PRSTRESSED

CONCRETE DESIGN
& CONSTRUCTION

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Content
Modules & Training Programme
 Topic 1 – Fundamentals and design of prestressed
concrete construction
 Topic 2 – Pre and Post tensioning
 Topic 3 – Prestressed Concrete Production
 Topic 4 – Erection of Prestressed Concrete Components

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 TOPIC 1

Fundamental and design of

prestressed concrete construction

Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

PRESTRESSING - GENERAL

Introduction
Modern structural engineering tends to progress toward
more economic structures through gradually improved
methods of design and the use of higher strength
materials. This results in a reduction of cross-sectional
dimensions and consequent weight savings. Such
savings are very effective in case of multi-storey concrete
buildings, in which any saving in depth of concrete
members, multiplied by the number of stories, can
represent a substantial saving in total height, load on
foundations, length of heating and electrical ducts,
plumbing risers, and wall and partition surfaces. 4

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

 Significant savings can be achieved by the use of high-

strength concrete and steel in conjunction with
present-day design methods, which permit an accurate
appraisal of member strength. However, there are
limitations to this development, due mainly to the
interrelated problems of cracking and deflection at
service loads. The efficient use of high-strength steel is
limited by the fact that the amount of cracking (width
and number of cracks) is proportional to the strain, and
therefore the stress, in the steel. The use of high-
strength materials is further limited by deflection
considerations. The slender members that result may
permit deflections that are functionally or visually
unacceptable. 5

Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

These limiting features of ordinary reinforced concrete have

been largely overcome by the development of prestressed
concrete. In prestressed concrete, internal stresses are
introduced of such magnitude and distribution that the stresses
resulting from the given external loading are counteracted to a
desired degree. Concrete is basically a compressive material,
with its strength in tension a low and unreliable value.
Prestressing applies a precompression to the member that
reduces or eliminates undesirable tensile stresses that would
otherwise be present. Cracking under service loads can be
minimises or even avoided entirely. Deflections may be limited to
an acceptable value; in fact, members can be designed to have
zero deflection under the combined effects of service load and
prestressing force. Thus prestressing results in overall
improvement in performance of structural concrete.
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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

INTRODUCTION

BASIC DEFINITIONS
Prestressing is the imposition of a state of stress on a
structural body – prior to its being placed in service – that
will enable it to better withstand the forces and loads
imposed on it in service or to better perform its design
functions. For example, a beam may be prestressed by
pre-compressing its lower flange, so that it can resist
bending tensile stresses in service without cracking.

Tendons are the stretched or tensioned elements which

are used to impart pre-compression to the concrete.
Tendons may be high-strength steel wires, strands made
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of high-strength steel wire.

Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Pre-tensioning is the imposition of prestress by stressing

the tendons against external reactions before the
hardening of the fresh concrete, then allowing the
concrete to set and gain a substantial portion of its
ultimate strength, then releasing the tendons so that the
stress is transferred into the concrete.

Pretensioning is most commonly applied to precast

concrete elements manufactured in a factory or plant.
Typical products produced by pretensioning are roof
slabs, floor slabs, piles and wall panels.

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Post-tensioning is the imposition of prestress by

stressing and anchoring tendons against already
hardened concrete.
Post-tensioning is most commonly applied to cast-in-
place concrete members, and to those involving complex
curvatures. Bridges, large girders, floor slabs, roofs,
shells, pavements, and pressure vessels are among the
constructions usually prestressed by post-tensioning.

Transfer stage is the stage at which the prestressed

element supports only its own weight.

Service stage is the stage at which the prestressed

element supports its intended service loads. 9

Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Examples of prestressing
Examples of prestressing are numerous among manufactured tools
and products. Indeed, some are very old and illustrate the principle of
prestressing. The dried wooden staves forming a wooden barrel are
prestressed by tightening metal bands around them. When the barrel is
filled with liquid, the wooden stages expand, the prestress is increased
and leakage is prevented. When the bands were tightened, they were
under tensile prestress which in turn created compressive prestress
between the staves and thus enabled them to resist hoop tension
produced by internal liquid pressure. In other words, the bands and the
staves were both prestressed before they were subjected to any
service loads (Fig. 1.1).

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Figure 1.1 Principle of prestressing applied to barrel construction.

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Figure 1.2 Prestressing in a bicycle wheel

The spokes of the wheel of a bicycle are put in tension between the
outer and inner rims (Fig. 1.2). When the load is applied, the lower
spokes decompress but remain in tension while the upper spokes
undergo increased tension. As all spokes remain in tension, the wheel
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keeps its rigidity.
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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

 What is prestressed concrete?

 Prestressed concrete is a type of reinforced concrete in which the

steel reinforcement has been tensioned against the concrete. This
tensioning operation results in a self-equilibrating system of internal
stresses, which improves the response of the concrete to external
loads. Since concrete is weak and brittle in tension, its response to
external loads is improved by applying a precompression.

 Thus prestressing is the process of imparting to the structural

member a compressive stress in those zones which under working
loads, would normally be subjected to tensile stresses. The tensile
stresses produced by the applied load are counteracted by the
compressive stresses set up before the application of the load.

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Prestressing is usually introduced by means of internal steel tendons,

which are stressed and then anchored. Prestressing can also be applied
by external force, such as jacking applied at the crown of an arch or at the
ends of a pavement slab.

Fig. 1.3 explains the improved response of concrete to external loads after
prestressing.

If a plain concrete member made from concrete with a compressive

strength of 35 MPa is subjected to axial tension, the concrete would crack
when the average applied stress reaches about 2 MPa.

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Figure 1.3 Response of plain concrete, reinforced concrete, and prestressed concrete

Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

If longitudinal reinforcing bars were cast into the concrete member, its
tensile performance would be much improved. For example, if 400 MPa
reinforcement were used, the response shown in Fig.1.1 could be
achieved. Instead of failing when the first crack forms, the member can
now continue to resist loads until the reinforcement crossing the cracks
yield.

The response of a prestressed concrete member is as shown in

Fig.1.1. The precompression substantially increases the external load
required to crack the concrete, resulting in a member that is strong,
tough and stiff.

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Prestressed vs. Reinforced Concrete

As prestress induces an axial compression that counteracts all, or part of,

the tensile stresses set up in the member, the entire concrete section is
effective in resisting the applied moment. For a given span and loading, a
prestressed concrete member can be more slender compare to a
reinforced concrete member.

Deflection can be controlled by appropriate prestressing force.

The absence of cracks in the concrete at working loads improves the

durability of the prestressed concrete member.

Shear capacity of concrete member can be improved, due to the slope of

the tendons and the compressive stress induced in the beam.

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Although prestressing can be used to improve structural performance in

various ways, we have to bear in mind that

The concrete cross-section is in compression under all load conditions.

This means that the structure is subjected to long-term creep movement.

From the construction point of view, prestressing requires the use of

special equipment, high-quality materials and a high level of quality control.
So it may not be always economical.

Failure of the prestress can cause catastrophic collapse.

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

C. CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF PRESTRESSING

Prestressed concrete structures can be classified in a number of ways,

depending upon their features of design and construction. These will be
discussed as follows.

Externally or Internally Prestressed

It is sometimes possible to prestress a concrete structure by adjusting its

external reactions. A concrete arch can be prestressed by jacking against
its abutments. Theoretically, a simple concrete beam can also be externally
prestressed by jacking at the proper places to produce compression in the
bottom fibres and tension in the top fibres, thus even dispensing with steel
reinforcement in the beam (Fig. 1.4).

But such an ideal arrangement cannot be easily accomplished in practice

because of the shrinkage and creep produced. In the case of continuous
beams, it is possible to adjust the level of the supports, by inserting jacks,
for example, so as to produce the most desirable reactions (Fig.1.5). 19

Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Figure 1.4 Prestressing a simple concrete beam by jacking against abutments

Figure 1.5 Prestressing a continuous beam by jacking its reactions

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Linear or Circular Prestressing

 Circular prestressing is a term applied to prestressed circular

structures, such round tanks, silos, and pipes, where the prestressing
tendons are wound around in circles. As distinguished from circular
prestressing, the term linear prestressing is often employed to include
all other structures such as beams and slabs. The prestressing tendons
in linearly prestressed structures are not necessarily straight; they can
be either bent or curved, but they do not go round and round in circles
as in circular prestressing.

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Pre-tensioning and Post-tensioning

 The term pre-tensioning is used to describe any method of prestressing

in which the tendons are tensioned before the concrete is placed. The
tendons must be temporarily anchored against some abutments or
stressing beds when tensioned and the prestress transferred to the
concrete after it has set. This procedure is employed in precasting
plants. Post-tensioning is a method of prestressing in which the tendon
is tensioned after the concrete has hardened. Thus the prestressing is
almost always performed against the hardened concrete, and the
tendons are anchored against it immediately after prestressing. This
method can be applied to members either precast or cast in place.

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

End-anchored or Non-end-anchored Tendons

 When post-tensioned, the tendons are anchored at their ends by

means of mechanical devices to transmit the prestress to the concrete.
Such a member is termed end-anchored. Occasionally, though rarely,
a post-tensioned member may have its tendons held by grout with no
mechanical end anchorage. In pre-tensioning, the tendons generally
have their prestress transmitted to the concrete simply by their bond
action near the ends. The effectiveness of such stress transmission is
limited to wires and strands of small size.

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Bonded or Unbonded tendons

 Bonded tendons denote those bonded throughout their length to the

surrounding concrete. Non-end-anchored tendons are necessarily
bonded ones; end-anchored tendons may be either bonded or
unbonded to the concrete. In general, the bonding of post-tensioned
tendons is accomplished by subsequent grouting; if unbonded,
protection of the tendons from corrosion must be provided by
galvanising, greasing, or some other means.

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Precast, Cast-in-place, Composite construction

 Precasting involves the placing of concrete away from its final position, the
members being cast either in a permanent plant or somewhere near the
site of the structure and eventually erected at the final location. Precasting
permits better control in mass production and is often economical.
 Cast-in-place concrete requires more form and falsework per unit of
product but saves the cost of transportation and erection, and it is a
necessity for large and heavy members.

 In between these two methods of construction, there are tilt-up wall panels
and lift slabs, which constructed at places near or within the structure and
then erected to their final position; no transportation is involved for these.
Oftentimes, it is economical to precast part of a member, erect it, and then
cast the remaining portion in place. This procedure is called composite
construction. The precast elements in a structure of composite construction
can be more easily joined together than those in a totally precast structure.
By composite construction, it is possible to save much of the form and
falsework required for total cast-in-place construction. 25

Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Partial or Full Prestressing

 The distinction between these two types can be made depending on the
degree of prestressing to which a concrete member is subject. When a
member is designed so that under the working load there are no tensile
stresses in it, then the concrete is said to be fully prestressed. If some
tensile stresses will be produced in the member under working load, then it
is termed partially prestressed. For partial prestressing, additional mild-
steel bars are frequently provided to reinforce the portion under tension.

 In practice, it is often difficult to classify a structure as being partially or fully

prestressed since much will depend on the magnitude of the working load
used in design. For example, highway bridges are always designed for full
prestressing, though actually they are subject to tensile stresses during the
passage of heavy vehicles. On the other hand, roof beams designed for
partial prestressing may never be subject to tensile stresses since the
assumed live loads may never act on them.
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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

ADVANTAGES OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

1. Tensile stress developed by bending is acting against the compressive
stress induced in the concrete by prestressing and in consequence
cracking is reduced.

2. Even if cracking of the concrete surface does occur and the load is reduced
or removed, the cracks closed up due to the compressive prestress.

3. Compressive strength of the whole of the section of concrete is utilised and

the resistance to shear is considerably improved, so obviating the
necessity of the shear reinforcement.

4. The high compressive strength obtainable in the present day concrete can
be fully used, while at the same time the high-tensile qualities of modern
steel may also be fully utilised.

5. Reduction in the depth of beams and slabs, which leads to saving in steel
and concrete, and a reduction in the dead weight of the structure.
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6. Deflection of members can be better controlled or even eliminated.

Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE USE OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

a) The cost may be higher than normal RC Structures.

b) Special skill and equipment are needed.

c) High degree of control of materials, design and workmanship is required.

d) Failure of prestressed structure can be dangerous as it takes only a very

short period of time.

e) It is more difficult to demolish a prestressed structure.

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

APPLICATION OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

• Mostly used for beam and slab members in precast construction.

• For span below 6 m, normal reinforced concrete construction is generally cheaper

than prestressed concrete.

• For span between 6 m to 9 m, prestressed work may or may not prove more
economical depending on the reduction in size and numbers of columns and
foundations likely to result from the use of prestressed work.

• For span greater than 9 m, prestressed work will usually show economic advantages
over reinforced concrete.

• Columns are not normally prestressed except in tall columns where bending stresses
may be high due to wind pressure and eccentric load.

• For tall retaining walls where bending stresses may be high, prestressing can be
economical.

• Piles which are too lengthy or to be installed as raker piles, may also be prestressed.
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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

METHODS OF PRESTRESSING

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

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Fundamental of precast concrete construction

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

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Fundamental of precast concrete construction

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

PRE-TENSIONING VS POST-TENSIONING

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

PRE-TENSIONING VS POST-TENSIONING

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

SOURCE OF PRESTRESS FORCE

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

SOURCE OF PRESTRESS FORCE

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Fundamental of precast concrete construction

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT FOR PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

The materials required for prestressed concrete include:

 Concrete
 Prestressing Tendons
 Anchorages
 Reinforcing steel
 Ducts
 Bearings
 Hydraulic jacks

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Concrete
 Concrete is a heterogeneous material composed of aggregates embedded
in a matrix. Most commonly, the aggregates are natural sands and gravels,
or crushed rock, and the matrix is Portland cement which has been
hydrated by water.

 Concrete for prestressing should have the strength, most commonly, in the
range of 250 kg/cm2 to 500 kg/cm2. Such concrete can be produced with
reasonable economy, provided proper care is taken in all phases of
concrete operation.

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Aggregates
 Course aggregates must not contain clay seams that produce excessive
volume change, such as creep and shrinkage. Gravel and crushed rock are
used successfully. For normal high strength concrete for prestressed
application, gravel will give better workability and compactability at low
water/cement ratios. For extremely high strength concrete, crushed rock of
proper angularity is superior but requires very intensive vibration to achieve
proper compaction.

 Aggregates must not be reactive to the alkali in the cement. Siliceous

aggregates are more likely to be subject to alkali reaction than limestone.

 Fine aggregates can be in the coarser ranges, since with the rich cement
factors usually employed in prestressed concrete, perfect grading is not
necessary and may be undesirable. Gap-grading, properly applied, can
often reduce shrinkage and improve strength and modulus of elasticity.
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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

 Aggregates must be clean. Even a few percent of silt can make the dry
mixes for prestressed concrete excessively sticky and difficult to place. Silt
often gives a flash set. Silt reduces strength and increases shrinkage. Silt
can usually be removed by rewashing, with very beneficial results.

 Aggregates must not contain salt. Salt can be deposited on aggregates,

particularly fine aggregates, from sea-water immersion. Even small
percentage of salt reduce the corrosion-inhibiting value of the cement and
may help initiate electro-chemical corrosion. This is particularly dangerous
with steam curing.

 Aggregates must be of a proper temperature for incorporation in the mix.

Since the aggregates are by the largest component of the mix, it is often
most effective and economical to cool the aggregate, as by water
evaporation, in summer, or to heat it in winter. Water “soakers” running
continuously over the aggregate piles will prevent dust and cool the
aggregate by evaporation.
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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Cement
Almost all prestressed concrete employs Portland cement. ASTM C 150
designates five types. Type I is standard, Type II is moderate low-alkali, Type
III is high early strength, Type IV is low-heat, and Type V is sulphate-
resisting.

Most prestressed concrete employs Types I, II, or III, or a modification of

these. The cement is usually selected on the basis of rapid early strength,
minimum shrinkage, durability, and economy. Flash set is to be avoided.

Type I is suitable for most building work, but Type II is preferable for coastal
and marine environments. Type II cement gives better durability to the
concrete along with good corrosion-inhibiting properties for the steel.

A few Type III cements tend to develop flash sets or have excessive
shrinkage under steam curing. Type V (sulphate resisting) cement is not as
well suited for most prestressed applications as Type II since it reduces the
corrosion protection for the steel.
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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Water
 Water for use in prestressed work should be more definitely restricted in
salt, silt, and organic contents. Suggested limitations are:-

 No impurities that will cause a change in time of set greater than 25% or a
reduction in strength at 14 days age greater than 5% as compared with
distilled water.

 Less than 650 parts per million (ppm) of chloride ion (some authorities
permit up to 1000 ppm).

 Less than 1300 ppm of sulphate iron (some authorities limit this to 1000
ppm).

 Water shall be free from oil.

 Water may be added to the mix in the form of ice, in order to reduce the
ambient temperature of the fresh concrete mix, or in the form of steam when
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desired to raise the temperature. 24
 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Admixtures

 Admixtures are very useful in prestressed concrete in permitting use of a

lower water/cement ratio while maintaining workability. Certain admixtures
also reduce shrinkage.

 Many admixtures used in conventional concreting practice contain calcium

chloride (CaCl2). This must be absolutely prohibited for prestressed work
because this can cause corrosion, particularly when steam curing is
employed. Even with the normal water curing, the CaCl2 lowers the
inhibiting powers of the cement and can cause corrosion.

 For prestressed work, therefore, the admixture must not contain more than
a trace of calcium chloride. Most suitable admixtures for the prestressed
concrete are organic by-products from the pulp industry.

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Storing of Aggregates and Cement

Much contamination and deterioration of aggregate quality can arise from

improper storage. Stored on the ground or on a slab at grade, the aggregate
can be contaminated by dirt, etc. Stored in bins, it is must better protected.
Aggregates exposed to the summer sun can become overheated. They can be
shaded by galvanised or aluminium corrugated roofing.

Cement must be stored and used in such a manner that none of it is left to age
excessively. It must be completely protected from moisture.

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Batching, Mixing, and Transporting

 Accuracy of batching is essential for production of consistent high-quality
concrete. Therefore, batching should be by weight and preferably by
automatic rather than hand controls. A continuous correction must be made
for water contained in the aggregates.

 Mixing must be thorough, especially with low-slump mixes. The turbine

mixtures are especially adapted to this need. The more recently built ready-
mix truck mixers have been improved so as to handle a fairly low-slump
mix. Adequate mixing time improves the uniformity, strength, and
impermeability of the concrete.

 Transporting may be successfully carried out in a number of ways. Mixes

may be transported in a ready-mix truck, with the water added a few
minutes before discharge. Mixes may be transported dry (dry-batched) and
mixed at the point of use by mixer. Wet mixes can be transported in ready-
mix trucks or in hoppers. The essential cautions here are to prevent
segregation and premature set during transport. A low water/cement ratio
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and a set-retarding admixture are helpful.

Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Placing and Consolidation

With the generally dry mixes employed in prestressed concrete, intensive

vibration is necessary to insure complete filling of the voids, especially in
congested areas, and to thoroughly consolidate it. Internal vibration is the most
effective method, as it serves to ensure compaction around the tendons,
embedded steel, anchorages, etc. Frequencies of 9000 rpm are most
commonly employed.

External vibration can be used very effectively with thin products, particularly
precast elements cast in heavy steel forms. Vibrators placed opposite each
other tend to cancel out. It is usually best to stagger their location. Frequently, a
combination of internal and external vibration will prove most satisfactory.

In placing low-slump or no-slump concrete in forms, it is best to dump it on the

advancing face of the concrete where it will get the full effect of the vibration.
This will speed concreting and produce better consolidation.

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

 With dry mixes, there is a definite tendency for water and air pockets to
form on vertical and overhang surfaces. Entrapped air and excess water try
to escape from the under vibration, and are trapped under the overhang
and, to some extent, along the side of a vertical surface. They cannot be
completed eliminated, but can be minimises by the following steps:

i. Selection of a type of form oil suited to the surface that reduces capillary
attraction.

ii. Thorough internal vibration and also external vibration.

iii. Use of an admixture that prevents bleeding and promotes workability.

iv. Spading along the form sides, where accessible, following vibration.

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Curing

 Concrete, especially dense concrete, will continue to cure internally due

to the excess water of the mix. It is on the surface where moisture must
be contained or supplied. Containment may be by a membrane sealing
compound or polyethylene sheet. Moisture may be added by water
ponding, water spraying, or water soaked mats.

 Steam curing

 Steam curing at atmospheric pressure is widely employed in precast

prestressed concrete manufacture. Properly applied, low-pressure
steam curing improves the quality of the concrete product. Steam curing
is economical, fast and better controlled. Steam-cured prestressed piles
have been successfully driven when only one day old.

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Prestressing Tendons

 The steel in the ‘reinforced concrete’ is provided to resist the tensile

forces which the concrete would otherwise have to withstand. But the
action of steel in ‘prestressed concrete’ is to compress the concrete
initially and permanently in such a way that, when the structural member
is subjected to bending, tensile stresses do not occur in the concrete, or if
they do so, they are so small that they can be readily resisted by the
concrete itself.

The most prevalent means for inducing a compressive stress into

concrete is by stretching a tendon and anchoring it to the concrete. This
tendon may be located inside the concrete cross-section, either directly
embedded, or in a duct. In general, the term “tendon” is used to describe
an individual wire, strand, or bar or a group of wires, strands, or bars.
(Fig.1.9). The most widely used type of prestressed reinforcement is
seven-wire strand

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

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Figure 1.9 Typical tendons
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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Desirable characteristics of prestressing tendons

 The tendons must have a very high tensile strength and an ability to sustain
indefinitely a high state of stress, with little loss due to relaxation, corrosion,
or fatigue. Cold-drawn steel wire and alloy steel wire and bars have these
attributes and are the most common materials for tendons. Cold-drawn
steel wire is produced in diameters up to 7 mm and has strength ranging
from 17,000 to 21,000 kg/cm2. Alloy steel bars are extensively used for
post-tensioning tendons. The bars generally have ultimate strengths
ranging from 10,000 to 12,000 kg/cm2. Bar diameter generally ranges up to
3 cm.

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

The following characteristics are desirable:

a) The tendons should behave elastically up to at least 70% of the maximum
stress, so that its behaviour as a tendon is predictable, and so that the
measurement of elongation can be used to check the force in the tendon;

b) A tendon should have a large amount of plastic deformation before failure.

Failure begins at the maximum stress and it is desirable to have a good
degree of warning of failure in the event of accidental or deliberate
overloading. The values of both uniform elongation and the total elongation
after fracture are much smaller for tendons than for reinforcement, and
therefore the relative values are more important. In practice, the uniform
elongation is the measure of the extensibility available, and if it is a small
proportion of the total, then the elongation after fracture is not a reliable
measure of extensibility of the wire.

c) Ability of the wire to sustain plastic deformation due to local concentrations

of stress, such as result from the lateral loads from wedge grips, or where
the wire passes over a pin at a change of direction. 58

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Types of prestressing tendons

(a) Drawn wire in the as-drawn condition

(b) Drawn wire – low relaxation
(c) Drawn wire – normal relaxation: Tendons (b) and (c) will both pay out
straight from the coil.
(d) Tendons (a), (b) and (c) supplied helically crimped or with surface
indentation.
(e) Strand consisting of a straight core wire, around which are laid in a helical
configuration, one or more layers of wires of the same quality as tendons
(a), (b) and (c).
(f) Hot rolled alloy steel.

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Most widely used tendons can be listed as follows:

1. Bars (BS 4486)

Diameter ranges : 20, 25, 32, 40 mm

Tensile strength: 1030 ~ 1230 Mpa
Modulus of elasticity: 165 ± 12 Gpa

2. Wires (BS 4486)

Diameter ranges : 4, 4.5, 5, 6, 7 mm

Tensile strength: 1570 ~ 1770 Mpa
Modulus of elasticity: 205 ± 10 Gpa

3. Strands (BS 5896)

A strand is a group of wires spun in helical form around a common longitudinal

axis (see Fig. 1.10).
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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Figure 1.10 Types of strands

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Characteristic strength of tendons

The specified characteristic strength of prestressing tendons is related to the
maximum tensile strength of the tendon. The probable values of the specified
characteristic strength of available tendons are given below.

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Tendon Type Nominal size (mm) Breaking load (kN)

Bars 22 381
25 495
28 642
32 800
35 959

Wires 3.25 1.38

5 3.10
7 6.10

Table 1.2 - Prestressing Bars and Wires

Type Nominal size (mm) Normal range (kN) High range (kN)
7-wire 7.9 69.0 -
9.3 93.5 102.0
10.9 125.0 138.0
12.5 165.0 185.0
15.2 227.0 250.0

19-wire 17.8 370 -

22.2 502 -
25.4 660 -
28.6 822 -
31.7 1000 -

Table 1. 3- Prestressing Strand 64

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Size and type of Mean maximum Size of strand Mean maximum

wire (mm) stress (N/mm2) (mm) strength (kN)

5 mill coil 1552 9.5 100.2

5 stabilised 1644 12.7 178.1
7 mill coil 1674 17.8 385.3
7 stabilised 1691 28.6 948.4

Table 1.4 Drawn-Wire Prestressing Tendons

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

3. Anchorages

Anchorages are mechanical devices used to transmit the tendon force to the
concrete structure. They include the means of gripping and securing the tendon
and the bearing plate or reinforced cone or other means by which the concrete
reacts against the tendon’s force.
Practically all anchorages are part of proprietary systems for post-tensioning.
Anchorages may grip the tendon by means of mechanical wedges. These may
have serrations that dig into the tendon to grip it, or may be smooth, with
friction furnishing the necessary grip.

Anchors for individual strands are also called chucks. A typical anchor is shown
in Fig.1.12. Anchor for multi-strand is shown in Fig. 1.13.

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Figure 1.12 Typical chuck anchor for a single tendon

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Anchorages may also employ the wedging action of a swaged fitting, with
molten zinc or cement mortar gripping the tendon through a combination of
friction and adhesive bond.

Because of the tremendous forces involved, it is essential that the anchorage

perform properly and safely. A failure may produce a serious or even fatal
accident. Manufacturer’s instructions should be strictly followed. Anchorages
must be properly protected from corrosion or fire.

It is important that the anchorages are aligned axially with the tendons. Most
anchorage systems are equipped with special chairs and jacks to accomplish
this.

In some systems tendons may also be anchored at one end by looping around
steel or concrete, or simple embedment in concrete for a substantial length.
These are the so-called “dead-end” anchorages (Fig. 1.14) and, with them,
specified bending radii must be closely adhered to in order to prevent failure or
rupture during tensioning.
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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Dead-end
anchorage

Figure 1.14 Dead- end anchorage

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Figure 1.13 Anchorage for multi-strands

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

 After jacking (stressing) the tendon, the anchorage must be anchored.

This usually involves a small inward movement or “set” of the tendon,
losing a slight amount of stress. This is usually of little importance,
except on very short tendons such as those used for connections; on
these, “set” may be serious. Certain types of anchorages provide for
shimming or locking to overcome “set”.

 Before grouting, stressed tendon anchorages are under very high stress
and, therefore, are vulnerable to accidental blows, accidental heat from
a welding rod, etc. As such, they can become deadly missiles, shooting
off with all the energy stored in the tendons. Precautions are to be taken
to avoid such accidents.

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Reinforcing Steel
 This includes all unstressed steel, whether in the form of unstressed strands, mild-
steel bars, alloy-steel bars, etc. In a prestressed member the unstressed
reinforcement usually reinforces against secondary stresses and shear stresses. In
general, prestressed members will behave as intended only if the reinforcing steel is
properly detailed and placed. Adequate and proper reinforcing will serve to confine
the member and, in effect, force it to function the way it was designed.

 Because, in prestressed members, the reinforcement frequently consists of closely-

spaced small bars, and because the dry concrete mixes used require heavy
vibration, the reinforcement is often dislocated by the vibrators. This can be
prevented by proper tying.

 Tack-welded cages have been extensively used in precast members, but the location
of welds must be carefully detailed since a reduction in strength may be induced.

 To prevent destructive corrosion, the specified cover must be maintained over the
reinforcement. Plastic chairs and concrete blocks should be used at sufficiently close
spacing.
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Ducts

 “Ducts” is the term used to describe the conduit through which the post-
tensioning tendons pass. In its broadest sense, the term “duct” may
include a formed void, or a conduit of any material.

 For reasons of economy, practicability and electro-chemical compatibility,

the majority of ducts are of brittle steel. Flexible metal ducts are
articulated, with non-watertight joints. They can be formed of very thin
metal, easily shipped in coils, and are draped in forms. Flexible metal
conduit, being usually very thin, is subject to mechanical damage and to
rusting. It must be protected by boxing during shipping and stored in a dry
place till actual use. Because the flexible ducts are non-watertight,
blockage sometimes occurs when grouting an adjoining duct.

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Figure 1. 15 Flexible metal ducts 74

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

 Rigid metal conduit, although more expensive (because of thicker gauge)

and more difficult to ship and handle, is gaining popularity. It requires little
tying or support, and is watertight (provided that joints are sealed).

 To protect flexible and rigid conduit from corrosion and to reduce friction
during stressing, coatings are sometimes employed. Galvanised coating
has been wide and successfully used. Lead coating is now being applied to
some ducts in Europe for corrosion protection. Plastic conduit has also
been used from time to time. It has the proper rigidity and is easily joined in
the field.

 Splices in ducts should be suitable to the material and the need for
watertightness. Wrapping with waterproof tape has proven very effective.
Plastic sleeves are widely used due to its flexibility, durability and excellent
reliability.

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Bearings

 Prestressed concrete girders and beams are subject to considerable

volume change in service. They continue to shorten under the influence
of creep. Temperature differentials may cause increase in camber.
Although all these phenomena are to some extent true of conventional
reinforced concrete, they are aggravated in prestressed concrete
because of generally thinner sections and the effect of continuously
maintained prestress.

 Bearings are used to allow for longitudinal movement, and rotation, while
maintaining adequate vertical support. Steel plate bearings, Lead plates
bearings, Neoprene bearings and Teflon bearings are used widely.

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Hydraulic Jacks

In mechanical prestressing, hydraulic jacks are used to stretch the tendons.
The arrangement of a jack is shown in Fig. 1.21. Tendons may be stressed
individually or in group, thus requiring different types of jacks.

Figure 1.16 Hydraulic jack arrangement

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Fundamental of precast concrete construction

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

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Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Creep is the plastic change in volume of concrete under

sustained stress. It is most marked during the early ages
of the life of a concrete member. Creep is essentially
irreversible; when the stress is removed, the creep stops
but does not reverse to any applicable extent.

Shrinkage is a volume change of the concrete due to

chemical reaction and the drying-out of the contained
water. Some shrinkage occurs at set, but the largest
amount occurs during drying. Shrinkage is reversible. The
effect of shrinkage is to reduce the pre-compression in
the concrete.

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 Fundamental of prestressed concrete construction

Stress-relaxation is an irreversible plastic flow in the

steel under sustained high stress. It leads to a reduction
in the degree of stress in a tendon, thus reducing the
prestress in the concrete.

Elastic shortening is the volume change occurring in the

concrete as the pre-compression is applied to it during
prestressing.

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