to measure
the distance and time

Some simple equipment that can be used to measure distance travelled and time taken for objects like a
tennis ball and plastic cone
To compare the average falling speed of a tennis ball to a plastic cone, for example:
A metre rule could be used to measure the distance they fall from
A timer could be used to measure how long they take to reach the ground

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It would not be practical to use a metre rule to measure the length of an athletics track though
In this instance, a more appropriate piece of equipment would be a (long!) tape measure, or even
better, a trundle wheel Your notes

A trundle wheel is ideal for measuring long distances

Using Lights Gates to Measure Time
Light gates are pieces of digital equipment that allow times to be measured more accurately

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Your notes

Light gates can be used to accurately time the motion of objects in a laboratory
A light gate can be used to start a timer when an object passes through it
A flag on top of the moving object blocks a beam of light as it passes through the light gate, triggering
the timer to start
A second light gate (at some fixed distance away) can be used to stop the timer as the object passes
through it
Single Light Gates to Measure Speed
A single light gate can also be used to measure the speed of an object as it passes through

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Your notes

Example of using a single light gate to measure speed

The timer measures how long the light gate is blocked for
The distance travelled is given by the length of the flag passing through the light gate
The two measurements for distance travelled and time taken can then be used in the equation for
speed

Examiner Tip
Whenever you’re asked to describe an experiment, if you need to use an equation to calculate
something, write this down first. The quantities in the equation give you some hints about the variables
you might need to measure.

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