Program : M.

TECH
Subject Name: Advance Computer Networks

Semester: 1ST
 

Advance Computer Networks

Subject Notes: UNIT-I
Computer Network
A computer network is a set of computers connected together for the purpose of sharing resources. The
most common resource shared today is connection to the Internet. Other shared resources can include a
printer or a file server.

 Several machines can share printers, tape drives, etc.

#Goals

 Reduced cost
 Resource and load sharing
 Programs do not need to run on a single machine
 High reliability
 If a machine goes down, another can take over
 Mail and communication

#Components
A data communications system has five components.

Fig. 1.1 Computer Network: Components

1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-
optic cable, and radio waves
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating.

#ISO-OSI Reference Model

#Principles of OSI Reference Model
The OSI reference model has 7 layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers can be
briefly summarized as follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
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 4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown together in
the same layer out of necessity and small enough that architecture does not become unwieldly.

Feature of OSI Model:

1. Big picture of communication over network is understandable through this OSI model.
2. We see how hardware and software work together.
3. We can understand new technologies as they are developed.
4. Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.
5. Can be used to compare basic functional relationships on different networks.

Fig. 1.2 OSI Reference Model

#Description of Different Layers:

Layer 1: The Physical Layer:

1. It is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.
2. It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
3. It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data over network.
4. Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical layer.
5. It converts the digital/ analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.
6. Data encoding is also done in this layer.

The functions of the physical layer are:

1. Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock.
This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at bit level.

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 2. Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent
per second.
3. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different, devices/nodes are
arranged in a network i.e. bus, star or mesh topology.
4. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows between the two
connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are: Simplex, half-duplex and full-
duplex.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer:

1. Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over the physical layer.
2. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node to another,
over the physical layer.
3. Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer.
4. This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and sent respectively.
Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is also handled by this layer.
5. This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages the Frame traffic control
over the network. It signals the transmitting node to stop, when the frame buffers are full.

The functions of the data Link layer are:

1. Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set
of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit
patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
2. Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC address)
of sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and
retransmits damaged or lost frames.
4. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus;
flow control coordinates that amount of data that can be sent before receiving acknowledgement.
5. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, MAC sub-layer
of data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.

Layer 3: The Network Layer:

1. It routes the signal through different channels from one node to other.
2. It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
3. It decides by which route data should take.
4. It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming packets into messages
for higher levels.
The functions of the Network layer are:
1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination.
This function of network layer is known as routing.
2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network layer
defi es a addressi g s he e. The se der & re ei er’s IP address are pla ed i the header
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

Layer 4: Transport Layer:

1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
2. Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are done by this layer
3. It receives messages from the Session layer above it, converts the message into smaller units and
passes it on to the Network layer.
4. Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network requirements.

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 The functions of the transport layer are:
1. Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer , breaks the
message into smaller units . Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The
transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
2. Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport layer header
includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this
address, transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.

The services provided by transport layer:

1. Connection Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process which include
– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the source after
a packet or group of packet is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connection less service: It is a one phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of
transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much
faster communication between devices. Connection oriented Service is more reliable than connection
less Service.

Layer 5: The Session Layer:

1. Session layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two different applications.
2. Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of data are marked and are
resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages are not cut prematurely, and data loss is
avoided.

The functions of the session layer are:

1. Session establishment, maintenance and termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use and terminate a connection.
2. Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered as
synchronization points into the data. These synchronization point help to identify the error so that
the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data
loss is avoided.
3. Dialog Controller: The session layer determines which device will communicate first and the
amount of data that will be sent.

Layer 6: The Presentation Layer:

1. Presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver will understand
the information (data) and will be able to use the data.
2. While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready for the application
layer.
3. Languages (syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under this condition
presentation layer plays a role of translator.
4. It performs Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.
The functions of the presentation layer are:
1. Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
2. Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key
value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
3. Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

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 Layer 7: Application Layer:
1. It is the topmost layer.
2. Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done in this layer. Mail services,
directory services, network resource etc are services provided by application layer.
3. This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and to be sent data.
The functions of the Application layer are:
1. Network Virtual Terminal
2. FTAM-File transfer access and management
3. Mail Services
4. Directory Services
Merits of OSI reference model:
1. OSI model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces and protocols.
2. Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
3. Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology changes.
4. Supports connection-oriented services as well as connectionless service.
Demerits of OSI reference model:
1. Model was devised before the invention of protocols.
2. Fitting of protocols is tedious task.
3. It is just used as a reference model.

#Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models:

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet
OSI (Open System Interconnection)
Protocol)
1. TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols around
1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent
which the Internet has developed. It is a communication
standard, acting as a communication gateway
protocol, which allows connection of hosts over a
between the network and end user.
network.
2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
2. In OSI model the transport layer guarantees
guarantees delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP model is
the delivery of packets.
more reliable.
3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.
4. OSI model has a separate Presentation layer 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate Presentation layer or
and Session layer. Session layer.
5. Transport Layer is both Connection Oriented and
5. Transport Layer is Connection Oriented.
Connection less.

6. Network Layer is both Connection Oriented

6. Network Layer is Connection less.
and Connection less.

7. OSI is a reference model around which the

7. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of the OSI
networks are built. Generally, it is used as a
model.
guidance tool.
8. Network layer of OSI model provides both 8. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
connection oriented and connectionless service. connectionless service.
9. OSI model has a problem of fitting the
9. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
protocols into the model.
10. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are
10. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
easily replaced as the technology changes.

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 11. OSI model defines services, interfaces and
protocols very clearly and makes clear 11. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols are not
distinction between them. It is protocol clearly separated. It is also protocol dependent.
independent.
12. It has 7 layers 12. It has 4 layers

#Co puter Network’s: Classificatio s & Types.

There are three types of network classification
1) LAN (Local area network)
2) MAN (Metropolitan Area network)
3) WAN (Wide area network)

Fig. 1.5 Computer Network: Classifications

1) Local area network (LAN)

LAN is a group of the computers placed in the same room, same floor, or the same building so they are
connected to each other to form a single network to share their resources such as disk drives, data,
CPU, modem etc. LAN is limited to some geographical area less than 2 km. Most of LAN is used widely
is an Ethernet system of the bus topology.
Characteristics of LAN
LAN connects the computer in a single building; block and they are working in any limited area less
than 2 km.
Media access control methods in a LAN, the bus-based Ethernet and token ring.

Fig. 1.6 Local area network

2) Metropolitan Area network (MAN)

The metropolitan area network is a large computer network that expands a Metropolitan area or
campus. Its geographic area between a WAN and LAN. Its expand round 50km devices used are modem
and wire/cable.

Fig. 1.7 Metropolitan Area network

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 Characteristics of MAN
1) Its covers the towns and cities (50km)
2) MAN is used by the communication medium for optical fibre cables, it also used for other media.

3) Wide area Network (WAN)

The wide area network is a network which connects the countries, cities or the continents, it is a public
communications links. The most popular example of a WAN is the internet. WAN is used to connect LAN so
the users and the computer in the one location can communicate with each other.

Fig. 1.8 Wide area Network

Characteristics of WAN
1) Its covers the large distances (More than 100 KM).
2) Communication medium used are satellite, telephones which are connected by the routers.

# Communication Media:
Communication medium refers to the physical channel through which data is sent and received. Data is
sent in the form of voltage levels which make up the digital signal. A digital signal consists of 0s and 1s;
essentially, a 1 corresponds to a high voltage, while a 0 corresponds to a low voltage.
The speed of data transmission or data rate depends upon the type of medium being used in the network.

 Wired network
There are basically two types of networks:

 Wireless network
Wired Network
In a wired network, data is transmitted over a physical medium. There are three types of physical cables
used in a wired network. Transmission medium is the means through which we send our data from one
place to another. The first layer (physical layer) of Communication Networks OSI Seven layer model is
dedicated to the transmission media.

Fig. 1.9 Transmission Medium

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 Factors to be considered while choosing Communication Media:
1. Transmission Rate
2. Cost and Ease of Installation
3. Resistance to Environmental Conditions
4. Distances
5. Bounded/Guided Transmission Media

It is the transmission media in which signals are confined to a specific path using wire or cable. The types of

 Twisted Pair Cable

Bounded/ Guided are discussed below.

This cable is the most commonly used and is cheaper than others. It is lightweight, cheap, can be installed
easily, and they support many different types of network. Some important points :
o Its frequency range is 0 to 3.5 kHz.
o Typical attenuation is 0.2 dB/Km @ 1kHz.
o Typical delay is 50 µs/km.
o Repeater spacing is 2km.
o Twisted Pair is of two types :
o Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

 Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

o Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

It is the most common type of telecommunication when compared with Shielded Twisted Pair Cable which
consists of two conductors usually copper, each with its own colour plastic insulator. Identification is the
reason behind colored plastic insulation.
UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4 pair cable
use RJ-45 connector.
Advantages:
1. Installation is easy
2. Flexible
3. Cheap
4. It has high speed capacity,
5. 100 meter limit
6. Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies like Ethernet.
7. It consists of two insulating copper wires (1mm thick). The wires are twisted together in a helical
form to reduce electrical interference from similar pair.
Disadvantages:
1. Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable
2. Provides less protection from interference.
3. Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
4. This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each pair of insulated
conductors. Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing. Shielding also
eliminates crosstalk.
It has same attenuation as unshielded twisted pair. It is faster the unshielded and coaxial cable. It is more
expensive than coaxial and unshielded twisted pair.

Fig. 1.10 Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

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 Advantages:
1. Easy to install
2. Performance is adequate
3. Can be used for Analog or Digital transmission
4. Increases the signalling rate
5. Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair
6. Eliminates crosstalk
Disadvantages:
1. Difficult to manufacture
2. Heavy

 Coaxial Cable
Coaxial is called by this name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each other. Copper is
used in this as centre conductor which can be a solid wire or a standard one. It is surrounded by PVC
installation, a sheath which is encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, barid or both.
Outer metallic wrapping is used as a shield against noise and as the second conductor which completes the
circuit. The outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath. The outermost part is the plastic cover
which protects the whole cable.
1. Here the most common coaxial standards.
2. 50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11 : used with thick Ethernet.
3. 50-Ohm RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet
4. 75-Ohm RG-59 : used with cable television
5. 93-Ohm RG-62 : used with ARCNET.

Fig. 1.11 Coxial Cable

There are two types of Coaxial cables:
Baseband
This is a 50 oh Ω oa ial a le hi h is used for digital tra s issio . It is ostl used for LAN’s.
Baseband transmits a single signal at a time with very high speed. The major drawback is that it needs
amplification after every 1000 feet.
Broadband
This uses analog transmission on standard cable television cabling. It transmits several simultaneous signal
using different frequencies. It covers large area when compared with Baseband Coaxial Cable.
Advantages:
1. Bandwidth is high
2. Used in long distance telephone lines.
3. Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
4. Much higher noise immunity
5. Data transmission without distortion.
6. The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better shielding when compared to
twisted pair cable.

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 Disadvantages:
1. Single cable failure can fail the entire network.
2. Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pair.
3. If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop.

 Optical Fiber
An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a
diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Optical fibers are used most often as a means to
transmit light between the two ends of the fiber and find wide usage in fiber-optic communications, where
they permit transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than wire cables.
Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss; in addition, fibers
are immune to electromagnetic interference, a problem from which metal wires suffer excessively. Fibers
are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so that they may be used to carry images, thus
allowing viewing in confined spaces, as in the case of a fiberscope. Specially designed fibers are also used
for a variety of other applications, some of them being fiber optic sensors and fiber lasers.
These are similar to coaxial cable. It uses electric signals to transmit data. At the centre is the glass core
through which light propagates.
In multimode fibers, the core is 50microns, and in single mode fibers, the thickness is 8 to 10 microns.
The core in fiber optic cable is surrounded by glass cladding with lower index of refraction as compared to
core to keep all the light in core. This is covered with a thin plastic jacket to protect the cladding. The fibers
are grouped together in bundles protected by an outer shield.
Fiber optic cable has bandwidth more than 2 gbps (Gigabytes per Second)

Fig. 1.12 Optical Fiber

Advantages:
1. Provides high quality transmission of signals at very high speed.
2. These are not affected by electromagnetic interference, so noise and distortion is very less.
3. Used for both analog and digital signals.

Disadvantages:
1. It is expensive
2. Difficult to install.
3. Maintenance is expensive and difficult.
4. Do not allow complete routing of light signals.

It is the transmission media in which signals are confined to a specific path using wire or cable. The types of
Unbounded/ Unguided are discussed below.

 Physics and Velocity of Propagation of Light

Whereas the velocity of some particle is a quantity which is based on a fairly simple and unambiguous
concept, the velocity of light (as of other wave phenomena) is a much more sophisticated matter. There

Page no: 10
 are different kinds of velocities, which are different conceptually and can (particularly for light propagation
in media) have substantially different values:
1. The phase velocity is the velocity with which phase fronts propagate.
2. The group velocity determines the speed with which intensity maxima propagate (e.g. the peaks of
pulses).
3. The velocity of information transport can differ from both phase and group velocity.

 Electromagnetic waves
EM waves are energy transported through space in the form of periodic disturbances of electric and
magnetic fields.
EM waves travel through space at the same speed, c = 2.99792458 x 108 m/s, commonly known as the
speed of light.
An EM wave is characterized by a frequency and a wavelength.
These two quantities are related to the speed of light by the equation speed of light = frequency x
wavelength
The frequency (or wavelength) of an EM wave depends on its source. There is a wide range of frequency
encountered in our physical world, ranging from the low frequency of the electric waves generated by the
power transmission lines to the very high frequency of the gamma rays originating from the atomic nuclei.
This wide frequency range of electromagnetic waves constitute the Electromagnetic Spectrum

#Network Standardization
International Organization for Standardization One of the most important standards-making bodies is the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2 which makes technical recommendations about
data communication interfaces .ISO is based in Geneva, Switzerland. The membership is composed of the
national standards organizations of each ISO member country.

International Telecommunications Union—Telecommunications Group the Telecommunications Group

(ITU-T) is the technical standards-setting organization of the United Nations International
Telecommunications Union, which is also based in Geneva. ITU is composed of representatives from about
200-member countries. Membership was originally focused on just the public telephone companies in each
country, but a major reorganization in 1993 changed this, and ITU now seeks members among public- and
private-sector organizations who operate computer or communications networks (e.g., RBOCs) or build
software and equipment for them (e.g., AT&T).

American National Standards Institute: The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is the
coordinating organization for the U.S. national system of standards for both technology and nontechnology
ANSI has about 1,000 members from both public and private organizations in the United States. ANSI is a
standardization organization, not a standards-making body, in that it accepts standards developed by other
organizations and publishes them as American standards. Its role is to coordinate the development of
olu tar atio al sta dards a d to i tera t ith ISO to de elop atio al sta dards that o pl ith ISO’s
international recommendations. ANSI is a voting participant in the ISO.

# IEEE Standards

IEEE Standards Association (IEEE-SA) provides a, global, open, and collaborative platform for wireless
communities that engage in, and enable the development of new, innovative, and relevant use cases and
standards which, in turn, accelerate the time to market of consensus-developed technologies.

Specific areas of focus include:

 Mobile broadband network evolution

 Technology interoperability

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  Enabling IoT and Smart Cities (including public safety)

Inclusive to this is the ability to support addressing the following technological considerations:

 Integration of networking, computing, and storage resources into one programmable and unified
infrastructure. This includes design principles such as resources, connectivity, and service enablers.
 Multi-tenancy models
 Sustainability, scalability, security, and privacy management
 Spectrum
 Software enablement for SDN, NFV, Mobile Edge, Fog Computing, Virtualization, etc.

IEEE-SA adds value in this emerging space by:

1. Supporting the development of market driven constructs (SIG, Alliances, etc.,) while representing
the interests of ourselves and our stakeholders (Societies, Councils, and Working Groups).
2. Addressing region-specific use cases, to ensure regional viability of standards and applications.
3. Offering add-on services, products, registries, and lifecycle elements and supporting the
development of initiatives and APIs where applicable.

 IEEE 802.2 Logical Link Control

1. The technical definition for 802.2 is "the standard for the upper Data Link Layer sub layer also
known as the Logical Link Control layer.
2. It is used with the 802.3, 802.4, and 802.5 standards (lower DL sub layers).
3. "802.2 "specify the general interface between the network layer (IP, IPX, etc) and the data link
layer (Ethernet, Token Ring, etc).
4. IEEE 802.2 As the "translator" for the Data Link Layer.
5. 802.2 are concerned with managing traffic over the physical network.
6. It is responsible for flow and error control.
7. The Data Link Layer wants to send some data over the network, 802.2 Logical Link Control helps
make this possible.
8. It also helps by identifying the line protocol, like NetBIOS, or Netware.
9. The LLC acts like a software bus allowing multiple higher layer protocols to access one or lower
layer networks.
For example, if you have a server with multiple network interface cards, the LLC will forward
packers from those upper layer protocols to the appropriate network interface. This allows the
upper layer protocols to not need specific knowledge of the lower layer networks in use.

 IEEE 802.3 Ethernet

1. 802.3 is the standard which Ethernet operates by.
2. It is the standard for CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection).
3. This standard encompasses both the MAC and Physical Layer standards. CSMA/CD is what
Ethernet uses to control access to the network medium (network cable).
4. If there is no data, any node may attempt to transmit, if the nodes detect a collision, both stop
transmitting and wait a random amount of time before retransmitting the data.
5. The original 802.3 standard is 10 Mbps (Megabits per second).
6. 802.3u defined the 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet) standard, 802.3z/802.3ab defined 1000 Mbps
Gigabit Ethernet, and 802.3ae define 10 Gigabit Ethernet.
7. Commonly, Ethernet networks transmit data in packets, or small bits of information.
8. A packet can be a minimum size of 72 bytes or a maximum of 1518 bytes. The most common
topology for Ethernet is the star topology.

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 IEEE 802.5 Token Ring
1. Token Ring was developed primarily by IBM.
2. Token ring is designed to use the ring topology and utilizes a token to control the transmission of
data on the network.
3. The token is a special frame which is designed to travel from node to node around the ring.
4. When it does not have any data attached to it, a node on the network can modify the frame,
attach its data and transmit.
5. Each node on the network checks the token as it passes to see if the data is intended for that
node, if it is; it accepts the data and transmits a new token.
6. If it is not intended for that node, it retransmits the token on to the next node.
7. The token ring network is designed in such a way that each node on the network is guaranteed
access to the token at some point. This equalizes the data transfer on the network.
8. This is different from an Ethernet network where each workstation has equal access to grab the
available bandwidth, with the possible of a node using more bandwidth than other nodes.
9. Token ring operated at a speed of about 4 Mbps and 16 Mbps. 802.5t allows for 100 Mbps
speeds and 802.5v provides for 1 Gbps over fibber.
10. Token ring can be run over a star topology as well as the ring topology.
11. There are three major cable types for token ring: Unshielded twisted pair (UTP), Shielded twisted
pair (STP), and fibber.
12. Token ring utilizes a Multi-station Access Unit (MAU) as a central wiring hub. This is also
sometimes called a MSAU when referring to token ring networks.

 IEEE 802.11 Wireless Network Standards

1. 802.11 is the collection of standards setup for wireless networking.
2. We are Familiar with 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g and latest one is 802.11n.
3. Each standard uses a frequency to connect to the network and has a defined upper limit for data
transfer speeds.802.11a been one of the first wireless standards.
a) 802.11a operates in the 5 GHz radio band and can achieve a maximum of 54Mbps. as ’t as
popular as the 802.11b standard due to higher prices and lower range.
b) 802.11b operates in the 2.4 GHz band and supports up to 11 Mbps. Range of up to several
hundred feet in theory. The first real consumer option for wireless and very popular.
c) 802.11g is a standard in the 2.4 GHz band operating at 54Mbps.
4. Since it operates in the same band as 802.11b, 802.11g is compatible with 802.11b equipment.
802.11a is not directly compatible with 802.11b or 802.11g since it operates in a different band.
Wireless LANs primarily use CSMA/CA - Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance.
5. It has a "listen before talk" method of minimizing collisions on the wireless network. This results
in less need for retransmitting data. Wireless standards operate within a wireless topology.
.
Program : M.TECH
Subject Name: Advance Computer Networks

Semester: 1ST
 Advance Computer Networks
Subject Notes: UNIT-II
# TCP/IP Reference Model
Basic Concepts: TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network
model used in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which govern every
possible communication over a network. These protocols describe the movement of data between the
source and destination or the internet. They also offer simple naming and addressing schemes.

Fig. 2.1 TCP/IP Reference Model

#Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model:

Fig. 2.2 Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model

#Overview of TCP/IP reference model
TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was developed by Department
of Defence's Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a research project of network
interconnection to connect remote machines.
The features that stood out during the research, which led to making the TCP/IP reference model were:
 Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a network was easy.
 The network was robust, and connections remained intact untill the source and destination
machines were functioning.
The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk to(send data packets) another
application running on different computer.
#Different Layers of TCP/IP Reference Model
Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer

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 1. Lowest layer of the all.
2. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
3. Varies from host to host and network to network.

Layer 2: Internet layer

1. Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless internetwork layer is
called a internet layer.
2. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
3. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
4. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
5. IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
6. The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:
o Delivering IP packets
o Performing routing
o Avoiding congestion
Layer 3: Transport Layer
1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by transport layer.
3. The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
4. Transport layer adds header information to the data.
5. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more
efficiently by the network layer.
6. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.

 Connection-oriented
#Connection Oriented & Connectionless Services

There is a sequence of operation to be followed by the users of connection-oriented service. They are:
1. Connection is established
2. Information is sent
3. Connection is released
In connection-oriented service we must establish a connection before starting the communication. When
connection is established we send the message or the information. Then we release the connection.
Connection oriented service is more reliable than connectionless service. Example of connection oriented

 Connectionless
is TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) protocol.

It is similar to postal services, as it carries the full address where the message (letter) is to be carried. Each
message is routed independently from source to destination. The order of message sent can be different
from the order received.
In connectionless the data is transferred in one direction from source to destination without checking
that destination is still there or not or if it prepared to accept the message. Authentication is not needed
in this. Example of Connectionless service is UDP (User Datagram Protocol) protocol.

Fig. 2.3 Connection Oriented & Connectionless Services

Layer 4: Application Layer
The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the protocol stack. Some
of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
1. TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a remote machine and
run applications on it.
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 2. FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer amongst computer users
connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
3. SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport electronic mail
between a source and destination, directed via a route.
4. DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for Hosts connected over
a network.
5. It allows peer entities to carry conversation.
6. It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP
o TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-oriented protocol which
handles byte-stream from source to destination without error and flow control.
o UDP(User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-less protocol that do not want
TCPs, sequencing and flow control. Eg: One-shot request-reply kind of service
Merits of TCP/IP model
1. It operated independently.
2. It is scalable.
3. Client/server architecture.
4. Supports a number of routing protocols.
5. Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.
Demerits of TCP/IP
1. In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
2. The model cannot be used in any other application.
3. Replacing protocol is not easy.
4. It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.

# Principles of TCP/IP Reference Model

Centralized computer systems - the concept of 'computer center' where a large computer serves the
entire organization has been replaced by 'computer network' - a large number of independent computers
that are linked together in a network that can exchange information. The network allowed the following:
 Sharing Of Resources - Data, Programs, Equipment Available to everyone on The Network
Regardless of Physical Distance,
 Reliability - Data Stored On Multiple Machines Because of Possible Failure,
 Savings - Instead Of Fast But Expensive Large Computers Use Multiple Pcs And Ensures Scalability:
Client-Server Model,
 Connection - Link Between Physically Separated Employees,
 Remote Access To Information - Finances, Shopping, Online Newspapers, Www,
 Communication - Email, Discussion Groups, Video Conference,
 Entertainment - Video On Demand, Interactive Video And Television, Games.

. The terminology used to comprehend its functionality is based on the following basic concepts:
 Host - Computer in the local network (application aspect).
 Sub network (subnet) - Transmits messages from one host of LAN to host a second LAN
(communication aspect), has two components:
o Transmission channel (transmission lines, channel) - Bits transmitted from computer to
computer.
o Router - Specialized computer that connect the transmission channels and decide at which
the output channel to send data that arrives from the door
 Sub network makes the core of communication between themselves and this is a point-to-point
(store-and-forward, packet-switched) communication between routers that are not directly
connected by a cable, and is done so that packets sent from router to router. Router save the
package and send it on when the output line works.
 Topology connecting routers is usually irregular.

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 #Address Handling Internet Protocol:
The Internet's basic protocol called IP for Internet Protocol. The protocol is assigned to interconnect
networks do not have the same frame-level protocols or package level. There are two generations of IP
packets, called IPv4 (IP version 4) and IPv6 (IP version 6).
• I te et P oto ol IP of et o k la e o tai s add essi g i fo atio a d so e o t ol i fo atio
that enables the packets to be routed.
• IP has two primary responsibilities:
1. Providing connectionless, best effort delivery of datagrams through a internetwork. The term best
effort delivery means that IP does not provides any error control or flow control. The term
connectionless means that each datagram is handled independently, and each datagram can follow
different route to the destination. This implies that datagram sent by the same source to the same
destination could arrive out of order.
2. Providing fragmentation and reassembly of datagrams to support data links with different
maximum transmission unit (MTU) sizes.

#IP packet format

• Pa kets i the et o k la e a e alled datagram.
A datagram is a variable length packet consisting of two parts: header and data.
• The header is 20 to 60 bytes in length and contains information essential to routing and delivery.
• The a ious fields i IP heade a e:
1. Version: It is a 4-bit field that specifies the version of IP currently being used. Two different versions
of protocols are IPV4 (Internet Protocol Version 4) and IPV6 (Internet Protocol Version 6).
2. IP Header Length (IHL): This 4-bit field indicates the datagram header length in 32 bit word. The
header length i8 not constant in IP. It may vary from 20 to 60 bytes. When there are no options, the
header length is 20 bytes, and the value of this field is 5. When the option field is at its maximum size,
the value of this field is 15.

Fig. 2.4 IP packet Format

3. Services: This 8 hit field was previously called services type but is now called differentiated services.

The various bits in service type are:

• A -bit precedence field that defines the priority of datagram in issues such as congestion. This 3-bit
subfield ranges from 0 (000 in binary) to 7 (111 in binary).
• Afte -bit precedence there are four flag bits. These bits can be either 0 or 1 and only one of the bits
can have value of 1 in each datagram.
o The various flag bits are:
1. D : Minimize delay

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 2. T : Maximize throughout
3. R : Maximize reliability
4. C : Minimize Cost

The various bits in differentiated services are:The first 6 bits defined a code point and last two bits are
not used. If the 3 rightmost bits are 0s, the 3 leftmost bits are interpreted the same as the precedence
bits in the service type interpretation.
4. Total length: This 16 bit field specifies the total length of entire IP datagram including data and header
in bytes. As there are 16 bits, the total length of IP datagram is limited to 65,535 (216 - 1) bytes.
5. Identification: This 16 bit field is used in fragmentation. A datagram when passing through different
networks may be divided into fragments to match the network frame size. Therefore, this field contains
an integer that identifies the current datagram. This field is used to help piece together datagram
fragments.
6. Flags: Consists' of a 3 bit field of which the two low order bit DF, MF control fragmentation. DF stands
for Don't Fragment. DF specifies whether the packet can be fragmented MF stands for more fragments.
MF specifies whether the packet is the last fragment in a series of fragmented packets. The third or high
order but is not used.
7. Fragment Offset: This 13 bit field indicates the position of the fragment's data relative to the beginning
of the data in the original datagram, which allows the destination IP process to properly reconstruct the
original datagram.
8. Time to Live: It is 8 bit field that maintain a counter that gradually decrements down to zero, at which
point the datagram is discarded. This keeps the packet from looping endlessly.
9. Protocol: This 8 bit field indicates which upper layer protocol receives incoming packets after IP
processing is complete.
10. Header Checksum: This 16 bit field contains a checksum that covers only the header and not the data.
11. Source IP address: These 32-bit field contains the IP address of source machine.
12. Destination IP address: This 32-bit field contains the IP address of destination machine.
13. Options: This field allows IP to support various options such as security, routing, timing management
and alignment.
14. Data: It contains upper layer information.

#Protocol Layers
The communication between the nodes in a packet data network must be precisely defined to ensure
correct interpretation of the packets by the receiving intermediate and the end systems. The packets
exchanged between nodes are defined by a protocol - or communications language. There are many
functions which may be needed to be performed by a protocol. These range from the specification of
connectors, addresses of the communications nodes, identification of interfaces, options, flow control,
reliability, error reporting, synchronization, etc.
The protocols are usually structured together to form a layered design (also known as a "protocol
stack"). All major telecommunication network architectures currently used or being developed use
layered protocol architectures. There is a distinction between the functions of the lower (network)
layers, which are primarily designed to provide a connection or path between users to hide details of
underlying communications facilities, and the upper (or higher) layers, which ensure data exchanged are
in correct and understandable form. The upper layers are sometimes known as "middleware" because
they provide software in the computer which converts data between what the applications programs
expect, and what the network can transport. The transport layer provides the connection between the
upper (applications-oriented) layers and the lower (or network-oriented) layers.
The basic idea of a layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces. Each layer adds to the
services provided by the lower layers in such a manner that the highest layer is provided a full set of
services to manage communications and run distributed applications.

TELNET

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  TELNET is a standard protocol. Its status is recommended.
 It is described in RFC 854 - TELNET Protocol Specifications and RFC 855 - TELNET Option
Specifications.
 Telnet was the first application demonstrated on the four-IMP (Interface Message
Processor) network installed by December 1969. The final edition took 14 more years to
develop, culminating in Internet Standard #8 in 1983, three years after the final TCP
specification was ratified.
 Telnet even predates internetworking and the modern IP packet and TCP transport layers.
 The TELNET protocol provides a standardized interface, through which a program on one
host (the TELNET client) may access the resources of another host (the TELNET server) as
though the client were a local terminal connected to the server.
 For example, a user on a workstation on a LAN may connect to a host attached to the LAN
as though the workstation were a terminal attached directly to the host. Of course,
TELNET may be used across WANs as well as LANs.
 Most TELNET implementations do not provide you with graphics capabilities.
 TELNET is a general protocol, meant to support logging in from almost any type of terminal
to almost any type of computer.
 It allows a user at one site to establish a TCP connection to a login server or terminal
server at another site.
 A TELNET server generally listens on TCP Port 23.

Fig. 2.5 TELNET Working

TELNET Operation
 The TELNET protocol is based on three ideas:
o The Network Virtual Terminal (NVT) concept. An NVT is an imaginary device having
a basic structure common to a wide range of real terminals. Each host maps its
own terminal characteristics to those of an NVT, and assumes that every other host
will do the same.
o A symmetric view of terminals and processes .
o Negotiation of terminal options. The principle of negotiated options is used by the
TELNET protocol, because many hosts wish to provide additional services, beyond
those available with the NVT. Various options may be negotiated. Server and client
use a set of conventions to establish the operational characteristics of their TELNET
connection via the ``DO, DON'T, WILL, WON'T'' mechanism discussed later in this
document.
 The two hosts begin by verifying their mutual understanding. Once this initial negotiation
is complete, they are capable of working on the minimum level implemented by the NVT.
 After this minimum understanding is achieved, they can negotiate additional options to
extend the capabilities of the NVT to reflect more accurately the capabilities of the real
hardware in use.

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  Because of the symmetric model used by TELNET, both the host and the client may
propose additional options to be used.
 The set of options is not part of the TELNET protocol, so that new terminal features can be
incorporated without changing the TELNET protocol (mouse?).
 All TELNET commands and data flow through the same TCP connection.
 Commands start with a special character called the Interpret as Command escape
character (IAC).
 The IAC code is 255.
 If a 255 is sent as data - it must be followed by another 255
 Each receiver must look at each byte that arrives and look for IAC. If IAC is found and the
next byte is IAC - a single byte is presented to the application/terminal.
 If IAC is followed by any other code - the TELNET layer interprets this as a command.

Fig. 2.6 TELNET Operations

#Rlogin (remote login)

Rlogin (remote login) is a UNIX command that allows an authorized user to login to other UNIX machines
(hosts) on a network and to interact as if the user were physically at the host computer. Once logged in to
the host, the user can do anything that the host has given permission for, such as read, edit, or delete
files.
Rlogin is similar to the better known Telnetcommand. Rlogin is considered useful for simple logins that
don't require a lot of control over the client/host interaction, but is thought to be less useful than Telnet
where a lot of customization is desired, for multiple sessions, for connections between very distant
terminals or to terminals that are not running UNIX, for that matter, since rlogin can only connect to UNIX
hosts. A benefit of rlogin is the ability to use a file called .rhosts that resides on the host machine and
maintains a list of terminals allowed to login without a password.
A secure version of rlogin (slogin) was combined with two other UNIX utility, ssh and scp, in the Secure
Shell suite, an interface and protocol created to replace the earlier utilities.

 Broadband provides remote users with high-speed connection options to business networks and to
#Types of remote access

 Cable broadband shares bandwidth across many users and, as a result, upstream data rates can be
the internet. There are several types of broadband, including the following:

 DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) broadband provides high-speed networking over a telephone network
slow during high-usage hours in areas with many subscribers.

using broadband modem tech. However, DSL only works over a limited physical distance and may

 Cellular internet services can be accessed by mobile devices via a wireless connection from any
not be available in some areas if the local telephone infrastructure doesn't support DSL technology.

location where a cellular network is available.

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  Satellite internet services use telecommunications satellites to provide users with internet access in

 Fiber optics broadband technology enables users to transfer large amounts of data quickly and
areas where land-based internet access isn't available, as well as for temporary mobile installations.

seamlessly.
#Remote access protocols

 Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) enables hosts to set up a direct connection between two endpoints.
Common remote access and VPN protocols include the following:

 IPsec -- Internet Protocol Security -- is a set of security protocols used to enable authentication and

 Point-to-Point Tunneling (PPTP) is one of the oldest protocols for implementing virtual private
encryption services to secure the transfer of IP packets over the internet.

networks. However, over the years, it has proven to be vulnerable to many types of attack. Although

 Layer Two Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) is a VPN protocol that does not offer encryption or
PPTP is not very secure, it persists in some cases

cryptographic authentication for the traffic that passes through the connection. As a result, it is

 Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) is a protocol developed in 1991 and published
usually paired with IPsec, which provides those services.

as an Internet Standard track specification in 2000 to enable remote access servers to communicate
with a central server to authenticate dial-in users and authorize their access to the requested

 Terminal Access Controller Access Control System (TACACS) is a remote authentication protocol that
system or service.

was originally common to Unix networks that enables a remote access server to forward a user's
password to an authentication server to determine whether access to a given system should be
allowed. TACACS+ is a separate protocol designed to handle authentication and authorization, and
to account for administrator access to network devices, such as routers and switches.

#TFTP - Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)

Trivial file transfer protocol (TFTP) is suited for those applications that do not require complex procedures
of FTP and do not have enough resources (RAM, ROM) for this purpose.
• T pi al appli atio s of TFTP i lude loadi g the i age o diskless a hi e a d upg adi g the ope ati g
system in network devices such as routers.
The main features TFTP are:
1. TFTP is based on client/server principle.
2. It uses Well-known UDP port number 69 for TFTP server.
3. TFTP 1S unsecured protocol.
4. TFTP does not support authentication.
5 Every TFTP data unit has a sequence number.
6. Each data unit is individually acknowledged. After receiving the acknowledgement the next data
unit is sent.
7. Error recovery is by retransmission after timeout.

#TFTP message formats

There are four types of TFTP messages. The first two octets indicate the type of message. Mode field
defines the type of data (ASCII, binary, Mail). The filename and mode fields are delimited using an all
zeroes octet.
1. Read request (Type 1). This is used by the client to get a copy of a file from the server.
2. Write request (Type 2). This command is used by the client to write a file into the server.
3. Data (Type 3) this command contains block of data (portion of the file being copied). This message
contains the data block of fixed size of 512 octets. The session is terminated if a data message arrives
with data octet less than 512 octets.
4. Acknowledgement (Type 4). The last data message can have data block with EOF having size less
than 512 octets. This is used by the client and the server to acknowledge the received data units.

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 Fig. 2.7 Type of TFTP Messages

#TFTP Operation
• The lie t se ds a ead o ite e uest at the server's UDP Port 69
• The se e a epts the e uest se di g data essage i ase of ead e uest.
• The se e a epts the e uest se di g a k o ledgement in case of write request.
• I eithe ase, the se e sele ts a UDP po t to e used fo fu the dialogue a d se ds its fi st espo se
to the client through the selected UPD port.
• Ea h data essage has fi ed size of data lo k o tets a d IS individually acknowledged.
• The last data lo k o tai i g EDF o a data lo k o tai i g less tha o tets te i ates the
session.
• E o e o e is do e usi g retransmission after timeout.
• If TFTP essage is lost a d if the e is o e pe ted espo se, the essage is repeated by the sender after
time out.
• If the e t data essage is ot e ei ed afte a k o ledge e t, the last a k o ledge e t is epeated
after timeout.

#Network File System (NFS)

The Network File System (NFS) is a client/server application that lets a computer user view and optionally
store and update files on a remote computer as though they were on the user's own computer. The
NFS protocol is one of several distributed file system standards for network-attached storage (NAS).NFS
allows the user or system administrator to mount (designate as accessible) all or a portion of a file system
on a server. The portion of the file system that is mounted can be accessed by clients with whatever
privileges are assigned to each file (read-only or read-write). NFS uses Remote Procedure Calls (RPC) to
route requests between clients and servers.
NFS was originally developed by Sun Microsystems in the 1980's and is now managed by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF). NFSv4.1 (RFC-5661) was ratified in January 2010 to improve scalability by
adding support for parallel access across distributed servers. Network File Sytem versions 2 and 3 allows
the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) running over an IP network to provide statelessnetwork connections
between clients and server, but NFSv4 requires use of the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

#Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3)

It is a simple protocol used for opening the remote e-mail boxes. This protocol is defined in RFC 1225.
Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3) is a message access protocol that enables the client to fetch an e-
mail from the remote mail server. SMTP expects the destination host, the mail server receiving the mail,
to be on-line all the time; otherwise TCP connection cannot be established. The server receives the mail
on behalf of its clients. A POP3 server stores messages for each user until the user connects to download
and read them using a POP3 client such as Microsoft Outlook 98, Microsoft Outlook Express, or Microsoft
Page no: 9
 Mail and News. To retrieve a message from a POP3 server, a POPS client establishes a Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) session using TCP port 110, identifies itself to the server, and then issues a series of
POP3 commands:
1. stat: It asks the server for the number of messages waiting to be retrieved.
2. list: It determines the size of each message to be retrieved.
3. retr: It retrieves individual messages d. Quit: Ends the POP3 session.
Mail access by POP3
• The lie t POP soft a e is i stalled o the e eiver's computer the server POP3 software is installed on
the mail server.
• POP is des i ed i ‘FC a d it uses ell-known TCP port 110.
• The o u i atio p o edu e is si ila to SMTP a d uses ASCII ha a te s.
• POP egi s he use sta ts the ail reader.
• The ail eade alls up the ISP o ail se e a d esta lishes a TCP o e tio ith the essage
transfer agent at port 110.
• O e the o e tio has ee esta lished, the PO? p oto ol goes through three states in sequence
1. Authorization
2. Transactions
3. Update
• The Autho izatio state deals ith use log i . The lie t se ds its use a e a d pass o d.
• The t a sa tio state deals ith the use olle ti g the e-mails and marking them for deletion from the
mailbox.
• The update state auses the e-mails to be deleted.
• O e the use has logged i , the lie t a se d the LIST o a d to list the o te ts of its ail o . I
this case the server displays one message per line along with its length. This list ends with a period.
• The lie t a et ie e essages usi g ‘ET‘ o a d a d a also a k the fo deletio ith DELE.
• Whe all the essages ha e ee et ie ed, the lie t gi es QUIT o a d to e d the t a sa tio
state and enter the update state.
• When the server has deleted all the messages, it sends a reply and breaks the TCP connection.

• Although POP is used to do load essages f o the se e , the SMTP lie t is still eeded o the
desktop computers to forward messages from workstation user to its SMTP mail server.
POP3 protocol works on two ports:
Port 110 - this is the default POP3 non-encrypted port
Port 995 - this is the port you need to use if you want to connect using POP3 securely

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 Fig. 2.8 Exchange of Command and Response using POP3

#Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)

The Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is a mail protocol used for accessing email on a remote web
server from a local client. IMAP and POP3 are the two most commonly used Internet mail protocols
for retrieving emails. Both protocols are supported by all modern email clients and web servers.While the
POP3 protocol assumes that your email is being accessed only from one application, IMAP allows
simultaneous access by multiple clients. This is why IMAP is more suitable for you if you're going to access
your email from different locations or if your messages are managed by multiple users.
By default, the IMAP protocol works on two ports:
Port 143 - this is the default IMAP non-encrypted port
Port 993 - this is the port you need to use if you want to connect using IMAP securely

#Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME)

Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME) is a standard which was proposed by Bell Communications
in 1991 in order to expand limited capabilities of email.MIME is a kind of add on or a supplementary
protocol which allows non-ASCII data to be sent through SMTP. It allows the users to exchange different
kinds of data files on the Internet: audio, video, images, application programs as well.
Purpose and Functionality of MIME –
Growing demand for Email Message as people also want to express in terms of Multimedia. So, MIME
another email application is introduced as it is not restricted to textual data.MIME transforms non-ASCII
data at sender side to NVT 7-bit data and delivers it to the client SMTP. The message at receiver side is
transferred back to the original data. As well as we can send video and audio data using MIME as it
transfers them also in 7-bit ASCII data.
Features of MIME –
 It is able to send multiple attachments with a single message.
 Unlimited message length.
 Binary attachments (executables, images, audio, or video files) which may be divided if needed.
 MIME provided support for varying content types and multi-part messages.
 MIMEHeader:
It is added to the original e-mail header section to define transformation. There are five
headers which we add to the original header:
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  MIME Version – Defines version of MIME protocol. It must have the parameter Value 1.0, which


indicates that message is formatted using MIME.
Content Type – Type of data used in the body of message. They are of different types like text data


(plain, HTML), audio content or video content.
Content Type Encoding – It defines the method used for encoding the message. Like 7-bit encoding, 8-


bit encoding, etc.
Content Id – It is used for uniquely identifying the message.
 Content description – It defines whether the body is actually image, video or audio.

# HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

 HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.
 It is a protocol used to access the data on the World Wide Web (www).
 The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data in the form of plain text, hypertext, audio, video,
and so on.
 This protocol is known as HyperText Transfer Protocol because of its efficiency that allows us to use
in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another document.
 HTTP is similar to the FTP as it also transfers the files from one host to another host. But, HTTP is
simpler than FTP as HTTP uses only one connection, i.e., no control connection to transfer the files.
 HTTP is used to carry the data in the form of MIME-like format.
 HTTP is similar to SMTP as the data is transferred between client and server. The HTTP differs from
the SMTP in the way the messages are sent from the client to the server and from server to the
client. SMTP messages are stored and forwarded while HTTP messages are delivered immediately.

 Connectionless protocol: HTTP is a connectionless protocol. HTTP client initiates a request and waits
Features of HTTP:

for a response from the server. When the server receives the request, the server processes the
request and sends back the response to the HTTP client after which the client disconnects the
connection. The connection between client and server exist only during the current request and

 Media independent: HTTP protocol is a media independent as data can be sent as long as both the
response time only.

client and server know how to handle the data content. It is required for both the client and server

 Stateless: HTTP is a stateless protocol as both the client and server know each other only during the
to specify the content type in MIME-type header.

current request. Due to this nature of the protocol, both the client and server do not retain the
information between various requests of the web pages.
#HTTP Transactions
The above figure shows the HTTP transaction between client and server. The client initiates a transaction
by sending a request message to the server. The server replies to the request message by sending a
response message.
Messages
HTTP messages are of two types: request and response. Both the message types follow the same message
format.
1. Request Message: The request message is sent by the client that consists of a request line,
headers, and sometimes a body.
2. Response Message: The response message is sent by the server to the client that consists of a
status line, headers, and sometimes a body.

 A client that wants to access the document in an internet needs an address and to facilitate the access
#Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

 The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a standard way of specifying any kind of information on the
of documents, the HTTP uses the concept of Uniform Resource Locator (URL).

internet.

 Method: The method is the protocol used to retrieve the document from a server. For example, HTTP.
o The URL defines four parts: method, host computer, port, and path.

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  Host: The host is the computer where the information is stored, and the computer is given an alias
name. Web pages are mainly stored in the computers and the computers are given an alias name that


begins with the characters "www". This field is not mandatory.
Port: The URL can also contain the port number of the server, but it's an optional field. If the port
number is included, then it must come between the host and path and it should be separated from


the host by a colon.
Path: Path is the pathname of the file where the information is stored. The path itself contain slashes
that separate the directories from the subdirectories and files.

#File transfer protocol FTP

 FTP stands for File transfer protocol.
 FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for transmitting the files from one host
to another.
 It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator to the computer that acts as a
server for other computers on the internet.
 It is also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.
Objectives of FTP
 It provides the sharing of files.
 It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.
 It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently.
Requirement of FTP
Although transferring files from one system to another is very simple and straightforward, but sometimes
it can cause problems. For example, two systems may have different file conventions. Two systems may
have different ways to represent text and data. Two systems may have different directory structures. FTP
protocol overcomes these problems by establishing two connections between hosts. One connection is
used for data transfer, and another connection is used for the control connection.
Mechanism of FTP

Fig. 2.9 Basic model of the FTP.

The FTP client has three components: the user interface, control process, and data transfer process. The
server has two components: the server control process and the server data transfer process.

There are two types of connections in FTP:

Fig. 2.10 Types of FTP

 Control Connection: The control connection uses very simple rules for communication. Through
control connection, we can transfer a line of command or line of response at a time. The control
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 connection is made between the control processes. The control connection remains connected
during the entire interactive FTP session.
 Data Connection: The Data Connection uses very complex rules as data types may vary. The data
connection is made between data transfer processes. The data connection opens when a command
comes for transferring the files and closes when the file is transferred.
FTP Clients
 FTP client is a program that implements a file transfer protocol which allows you to transfer files
between two hosts on the internet.
 It allows a user to connect to a remote host and upload or download the files.
 It has a set of commands that we can use to connect to a host, transfer the files between you and
your host and close the connection.
 The FTP program is also available as a built-in component in a Web browser. This GUI based FTP client
makes the file transfer very easy and also does not require to remember the FTP commands.
Advantages of FTP:
 Speed: One of the biggest advantages of FTP is speed. The FTP is one of the fastest way to transfer
the files from one computer to another computer.
 Efficient: It is more efficient as we do not need to complete all the operations to get the entire file.
 Security: To access the FTP server, we need to login with the username and password. Therefore, we
can say that FTP is more secure.
 Back & forth movement: FTP allows us to transfer the files back and forth. Suppose you are a
manager of the company, you send some information to all the employees, and they all send
information back on the same server.
Disadvantages of FTP:
 The standard requirement of the industry is that all the FTP transmissions should be encrypted.
However, not all the FTP providers are equal and not all the providers offer encryption. So, we will
have to look out for the FTP providers that provide encryption.
 FTP serves two operations, i.e., to send and receive large files on a network. However, the size limit of
the file is 2GB that can be sent. It also doesn't allow you to run simultaneous transfers to multiple
receivers.
 Passwords and file contents are sent in clear text that allows unwanted eavesdropping. So, it is quite
possible that attackers can carry out the brute force attack by trying to guess the FTP password.
 It is not compatible with every system.

 SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol.

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP):

 SNMP is a framework used for managing devices on the internet.

 It provides a set of operations for monitoring and managing the internet.
SNMP Concept

Fig. 2.11 SNMP Working Model

 SNMP has two components Manager and agent.

 The manager is a host that controls and monitors a set of agents such as routers.

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  It is an application layer protocol in which a few manager stations can handle a set of agents.
 The protocol designed at the application level can monitor the devices made by different
manufacturers and installed on different physical networks.
 It is used in a heterogeneous network made of different LANs and WANs connected by routers or
gateways.
Managers & Agents
 A manager is a host that runs the SNMP client program while the agent is a router that runs the SNMP
server program.
 Management of the internet is achieved through simple interaction between a manager and agent.
 The agent is used to keep the information in a database while the manager is used to access the
values in the database. For example, a router can store the appropriate variables such as a number of
packets received and forwarded while the manager can compare these variables to determine
whether the router is congested or not.
 Agents can also contribute to the management process. A server program on the agent checks the
environment, if something goes wrong, the agent sends a warning message to the manager.
Management with SNMP has three basic ideas:
 A manager checks the agent by requesting the information that reflects the behavior of the agent.
 A manager also forces the agent to perform a certain function by resetting values in the agent
database.
 An agent also contributes to the management process by warning the manager regarding an
unusual condition.
Management Components
 Management is not achieved only through the SNMP protocol but also the use of other protocols
that can cooperate with the SNMP protocol. Management is achieved through the use of the
other two protocols: SMI (Structure of management information) and MIB(management
information base).
 Management is a combination of SMI, MIB, and SNMP. All these three protocols such as abstract
syntax notation 1 (ASN.1) and basic encoding rules (BER).

Fig. 2.12 Types of Management Components

SMI
The SMI (Structure of management information) is a component used in network management. Its main
function is to define the type of data that can be stored in an object and to show how to encode the data
for the transmission over a network.
MIB
o The MIB (Management information base) is a second component for the network management.
o Each agent has its own MIB, which is a collection of all the objects that the manager can manage.
MIB is categorized into eight groups: system, interface, address translation, ip, icmp, tcp, udp, and
egp. These groups are under the mib object.

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 Fig. 2.13 MIB Architecture
SNMP
SNMP defines five types of messages: GetRequest, GetNextRequest, SetRequest, GetResponse, and Trap.

Fig.2.14 Simple Network Management Protocol

 GetRequest: The GetRequest message is sent from a manager (client) to the agent (server) to


retrieve the value of a variable.
GetNextRequest: The GetNextRequest message is sent from the manager to agent to retrieve the
value of a variable. This type of message is used to retrieve the values of the entries in a table. If
the manager does not know the indexes of the entries, then it will not be able to retrieve the


values. In such situations, GetNextRequest message is used to define an object.
GetResponse: The GetResponse message is sent from an agent to the manager in response to the
GetRequest and GetNextRequest message. This message contains the value of a variable


requested by the manager.
SetRequest: The SetRequest message is sent from a manager to the agent to set a value in a


variable.
Trap: The Trap message is sent from an agent to the manager to report an event. For example, if
the agent is rebooted, then it informs the manager as well as sends the time of rebooting.
#DNS
An application layer protocol defines how the application processes running on different systems, pass
the messages to each other.
 DNS stands for Domain Name System.
 DNS is a directory service that provides a mapping between the name of a host on the network
and its numerical address.
 DNS is required for the functioning of the internet.
 Each node in a tree has a domain name, and a full domain name is a sequence of symbols
specified by dots.

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  DNS is a service that translates the domain name into IP addresses. This allows the users of
networks to utilize user-friendly names when looking for other hosts instead of remembering the
IP addresses.
 For example, suppose the FTP site at EduSoft had an IP address of 132.147.165.50, most people
would reach this site by specifying ftp.EduSoft.com. Therefore, the domain name is more reliable
than IP address.
DNS is a TCP/IP protocol used on different platforms. The domain name space is divided into three
different sections: generic domains, country domains, and inverse domain.
Generic Domains
o It defines the registered hosts according to their generic behavior.
o Each node in a tree defines the domain name, which is an index to the DNS database.
o It uses three-character labels, and these labels describe the organization type.
Country Domain
The format of country domain is same as a generic domain, but it uses two-character country
abbreviations (e.g., us for the United States) in place of three character organizational abbreviations.
Inverse Domain
The inverse domain is used for mapping an address to a name. When the server has received a request
from the client, and the server contains the files of only authorized clients. To determine whether the
client is on the authorized list or not, it sends a query to the DNS server and ask for mapping an address
to the name.
Working of DNS
 DNS is a client/server network communication protocol. DNS clients send requests to the. server
while DNS servers send responses to the client.
 Client requests contain a name which is converted into an IP address known as a forward DNS
lookups while requests containing an IP address which is converted into a name known as reverse
DNS lookups.
 DNS implements a distributed database to store the name of all the hosts available on the internet.
 If a client like a web browser sends a request containing a hostname, then a piece of software such
as DNS resolver sends a request to the DNS server to obtain the IP address of a hostname. If DNS
server does not contain the IP address associated with a hostname, then it forwards the request to
another DNS server. If IP address has arrived at the resolver, which in turn completes the request
over the internet protocol.

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP),is a technology that allowing you to make voice calls over a broadband
Internet connection instead of a analog (regular) phone line. Some VoIP services allow you to call people
using the same service, but others may allow you to call anyone. They can have a telephone number –
including local, long distance, mobile, and international numbers or not. Some VoIP services only work
over your computer or a special VoIP phone while other services allow you to use a traditional phone
connected to a VoIP adapter.
Advantages of VoIP –
 Some VoIP services offer features and services that are not available with a traditional phone, or

 Paying for both a broadband connection and a traditional telephone line can be avoided.
are available but only for an additional fee.

 Smoother connection than an analog signal can be provided.

Disadvantages of VoIP –
 So e VoIP se i es do t o k du i g po e outages a d the se i e p o ide a ot offe

 Not all VoIP services connect directly to emergency services through emergency service numbers.
backup power.

 VoIP providers may or may not offer directory assistance.

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 #Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol(DHCP)
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol(DHCP) is an application layer protocol which is used to provide:

 Subnet Mask (Option 1 – e.g., 255.255.255.0)

 Router Address (Option 3 – e.g., 192.168.1.1)
 DNS Address (Option 6 – e.g., 8.8.8.8)
 Vendor Class Identifier (Option 43 – e.g., u ifi = . . . ## he e u ifi = o t oller)
DHCP is based on a client-server model and based on discovery, offer, request, and ACK.
DHCP port number for server is 67 and for the client is 68. It is a Client server protocol which uses UDP
services. IP address is assigned from a pool of addresses. In DHCP, the client and the server exchange
mainly 4 DHCP messages in order to make a connection, also called DORA process, but there are 8 DHCP
messages in the process.

 DHCP discover message –

These messages are given as below:

This is a first message generated in the communication process between server and client. This
message is generated by Client host in order to discover if there is any DHCP server/servers are
present in a network or not. This message is broadcasted to all devices present in a network to find

 DHCP offer message –

the DHCP server. This message is 342 or 576 bytes long

The server will respond to host in this message specifying the unleased IP address and other TCP
configuration information. This message is broadcasted by server. Size of message is 342 bytes. If
there are more than one DHCP servers present in the network then client host will accept the first
DHCP OFFER message it receives. Also a server ID is specified in the packet in order to identify the

 DHCP request message –

server.

When a client receives a offer message, it responds by broadcasting a DHCP request message. The
client will produce a gratitutous ARP in order to find if there is any other host present in the network
with same IP address. If there is no reply by other host, then there is no host with same TCP
configuration in the network and the message is broadcasted to server showing the acceptance of IP

 DHCP acknowledgement message –

address .A Client ID is also added in this message.

In response to the request message received, the server will make an entry with specified client ID
and bind the IP address offered with lease time. Now, the client will have the IP address provided by

 DHCP negative acknowledgement message –

server.

Whenever a DHCP server receives a request for IP address that is invalid according to the scopes that
is configured with, it send DHCP Nak message to client. Eg-when the server has no IP address unused

 DHCP decline –
or the pool is empty, then this message is sent by the server to client.

If DHCP client determines the offered configuration parameters are different or invalid, it sends DHCP
decline message to the server .When there is a reply to the gratuitous ARP by any host to the client,

 DHCP release –
the client sends DHCP decline message to the server showing the offered IP address is already in use.

A DHCP client sends DHCP release packet to server to release IP address and cancel any remaining

 DHCP inform –
lease time.

If a client address has obtained IP address manually then the client uses a DHCP inform to obtain
other local configuration parameters, such as domain name. In reply to the dhcp inform message,
DHCP server generates DHCP ack message with local configuration suitable for the client without
allocating a new IP address. This DHCP ack message is unicast to the client.
Advantages – The advantages of using DHCP include:
 Centralized management of IP addresses
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 

Ease of adding new clients to a network


Reuse of IP addresses reducing the total number of IP addresses that are required
Simple reconfiguration of the IP address space on the DHCP server without needing to reconfigure

 The DHCP protocol gives the network administrator a method to configure the network from a
each client

 With the help of DHCP, easy handling of new users and reuse of IP address can be achieved.
centralised area.

Disadvantages – Disadvantage of using DHCP is:

 IP conflict can occur

Page no: 19
.
Program : M.Tech
Subject Name: Advance Computer Networks

Semester: 1st
 

Advance Computer Networks

Subject Notes: UNIT-III
# Introduction to Router
A Router is a computer, just like any other computer including a PC. Routers have many of the same
hardware and software components that are found in other computers including:
• CPU
•RAM
• ROM
•Operati g “ ste
1. Router is the basic backbone for the Internet.
2. The main function of the router is to connect two or more than two network and forwards the packet
from one network to another.
3. A router connects multiple networks. This means that it has multiple interfaces that each belong to a
different IP network. When a router receives an IP packet on one interface, it determines which
interface to use to forward the packet onto its destination.
4. The interface that the router uses to forward the packet may be the network of the final destination
of the packet (the network with the destination IP address of this packet), or it may be a network
connected to another router that is used to reach the destination network.
#Configuring a Router
1. Find the IP address of the router. If this is a new installation or new router, determine the default IP
address that may be printed on a label affi ed to the router or i the do u e tatio . If ou a ’t fi d
the router’s IP address a here, ou a do a e sear h for the router odel to see hat the
default address is.
2. IP addresses are formatted as four groups of up to three digits, separated by periods.
3. Commonly found "default" Local IP addresses for routers are 192.168.0.1, 192.168.1.1, 192.168.2.1,
10.0.0.1. Note that all the addresses in the follow ranges: 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255, 172.16.0.0 -
172.31.255.255 & 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255 have been set aside for exclusive use in a LAN; and one
address in the range of any of them of them would be assigned to the connected router.
4. Open a web browser on the computer that is connected to the router. Enter in the IP address of the
router into the address ar a d press E ter. Your ro ser ill atte pt to o e t to the router’s
configuration menu.
5. Enter your username and password. In order to access the configuration page, you will need to be on
the router's IP address and enter a valid username and password at the prompt. Most routers have a
basic account set up that you will need to use to log on. This varies from model to model, but should
be printed on the router or in the documentation.
6. The ost t pi al user a e is ad i .The ost t pi al pass ords are ad i a d pass ord .
7. Many routers will only require a username and a blank password, and some allow you to leave all
fields blank.
8. Enter a name for your wireless network. In the Wireless section, you should see a field labeled SSID or
Name. Enter a unique name for your wireless network. Check the box to enable SSID broadcast. This
ill esse tiall tur o the ireless et ork so that it a e readil see a o e i ra ge of the
signal.
9. Choose a security method. Choose from the list of available security options. For the best security,
choose WPA2-PSK as the encryption method. This is the most difficult security to crack, and will give
you the most protection from hackers and intruders.
10. Create a passphrase. O e ou’ e hose our se urit method, enter in a passphrase for the
network. This should be a difficult password, with a combination of letters, numbers, and symbols.
Do ’t use a pass ords that ould e easil dedu ed fro our et ork a e or fro k o i g ou.

Page no: 1
 11. Save your settings. Once you are finished naming and securing your wireless network, click the Apply
or Save button. The changes will be applied to your router, which may take a few moments. Once the
router has finished resetting, your wireless network will be enabled.
12. Change our router’s user a e a d pass ord fro the default. Once you have your network
configured, you should change the username and password that you use to access your router. This
will help protect your router from unauthorized changes. You can change these from the
Administration section of the router configuration menu.
13. Block sites. If you want to prevent devices that are connected to your network from accessing certain
websites, you can use built-in blocking tools to restrict access. These can be found in the
Security/Block section of the router.
14. You can usually block by specific domain names, or by keywords.

#Interior protocols:
1. Autonomous system's routing is handled by Interior Gateway Protocols. Autonomous System (AS) is a
collection of routers that share same routing table information. AS is a boundary line for routing protocol.
2. It could be your company, or group of companies. It is defined by a numeric value.
3. Switching from places to places between the routers, figure out.
4. The protocols are utilized to keep track of getting between destinations to other side of a network or to
administrate the networks.
5. These protocols perform the communication between networks.
IGP's fall into two categories:
a) Distance Vector Protocols
1. Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
2. Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)
b) Link State Protocols
1. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
2. Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS)
#Exterior protocols:
1. They are used for internet.
2. They handle the routing outside the autonomous system.
3. They are used by companies where there is more than one internet provider which allows it to have
redundancy and load balancing.

Examples of an EGP:
1. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
2. Exterior Gateway Protocol (Replaced by BGP)

#Routing Information Protocol (RIP) Researchers developed Routing Information Protocol in the 1980s
for use on small- or medium-sized internal networks that connected to the early Internet. RIP is capable
of routing messages across networks up to a maximum of 15 hops.

RIP-enabled routers discover the network by first sending a message requesting router tables from
neighboring devices. Neighbor routers running RIP respond by sending the full routing tables back to the
requestor, whereupon the requestor follows an algorithm to merge all of these updates into its own
table. At scheduled intervals, RIP routers then periodically send out their router tables to their neighbors
so that any changes can be propagated across the network.

#Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) Open Shortest Path First was created to overcome some of its
limitations of RIP including:

15 hop count restriction

Inability to organize networks into a routing hierarchy, important for manageability and
performance on large internal networks
Page no: 2
  Significant spikes of network traffic generated by repeatedly re-sending full router tables at
scheduled intervals.

OSPF is an open public standard with widespread adoption across many industry vendors. OSPF-enabled
routers discover the network by sending identification messages to each other followed by messages that
capture specific routing items rather than the entire routing table. It is the only link state routing protocol
listed in this category.

#Distance Vector Routing –

1. The distance-vector routing Protocol is a type of algorithm used by routing protocols to discover
routes on an interconnected network. The primary distance-vector routing protocol algorithm is the
Bellman-Ford algorithm. Another type of routing protocol algorithm is the link-state approach.
2. Routing protocols that use distance-vector routing protocols include RIP (Routing Information
Protocol), Cisco's GRP (Internet Gateway Routing Protocol), and Apple's RTMP (Routing Table
Maintenance Protocol). The most common link-state routing protocol is OSPF (Open Shortest Path
First). Dynamic routing, as opposed to static (manually entered) routing, requires routing protocol
algorithms.
3. Dynamic routing protocols assist in the automatic creation of routing tables. Network topologies are
subject to change at any time. A link may fail unexpectedly, or a new link may be added. A dynamic
routing protocol must discover these changes, automatically adjust its routing tables, and inform
other routers of the changes.
4. The process of rebuilding the routing tables based on new information is called convergence.
Distance-vector routing refers to a method for exchanging route information. A router will advertise a
route as a vector of direction and distance.
5. Direction refers to a port that leads to the next router along the path to the destination, and distance
is a metric that indicates the number of hops to the destination, although it may also be an arbitrary
value that gives one route precedence over another. Inter network routers exchange this vector
information and build route lookup tables from it.
6. Distance vector protocols are RIP, Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGPR).
7. Algorithm where each router exchanges its routing table with each of its neighbours. Each router will
then merge the received routing tables with its own table, and then transmit the merged table to its
neighbours. This occurs dynamically after a fixed time interval by default, thus requiring significant
link overhead.
a. Routing Method - Distance-Vector Type
8. There are problems, however, such as:
9. If exchanging data among routers every 90 seconds for example, it takes 90 x 10 seconds that a router
detects a problem in router 10, routers ahead and the route cannot be changed during this period.
10. Traffic increases since routing information is continually exchanged.
11. There is a limit to the maximum amount of routing information (15 for RIP), and routing is not
possible on networks where the number of hops exceeds this maximum.
12. Cost data is only the number of hops, and so selecting the best path is difficult.
13. However, routing processing is simple, and it is used in small-scale networks in which the points
mentioned above are not a problem.
#Border Gateway Protocol
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) is protocol that manages how packets are routed across the internet
through the exchange of routing and reach ability information between edge routers. BGP directs packets
between autonomous systems (AS) -- networks managed by a single enterprise or service provider. Traffic
that is routed within a single network AS is referred to as internal BGP, or iBGP. More often, BGP is used
to connect one AS to other autonomous systems, and it is then referred to as an external BGP, or eBGP.

BGP offers network stability that guarantees routers can quickly adapt to send packets through another
reconnection if one internet path goes down. BGP makes routing decisions based on paths, rules or
Page no: 3
 network policies configured by a network administrator. Each BGP router maintains a standard routing
table used to direct packets in transit. This table is used in conjunction with a separate routing table,
known as the routing information base (RIB), which is a data table stored on a server on the BGP router.
The RIB contains route information both from directly connected external peers, as well as internal peers,
and continually updates the routing table as changes occurs. BGP is based on TCP/IP and uses client-
server topology to communicate routing information, with the client-server initiating a BGP session by
sending a request to the server.

BGP sends updated router table information only when something changes -- and even then, it sends only
the affected information. BGP has no automatic discovery mechanism, which means connections
between peers have to be set up manually, with peer addresses programmed in at both ends.

Figure No. 3.1 Border Gateway Protocol

BGP makes best-path decisions based on current reach ability, hop counts and other path characteristics.
In situations where multiple paths are available -- as within a major hosting facility -- BGP can be used to
communicate an organization's own preferences in terms of what path traffic should follow in and out of
its networks. BGP even has a mechanism for defining arbitrary tags, called communities, which can be
used to control route advertisement behavior by mutual agreement among peers. Ratified in 2006, BGP-
4, the current version of BGP, supports both IPv6 and classless inter domain routing (CIDR), which enables
the continued viability of IPv4. Use of the CIDR is a way to have more addresses within the network than
with the current IP address assignment scheme.

#Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)

Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) is a protocol for exchanging routing information between two
neighbor gateway hosts (each with its own router) in a network of autonomous systems. EGP is
commonly used between hosts on the Internet to exchange routing table information. The routing table
contains a list of known routers, the addresses they can reach, and a cost metric associated with the path
to each router so that the best available route is chosen. Each router polls its neighbor at intervals
between 120 to 480 seconds and the neighbor responds by sending its complete routing table. EGP-2 is
the latest version of EGP.

#Unicast, Multicast and Broadcast

 Unicast –This type of information transfer is useful when there is a participation of single sender and
single recipient. So, in short you can term it as a one-to-one transmission. For example, a device
having IP address 10.1.2.0 in a network wants to send the traffic stream (data packets) to the device
with IP address 20.12.4.2 in the other network, and then unicast comes into picture. This is the most
common form of data transfer over the networks.

Page no: 4
 Figure No. 3.2 Unicasting

• Broadcast –Broadcasting transfer (one-to-all) techniques can be classified into two types :
• Limited Broadcasting –Suppose you have to send stream of packets to all the devices over the network
that you reside, this broadcasting comes handy. For this to achieve, it will append 255.255.255.255 (all
the 32 bits of IP address set to 1) called as Limited Broadcast Address in the destination address of the
datagram (packet) header which is reserved for information transfer to all the recipients from a single
client (sender) over the network.

Figure No. 3.3 Limited Broadcasting

 Direct Broadcasting – This is useful when a device in one network wants to transfer packet stream to
all the devices over the other network. This is achieved by translating all the Host ID part bits of the
destination address to 1, referred as Direct Broadcast Address in the datagram header for information
transfer.

Figure No. 3.4 Directed Broadcasting

This mode is mainly utilized by television networks for video and audio distribution. One important
protocol of this class in Computer Networks is Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) that is used for
resolving IP address into physical address which is necessary for underlying communication.

 Multicast –In multicasting, one/more senders and one/more recipients participate in data transfer
traffic. In this method traffic recline between the boundaries of unicast (one-to-one) and broadcast
(one-to-all). Multi ast lets ser er’s dire t si gle opies of data streams that are then simulated and
routed to hosts that request it. IP multicast requires support of some other protocols like IGMP
(Internet Group Management Protocol), Multicast routing for its working. Also in Class full IP
addressing Class D is reserved for multicast groups.

#Multicast routing protocols

#DVMRP

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 The DVMRP is used for multicasting over IP networks without routing protocols to support multicast. The
DVMRP is based on the RIP protocol but more complicated than RIP. DVRMP maintains a link-state
database to keep track of the return paths to the source of multicast packages.

The DVMRP operates as follows:

 The first message for any source-group pair is forwarded to the entire multicast network, with
respect to the time-to-live (TTL) of the packet.
 TTL restricts the area to be flooded by the message.
 All the leaf routers that do not have members on directly attached subnet works send back prune
messages to the upstream router.
 The branch that transmitted a prune message is deleted from the delivery tree.
 The delivery tree, which is spanning to all the members in the multicast group, is constructed.

In the figure below, DVMRP is running on switches A, B, and C. IGMP is also running on Switch C, which is
connected to the host directly. After the host sends an IGMP report to switch C, multicast streams are
sent from the multicast resource to the host along the path built by DVMRP.

Figure No.3.5 Multicast Open Shortest Path First

#Multicast Open Shortest Path First

MOSPF (Multicast Open Shortest Path First) is an extension to the OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
protocol that facilitates interoperation between unicast and multicast routers. MOSPF is becoming
popular for proprietary network multicasting and may eventually supersede RIP (Routing Information
Protocol).

Multicast information goes out in OSPF link state advertisements (LSA). That information allows a MOSPF
router to identify active multicast groups and the associated local area networks (LANs). MOSPF creates a
distribution tree for each multicast source and group and another tree for active sources sending to the
group. The current state of the tree is cached. Each time link state changes or the cache times out, the
tree must be recomputed to accommodate new changes.

MOSPF uses both source and destination to send a datagram, based on information in the OSPF link state
database about the autonomous system's topology. A group-membership-LSA makes it possible to
identify the location of each group member. The shortest path for the datagram is calculated from that
information.

MOSPF was designed to be backwards-compatible with non-multicast OSPF routers for forwarding regular
unicast traffic.

#Core-Based Trees

CBT was the earliest center-based tree protocol, and is the simplest. When a receiver joins a multicast
group, its local CBT router looks up the multicast address and obtains the address of the Core router for
the group. It then sends a Join message for the group towards the Core. At each router on the way to the
Page no: 6
 core, forwarding state is instantiated for the group, and an acknowledgment is sent back to the previous
router. In this way, a multicast tree is built, as shown in figure

Figure No.3.6 Core-Based Trees

If a sender (that is a group member) sends data to the group, the packets reach its local router, which
forwards them to any of its neighbors that are on the multicast tree. Each router that receives a packet
forwards it out of all it its interfaces that are on the tree except the one the packet came from. The style
of tree CBT builds is called a "bidirectional shared tree", because the routing state is "bidirectional" -
packets can flow both up the tree towards the core and down the tree away from the core depending on
the location of the source, and "shared" by all sources to the group.

CBT also allows multiple Core routers to be specified which adds a little redundancy in case the core
becomes unreachable. CBT never properly solved the problem of how to map a group address to the
address of a core. In addition, good core placement is a hard problem. Without good core placement, CBT
trees can be quite inefficient, and so CBT is unlikely to be used as a global multicast routing protocol.

#Protocol-independent multicast (PIM)

Protocol-independent multicast (PIM) is a set of four specifications that define modes of Internet
multicasting to allow one-to-many and many-to-many transmission of information.
The four modes are:
1. Sparse Mode (SM)
2. Dense Mode (DM)
3. Source-Specific Multicast (SSM)
4. Bidirectional
The most common mode in PIM is the sparse mode. It is used for transmission of data to nodes in
multiple Internet domains, where it is expected that only a small proportion of the potential nodes will
actually subscribe. Dense mode, in contrast to sparse mode, is used when it is expected that a large
proportion of the potential nodes will subscribe to the multicast. In source-specific multicast, paths (also
called trees) originate (or are rooted) at a single, defined source, whereas bidirectional PIM is not source-
specific.
Page no: 7
 The term "protocol independent" means that PIM can function by making use of routing information
supplied by a variety of communications protocols. In information technology, a protocol is a defined set
of rules that end points in a circuit or network employ to facilitate communication.

MBone (Multicast Internet)

The MBone, now sometimes called the Multicast Internet, is an arranged use of a portion of the Internet
for Internet Protocol (IP) multicasting (sending files - usually audio and video streams - to multiple users
at the same time somewhat as radio and TV programs are broadcast over airwaves). Although most
Internet traffic is unicast (one user requesting files from one source at another Internet address), the
Internet's IP protocol also supports multicasting, the transmission of data packets intended for multiple
addresses. Since most IP servers on the Internet do not currently support the multicasting part of the
protocol, the MBone was set up to form a network within the Internet that could transmit multicasts. The
MBone was set up in 1994 as an outgrowth of earlier audio multicasts by the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF) and has multicast a number of programs, including some well-publicized rock concerts.

The MBone consists of known servers (mostly on UNIX workstations) that are equipped to handle the
multicast protocol. Tunneling is used to forward multicast packets through routers on the network that
don't handle multicasting. An MBone router that is sending a packet to another MBone router through a
non-MBone part of the network encapsulates the multicast packet as a unicast packet. The non-MBone
routers simply see an ordinary packet. The destination MBone router unencapsulates the unicast packet
and forwards it appropriately. The MBone consists of a backbone with a mesh topology which is used by
servers that redistribute the multicast in their region in a star topology. The MBone network is intended
to be global and includes nodes in Europe.

The channel bandwidth for MBone multicasts is 500 kilobits per second and actual traffic is from 100-300
kilobits depending on content. MBone multicasts usually consist of streaming audio and video.

EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)

EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) is a network protocol that lets routers exchange
information more efficiently than with earlier network protocols. EIGRP evolved from IGRP (Interior
Gateway Routing Protocol) and routers using either EIGRP or IGRP can interoperate because the metric
(criteria used for selecting a route) used with one protocol can be translated into the metrics of the other
protocol. EIGRP can be used not only for Internet Protocol (IP) networks but also for AppleTalk and Novell
NetWare networks.

Using EIGRP, a router keeps a copy of its neighbor's routing tables. If it can't find a route to a destination
in one of these tables, it queries its neighbors for a route and they in turn query their neighbors until a
route is found. When a routing table entry changes in one of the routers, it notifies its neighbors of the
change only (some earlier protocols require sending the entire table). To keep all routers aware of the
state of neighbors, each router sends out a periodic "hello" packet. A router from which no "hello" packet
has been received in a certain period of time is assumed to be inoperative.

EIGRP uses the Diffusing-Update Algorithm (DUAL) to determine the most efficient (least cost) route to a
destination. A DUAL finite state machine contains decision information used by the algorithm to
determine the least-cost route (which considers distance and whether a destination path is loop-free).

#Classless Inter-Domain Routing CIDR

CIDR stands for Classless Inter-Domain Routing (occasionally, Classless Internet Domain Routing). CIDR
was developed in the 1990s as a standard scheme for routing network traffic across the Internet.

Page no: 8
 CIDR is an alternative to traditional IP sub netting that organizes IP addresses into sub networks
independent of the value of the addresses themselves. CIDR is also known as super netting as it
effectively allows multiple subnets to be grouped together for network.
 CIDR reduced the problem of wasted address space by providing a new and more flexible way to
specify network addresses in routers. CIDR lets one routing table entry represent an aggregation of
networks that exist in the forward path that don't need to be specified on that particular gateway.
This is much like how the public telephone system uses area codes to channel calls toward a certain
part of the network. This aggregation of networks in a single address is sometimes referred to as a
super net.
 Using CIDR, each IP address has a network prefix that identifies either one or several network
gateways. The length of the network prefix in IPv4 CIDR is also specified as part of the IP address and
varies depending on the number of bits needed, rather than any arbitrary class assignment structure.
 A destination IP address or route that describes many possible destinations has a shorter prefix and is
said to be less specific. A longer prefix describes a destination gateway more specifically. Routers are
required to use the most specific, or longest, network prefix in the routing table when forwarding
packets. (In IPv6, a CIDR block always gets 64 bits for specifying network addresses.)
 CIDR Notation CIDR specifies an IP address range using a combination of an IP address and its
associated network mask. CIDR notation uses the following format -
i. xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx/n
where n is the number of (leftmost) '1' bits in the mask. For example,
ii. 192.168.12.0/23
Applies the network mask 255.255.254.0 to the 192.168 network, starting at 192.168.12.0. This notation
represents the address range 192.168.12.0 - 192.168.13.255. Compared to traditional class-based
networking, 192.168.12.0/23 represents an aggregation of the two Class C subnets 192.168.12.0 and
192.168.13.0 each having a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0.
iii. 192.168.12.0/23 = 192.168.12.0/24 + 192.168.13.0/24
Additionally, CIDR supports Internet address allocation and message routing independent of the
traditional class of a given IP address range. For example,
iv. 10.4.12.0/22
Represents the address range 10.4.12.0 - 10.4.15.255 (network mask 255.255.252.0). This allocates the
equivalent of four Class C networks within the much larger Class A space.
 You will sometimes see CIDR notation used even for non-CIDR networks. In non-CIDR IP sub netting,
however, the value of n is restricted to either 8 (Class A), 16 (Class B) or 24 (Class C). Examples:
i. 10.0.0.0/8
ii. 172.16.0.0/16.
iii. 192.168.3.0/24
 CIDR implementations

i. CIDR implementations require certain support be embedded within the network routing protocols.
When first implemented on the Internet, the core routing protocols like BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)
and OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) were updated to support CIDR. Obsolete or less popular routing
protocols may not support CIDR.

Page no: 9
 i. CIDR aggregation requires the network segments involved to be contiguous (numerically adjacent) in
the address space. CIDR cannot, for example, aggregate 192.168.12.0 and 192.168.15.0 into a single route
unless the intermediate .13 and .14 address ranges are included (i.e., the 192.168.12/22 network).

#Multicast Tree

Multicast is communication between a single sender and multiple receivers on a network. Typical uses
include the updating of mobile personnel from a home office and the periodic issuance of online
newsletters. Together with any cast and unicast, multicast is one of the packet types in the Internet
Protocol Version 6 (IPv6).Multicast is supported through wireless data networks as part of the Cellular
Digital Packet Data (CDPD) technology.Multicast is also used for programming on the MBone, a system
that allows users at high-bandwidth points on the Internet to receive live video and sound programming.
In addition to using a specific high-bandwidth subset of the Internet, Mbone multicast also uses a
protocol that allows signals to be encapsulated as TCP/IP packet when passing through parts of the
Internet that cannot handle the multicast protocol directly.

Trees
As unicast traffic is forwarded throughout a network, its path takes it from source (S) to destination only..
There are two types of multicast distribution trees: Source Trees and Shared Trees.

Source Trees

A source tree is the most basic of multicast distribution trees. With this type of distribution the source (S)
takes the most direct route to the receivers. Because the root, or hop point of this tree is based at the
source, each source creates its own SPT.

Figure No.3.7 Source Based Distribution Tree

In the diagram Host A is the source of multicast traffic in group 224.1.1.1, in which both Host B and C are
receivers. If we were to look at the multicast routes for Router C (show ip mroute) it would show an entry
of (192.1.1.1, 224.1.1.1). Remember this is the case for each and every source on the network.

Shared Trees

The more common way to distribute multicast traffic is by setting up shared distribution trees, also
known as core-based trees (CBT). Recall that with SPT the root of the tree is at the source each source
creates its own S,G entry. With CBT there is a shared (configured) root for multicast distribution. Often
times this shared root is called the Rendezvous Point (RP) and is essential for the proper configuration of
various multicast routing protocols. Each source must send their traffic to the RP for correct distribution

Page no: 10
 to all receivers. Instead of a S,G entry, this creates a *,G or "star comma G" entry within the multicast
routing table. The asterisk represents "all sources." The diagram below illustrates a shared tree.

Figure No. 3.8 Shared Multicast Distribution Tree

The diagram shows Router D as the RP for the network. Keep in mind that specifying an RP is a global
parameter and will be used for all sources. Also notice that the multicast traffic in this case does not
necessarily take the shortest path. This is an important point when designing multicast networks. nd CBT
for distribution. This is common when describing some multicast routing protocols such as PIM.

# Comparative study of IPv6 and IPv4.

BASIS OF COMPARISON IPV4 IPV6

Address Configuration Supports Manual and DHCP Supports Auto-configuration and

configuration. renumbering

End-to-end connection Unachievable Achievable

integrity

Address Space It can generate 4.29 x It can produce quite a large number
9
10 addresses. of addresses, i.e., 3.4 x 1038.

Security features Security is dependent on IPSEC is inbuilt in the IPv6 protocol

application

Address length 32 bits (4 bytes) 128 bits (16 bytes)

Address Representation In decimal In hexadecimal

Fragmentation performed Sender and forwarding routers Only by the sender

by

Packet flow identification Not available Available and uses flow label field
in the header

Page no: 11
 BASIS OF COMPARISON IPV4 IPV6

Checksum Field Available Not available

Message Transmission Broadcasting Multicasting and Anycasting

Scheme

Encryption and Not Provided Provided

Authentication

Differences between IPv4 and IPv6

1. IPv4 has 32-bit address length whereas IPv6 has 128-bit address length.
2. IPv4 addresses represent the binary numbers in decimals. On the other hand, IPv6 addresses express
binary numbers in hexadecimal.
3. IPv6 uses end-to-end fragmentation while IPv4 requires an intermediate router to fragment any
datagram that is too large.
4. Header length of IPv4 is 20 bytes. In contrast, header length of IPv6 is 40 bytes.
5. IPv4 uses checksum field in the header format for handling error checking. On the contrary, IPv6
removes the header checksum field.
6. In IPv4, the base header does not contain a field for header length, and 16-bit payload length field
replaces it in the IPv6 header.
7. The option fields in IPv4 are employed as extension headers in IPv6.
8. The Time to live field in IPv4 refers to as Hop limit in IPv6.
9. The header length field which is present in IPv4 is eliminated in IPv6 because the length of the header
is fixed in this version.
10. IPv4 uses broadcasting to transmit the packets to the destination computers while IPv6 uses
multicasting and any casting.
11. IP 6 pro ides authe ti atio a d e r ptio , ut IP 4 does ’t pro ide it.

Page no: 12
.
Program : M.Tech
Subject Name: Advance Computer Networks

Semester: 1st
 

Advance Computer Networks

Subject Notes: UNIT-IV
# Introduction to Virtual Private Network
VPN stands for Virtual Private Network. It refers to a safe and encrypted network that allows you to use
network resources in a remote manner. Using VPN, you can create a safe connection over a less secure
network, e.g. internet. It is a secure network as it is completely isolated from rest of the internet. The
government, businesses, military can use this network to use network resources securely.
For example, users may use a VPN to connect to their work computer terminal from home and access their
email, files, images, etc.

Figure No. 4.1 Virtual Private Network

 The protocols used to tunnel the traffic

VPN systems can be classified by:

 The tu el’s te i atio poi t, i.e., usto e edge o et o k-provider edge

 Whether they offer site-to-site or remote-access connectivity
 The levels of security provided
 The OSI layer they present to the connecting network, such as layer 2 circuits or layer 3 network
connectivity
Security mechanisms
#Types of VPN (Virtual Private Network)
VPN is of three kinds:
1. Remote access VPN (Virtual Private Network)
• The VPN hi h allo s i di idual use s to esta lish se u e o e tio s ith a e ote o puter network
is known as remote-access VPN.
• The e is a e ui e e t of t o o po e ts i a e ote-access VPN which are as follows:
I. Network Access Server (NAS)
II. Client software.
• It e a les the e ote o e ti it usi g a i te et a ess te hnology.
• He e, the e ote use lau hes the VPN lie t to eate a VPN tu el.

Figure No. 4.2 Remote Access Virtual Private Network

2 Intranet VPN (Virtual Private Network)

Page no: 1
 • If a o pa has o e o o e e ote lo atio s a d the o pa a ts to joi those lo atio s i to a
single private network, then that company can create an intranet VPN so that they can connect LAN of
one site to another one.
• I t a et VPN a li k o po ate head ua te s, e ote offi es a d a h offi es o e a sha ed
infrastructure using dedicated connections.
• If e use i t a et VPN, the it edu es the WAN a d idth osts.
• The use a also connect new sites easily by using this network.

Figure No. 4.3 Intranet Virtual Private Network

3 Extranet VPN (Virtual Private Network)
• If a o pa has the lose elatio ship ith the othe o pa (that o pa a e thei usto e ,
supplier, branch and another partner company), then those companies can build an extranet VPN so that
they can connect LAN of one company to the other. It allows all of the companies to work in a shared
environment.
• The e t a et VPN fa ilitates e-commerce.

Figure No. 4.4 Extranet VPN (Virtual Private Network)

VPNs typically require remote access to be authenticated and make use of encryption techniques to
prevent disclosure of private information.
There are several different VPN protocols that are used to create secure networks. Some of such
protocols are given below;
o IP security (IPsec)
o Point to Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP)
o Layer 2 Tunnelling Protocol (L2TP)
o Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer Security (TLS)
Page no: 2
 VPNs provide security through tunneling protocols and security procedures such as encryption. Their
security model provides:
Confidentiality such that even if traffic is sniffed, an attacker would only see encrypted data which he/she
cannot understand .Allowing sender authentication to prevent unauthorized users from accessing the
VPN Message integrity to detect any instances of transmitted messages having been tampered with

 IPSec (Internet Protocol Security) was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), and
Secure VPN protocols include the following:

was initially developed for IPv6, which requires it. This standards-based security protocol is also widely
used with IPv4. Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol frequently runs over IPSec. Its design meets most security
goals: authentication, integrity, and confidentiality. IPSec functions through encrypting and
encapsulating an IP packet inside an IPSec packet. De-encapsulation happens at the end of the tunnel,

 Transport Layer Security (SSL/TLS) a tu el a e ti e et o k’s t affi , as it does i the Ope VPN
where the original IP packet is decrypted and forwarded to its intended destination.

project, or secure an individual connection. A number of vendors provide remote access VPN
capabilities through SSL. An SSL VPN can connect from locations where IPsec runs into trouble with

 Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS), is used in Cisco Any Connect VPN, to solve the issues
Network Address Translation and firewall rules.

 Microsoft Point-to-Point Encryption (MPPE) works with the Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol and in
SSL/TLS has with tunneling over UDP.

 Mi osoft’s Secure Socket Tunneling Protocol (SSTP), introduced in Windows Server 2008 and in
several compatible implementations on other platforms.

Windows Vista Service Pack 1. SSTP tunnels Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) or Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol

 MPVPN (Multi Path Virtual Private Network). Regular Systems Development Company owns the
traffic through an SSL 3.0 channel.

egiste ed t ade a k MPVPN .

 Secure Shell (SSH) VPN – Open SSH offers VPN tunneling (distinct from port forwarding) to secure
remote connections to a network or inter-network links. Open SSH server provides a limited number of

 Authentication Tunnel endpoints must authenticate before secure VPN tunnels can be established.
concurrent tunnels and the VPN feature itself does not support personal authentication.

User-created remote access VPNs may use passwords, biometrics, two-factor authentication or other

 Network-to-network tunnels often use passwords or digital certificates, as they permanently store the
cryptographic methods.

key to allow the tunnel to establish automatically and without intervention from the user.
#Benefits of VPN
The main benefit of a VPN is the potential for significant cost savings compared to traditional leased lines
or dial up networking. These savings come with a certain (in amount of risk, however, particularly when
using the public Internet as the delivery mechanism for VPN data.
The performance of a VPN will be more unpredictable and generally slower than dedicated lines due to
public Net traffic. Likewise, many more points of failure can affect a Net-based VPN than in a closed
private system. Utilizing any public network for communications naturally raises new security concerns
not present when using more controlled environments like point-to-point leased lines.
#Advantages of VPN (Virtual Private Network)
The benefits of VPN are as follows:
• “e u it : The VPN should p ote t data hile it’s t a elli g o the pu li et o k. If i t ude s atte pt to
capture data, they should be unable to read or use it.
• Relia ilit : E plo ees a d e ote offi es should e a le to o e t to VPN. The i tual et o k should
provide the same quality of connection for each user even when it is handling the maximum number of
simultaneous connections.
• Cost “a i gs: Its ope atio al ost is less as it t a sfe s the suppo t u de to the se i e p o ide s.
• It edu es the lo g-distance telephone charges.
• It ut te h i al suppo t.
Page no: 3
 • It eli i ates the eed fo e pe sive private or leased lines.
• Its a age e t is st aightfo a d.
• “ ala ilit : g o th is the fle i le, i.e., e a easil add e lo atio s to the VPN.
• It is effi ie t ith oad a d te h olog .
• B usi g VPN, the e uip e t ost is also edu ed.
#Disadvantages of VPN (Virtual Private Network)
The difficulties of VPN are as follows:
• Fo VPN et o k to esta lish, e e ui e a i -depth understanding of the public network security
issues.
• VPNs need to accommodate complicated protocols other than IP.
• The e is a sho tage of standardization. The product from different vendors may or may not work well
together.
• The elia ilit a d pe fo a e of a I te et-based private network depend on uncontrollable external
factors, which is not under an organizatio ’s direct control.
# Addressing and Routing for VPNs
A VPN connection creates a virtual interface that must be assigned a proper IP address, and routes must
be changed or added to ensure that the proper traffic is sent across the secure VPN connection instead of
the shared or public transit internetwork.
#Remote Access VPN Connections
For remote access VPN connections, a computer creates a remote access connection to a VPN server.
During the connection process the VPN server assigns an IP address for the remote access VPN client and
changes the default route on the remote client so that default route traffic is sent over the virtual
interface.
#IP Addresses and the Dial-Up VPN Client
For dial-up VPN clients who connect to the Internet before creating a VPN connection with a VPN server
on the Internet, two IP addresses are allocated:
 When creating the PPP connection, IPCP negotiation with the ISP NAS assigns a public IP address.
 When creating the VPN connection, IPCP negotiation with the VPN server assigns an intranet IP address.
The IP address allocated by the VPN server can be a public IP address or private IP address, depending
on whether your organization is implementing public or private addressing on its intranet.
 The IP address allocated to the VPN client must be reachable by hosts on the intranet and vice versa.
The VPN server must have appropriate entries in its routing table to reach all the hosts on the intranet
and the routers of the intranet must have the appropriate entries in their routing tables to reach the
VPN clients.
 The tunneled data sent through the VPN is addressed from the VPN client's VPN server-allocated
address to an intranet address. The outer IP header is addressed between the ISP-allocated IP address of
the VPN client and the public address of the VPN server. Because the routers on the Internet only
process the outer IP header, the Internet routers forward the tunneled data to the VPN server's public IP
address.
 An example of dial-up client addressing is shown in Figure 4.5 where the organization uses private
addresses on the intranet, and the tunneled data is an IP datagram.

Page no: 4
 Figure No. 4.5 Default Routes and Dial-Up Clients
When a typical dial-up client dials the ISP, it receives a public IP address from the ISP NAS. A default
gateway address is not allocated as part of the IPCP negotiation process. Therefore, in order to reach all
Internet addresses, the dial-up client adds a default route to its routing table using the dial-up interface
connected to the ISP. As a result, the client can forward the IP datag a ’s to the ISP NAS from where they
are routed to its Internet location.
For dial-up clients with no other TCP/IP interfaces, this is the wanted behaviour. However, this behaviour
can cause confusion for dial-up clients that have an existing LAN-based connection to an intranet. In this
scenario, a default route already exists pointing to the local intranet router. When the dial-up client
creates a connection with their ISP, the original default route remains in the routing table but is changed
to have a higher metric. A new default route is added with a lower metric using the ISP connection.
#To prevent the default route from being created
In the properties of the TCP/IP protocol of the dial-up connection object, in the Advanced TCP/IP
Settings dialog box, click the General tab, and then clear the Use default gateway on remote
network check box.
#Default Routes and VPNs over the Internet
When the dial-up client calls the ISP, it adds a default route using the connection to the ISP as shown in
Figure 4.6 .At this point; it can reach all Internet addresses through the router at the ISP NAS.

Figure No. 4.6 Default Route Created When Dialling an ISP

When the VPN client creates the VPN connection, another default route and a host route to the IP
address of the tunnel server are added, as illustrated in Figure 4.7. The previous default route is saved but
now has a higher metric. Adding the new default route means that all Internet locations except the IP
address of the tunnel server are not reachable for the duration of the VPN connection.

Figure No. 4.7 Default Route Created When Initiating the VPN
Just as in the case of a dial-up client connecting to the Internet, when a dial-up VPN client using voluntary
tunneling creates a VPN connection to a private intranet across the Internet, one of the following occurs:
 Internet locations are reachable and intranet locations are not reachable when the VPN connection is
not active.
 Intranet locations are reachable and Internet locations are not reachable when the VPN connection is
active.

Page no: 5
  Based on the type of intranet addressing you use, enable concurrent access to intranet and Internet
resources as follows:
 Public Addresses Add static persistent routes for the public network IDs of the intranet using the IP
address of the VPN server's virtual interface as the gateway IP address.
 Private Addresses Add static persistent routes for the private network IDs of the intranet using the IP
address of the VPN server's virtual interface as the gateway IP address.
 Overlapping or Illegal Addresses If the intranet is using overlapping or illegal addresses (IP network
IDs that are not private and have not been registered by Internet Network Information Center
[InterNIC] or obtained from an ISP), those IP addresses might be duplicated by public addresses on the
Internet. If static persistent routes are added on the VPN client for the overlapping network IDs of the
intranet, the locations on the Internet for the overlapping addresses are not reachable.
# Router-to-Router VPN Connections
For router-to-router VPNs, the routing interface used to forward packets is a demand-dial interface
configured as follows:
 On the General tab, type the host name or IP address of the VPN server.
 On the Security tab, select either Secure my password and data or Custom. If you select Custom, you
must also select the appropriate encryption and authentication options.
 On the Networking tab, select the appropriate server type and protocols to be routed. If you set the
server type as Automatic, an L2TP over IPSec connection is attempted first, and then a PPTP connection.
 Under Interface credentials, type the user name, password, and domain name used to verify the calling
router.

#Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) also called cell relay (transferring data in cells of a fixed size) that is
operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of OSI Model over fiber or twisted-pair cable, a high-speed
switched network technology based on ITU-T Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network (B-ISDN)
standard, developed by the telecommunications industry to implement the next generation network.
ATM was designed for use in wans such as the public telephone system and corporate data networks,
though it has also been applied to create super-fast LANs.
ATM can carry all kinds of traffic: voice, video and data simultaneously at speeds up to 155 megabits per
second. It Convert voice, video data to packets and passing large packet data through the same medium.
ATM is differing from TCP/IP because it use fixed channel routing protocol routes between two end
points. A real-time low-latency application such as VoIP and video takes precedence on an ATM network.

Figure No. 4.8 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

ATM is a dedicated connection-oriented switching technology, in which switches create a virtual

connection or virtual circuit between the sender and receiver of a call that permanent or switched for the
duration of the call. It is a small-packet switched system or similar to circuit-switched network, which
breaks down messages into very small, fixed length packets called cells generally organizes digital data
into 53 bytes in length (48 bytes of data plus a 5-byte header). ATM frame structure

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 Figure No. 4.9 ATM frame structure

An ATM header can have User-Network Interface (UNI) and Network-Node Interface (NNI) two formats.
• Use -Network Interface (UNI) used for communication between end systems.
• Net o k-Node Interface (NNI) used for communication between switches.
#Types of connections in ATM
Two type of connections are supported by ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
Point-to-point connections: It connects either unidirectional or bi-directional two end-systems.

 It is different in packet sizes from Ethernet data or frames.

Point-to-multipoint connections: It connects one unidirectional ATM to number of destination ATM.

 ATM is a core protocol for SONET that is the backbone of ISDN. The advantage conferred by such small
cells is that they can be switched entirely in hardware, using custom chips, which makes ATM switches

 The asynchronous part of the name refers to the fact that although ATM transmits a continuous
very fast (and potentially very cheap).

stream of cells over a physical medium using digital signal technology, some cells may be left empty if

 Every cell is encoding data with asynchronous time-division multiplexing (TDM) and it queued before
no data is ready for them so that precise timings are not relevant.

 Every cell are encodes data and processed within their time slot allocated to it. When cell time slot
being multiplexed over the transmission path.

allocated is finished, the next cell sta ts sa e p o edu e. That’s h it's alled as h o ous ti e-

 This is ATM's greatest strength, as it enables flexible management of the quality of service (qos) so; an
division multiplexing (TDM);

operator can offer different guaranteed service levels (at different prices) to different customers even
over the same line. This ability will enable companies to rent virtual private networks based on ATM
that behave like private leased lines but in reality share lines with other users. Available ATM service:
Generally four data bit rates are available for ATM services: constant bit rate (CBR), variable bit rate
(VBR), available bit rate (ABR) and unspecified bit rate (UBR).
#Benefits of ATM Networks are
1. It provides the dynamic bandwidth that is particularly suited for bursty traffic.
2. Since all data are encoded into identical cells, data transmission is simple, uniform and predictable.
3. Uniform packet size ensures that mixed traffic is handled efficiently.
4. Small sized header reduces packet overload, thus ensuring effective bandwidth usage.
5. ATM networks are scalable both in size and speed.
#ATM reference model comprises of three layers
1. Physical Layer: This layer corresponds to physical layer of OSI model. At this layer, the cells are
converted into bit streams and transmitted over the physical medium. This layer has two sub layers:
PMD sub layer (Physical Medium Dependent) and TC (Transmission Convergence) sub layer.
2. ATM Layer: This layer is comparable to data link layer of OSI model. It accepts the 48 byte segments
from the upper layer, adds a 5 byte header to each segment and converts into 53 byte cells. This layer
is responsible for routing of each cell, traffic management, multiplexing and switching.
3. ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL): This layer corresponds to network layer of OSI model. It provides
facilities to the existing packet switched networks to connect to ATM network and use its services. It
accepts the data and converts them into fixed sized segments. The transmissions can be of fixed or
variable data rate. This layer has two sub layers: Convergence sub layer and Segmentation and
Reassembly sub layer.

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 4. ATM endpoints: It contains ATM network interface adaptor. Examples of endpoints are workstations,
routers, CODECs, LAN switches, etc.
5. ATM switch: It transmits cells through the ATM networks. It accepts the incoming cells from ATM
endpoints (UNI) or another switch (NNI), updates cell header and retransmits cell towards destination.
#Architecture of ATM

Figure No. 4.10 Architecture of ATM

1. Physical layer
 Physical layer is a point-to-point transfer mechanism at the top of hardware (it may be wire also).
 Physical layer adds its own information to each cell which is transmitted for link management.
Physical layer performs four functions:
i) Physical layer converts bits into cells.
ii) It transmits and receives the bits on physical medium.
Iii) Tracks the cell boundaries.
iv) Packaging of cell into frames.
ATM layer is common to all services which can have the packet transfer capabilities.
2. ATM layer
 ATM layer provides the routing information to the data cells.
 ATM interfaces with the AAL and the Physical layer.
 Functions of ATM layer are under the network management, signalling and OAM protocol.
3. ATM Adaptation Layer
 AAL provides the flexibility of a single communication process to carry the multiple types of traffic such
as data, voice, video and multimedia.
 AAL is divided into two major parts.
 Upper part of the AAL is called as the convergence sub layer. Its task is to provide the interface to the
application. The lower part of the AAL is called as the segmentation and reassembly (SAR) sub layer. It
can add headers and trailers to the data units given to it by the convergence sub layer to form cell
payloads.
#ATM Bit Rates
ATM supports four different types of bit rate:
1. Constant bit rate (CBR)
 CBR traffic is derived from the source, where the information is transmitted at a constant rate.
Example: Telephonic speech without silencer.
2. Variable Bit Rate (VBR)
 Variable traffic is derived from a variable source. Example: Compressed voice or video with silence
suppression.
3. Available Bit Rate (VBR)
 When a carrier has allocated the necessary bandwidth on the links to carry CBR traffic and minimum
VBR is guaranteed. The ABR is the mechanism to share the remaining bandwidth fairly between the
links.
4. Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR)

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  In UBR, there is no guarantee about the bandwidth traffic delay and loss. The control of flow in UBR
can be provided from the end device.
 The protocol which performs the operation of braking frames into the cells is known as ATM
Adaptation Layer (AAL).
 Cells carrying speech and video must be received in the order they were sent. This is known as
preserving data integrity and it is a function of ATM layer.
 Any link which preserves the order of data entering and leaving is known as channel.
 In ATM protocols, an end-to end connection is established before traffic and starts to flow. Then, the
traffic follows the same path through the network to achieve a true quality of service.
 The connection-less services are implemented with the help of AAL.
#ATM Equipments:
Two main types of equipment exist on ATM networks –
 ATM switches
 ATM endpoints.
An ATM switch handles cell-switching functions across an ATM network. This includes accepting incoming
cells from other ATM switches or endpoints, modifying cell header information as necessary, and then
sending cells on to the next switch or end device. An ATM endpoint is a network device equipped with an
ATM network interface card, such as a router, computer, LAN switch, and so forth. Cisco router models in
the 5500 series are commonly equipped with ATM expansion cards for the purpose of connecting to an
ATM backbone.
Special terms are used to describe the connection points between ATM equipment. –
User Network Interface (UNI) and Network Node Interface (NNI).
UNI represents a connection between an endpoint such as an ATM-enabled PC and an ATM switch. NNI is
the term used to describe connections between ATM switches. ATM equipment and connection points.
#ATM Applications:
1. ATM WANs –
It can be used as a WAN to send cells over long distances, router serving as a end-point between ATM
network and other networks, which has two stacks of protocol.
2. Multimedia virtual private networks and managed services –
It helps in managing ATM, LAN, voice and video services and is capable of full-service virtual private-
networking, which includes integrated access of multimedia.
3. Frame relay backbone –
Frame relay services are used as a networking infrastructure for a range of data services and enabling
frame relay ATM service to Internetworking services.
4. Residential broadband networks –
ATM is by choice provides the networking infrastructure for the establishment of residential
broadband services in search for highly scalable solutions.
5. Carrier infrastructure for telephone and private line networks –
To make more effective use of SONET/SDH fiber infrastructures by building the ATM infrastructure for
carrying the telephonic and private-line traffic.

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Page no: 10
.
Program : M.Tech
Subject Name: Advance Computer Networks

Semester: 1st
 

CS-8004 Elective –VI (3)

Advance Computer Networks
Subject Notes: UNIT-V

# Introduction to Wireless Transmission

Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves no physical link
established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly. Wireless signals are spread over in the
air and are received and interpreted by appropriate antennas.
When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it converts the digital data
into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency range. The receptor on the other end receives
these signals and converts them back to digital data.
A little part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless transmission.

Figure No. 5.1 Wireless transmission

Wireless transmission may refer to:
 Radio, the wireless transmission of signals through free space by radio waves instead of cables, like
telegraphs
 Wireless communication, all types of non-wired communication
 Wireless power, the transmission of electrical energy without man-made conductors.
The transmission of data or information from one place to another wirelessly is referred as wireless
communication. This provides an exchange of data without any conductor through RF and radio signals.

# Media Access Control (MAC)

The Media Access Control (MAC) data communication Networks protocol sub-layer, also known as the
Medium Access Control, is a sub-layer of the data link layer specified in the seven-layer OSI model. The
medium access layer was made necessary by systems that share a common communications medium. The
MAC layer is the "low" part of the second OSI layer, the layer of the "data link". The IEEE divided this layer
into two layers "above" is the control layer the logical connection (Logical Link Control, LLC) and "down"
the control layer the medium access (MAC).
In LAN nodes uses the same communication channel for transmission. The MAC sub-layer has two primary
responsibilities: Data encapsulation, including frame assembly before transmission, and frame
parsing/error detection during and after reception. Media access control, including initiation of frame
transmission and recovery from transmission failure.

Figure No.5.2 Media Access Control (MAC)

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 # IEEE 802.11
Wireless networks are based on the IEEE 802.11 standards. A basic wireless network consists of multiple
stations communicating with radios that broadcast in either the 2.4GHz or 5GHz band (though this varies
according to the locale and is also changing to enable communication in the 2.3 GHz and 4.9 GHz ranges).
Wireless Operating Mode
The IEEE 802.11 standards specify two operating modes: infrastructure mode and ad hoc mode.
1. Infrastructure mode is used to connect computers with wireless network adapters, also known as
wireless clients, to an existing wired network with the help from wireless router or access point. The 2
examples which I specified above operate in this mode.
2. Ad hoc mode is used to connect wireless clients directly together, without the need for a wireless
router or access point. An ad hoc network consists of up to 9 wireless clients, which send their data directly
to each other. Click here to learn more on this ad hoc mode.
#IEEE 802.11 Architecture:

Figure No. 5.3 IEEE 802.11 Architecture

#Functions of physical layer: Functions includes encoding/decoding of signals, Preamble

generation/removal (for synchronization), Bit transmission/reception and also includes specification of the
transmission medium. It also provides specification for converting bits to a RF signal: FHSS (Frequency
Hopping Spread Spectrum), DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum), OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency
Division), HR-DSS (High Rate-DSSS) and OFDM (802.11 g)
1. FHSS: Frequency band is 2.4 GHz ISM Band (2.402 – 2.480 GHz). The band divided into 79 equal sub
bands of 1 MHz each. Sender sends one frequency for a short period of time, then hope to another carrier
frequency. Thus there are N such hopping in one cycle. The cycle repeats itself after N hopping. Main
advantage is that unauthorized person cannot understand transmitted data.
2. DSSS: Frequency band is 2.4 GHz ISM Band. Each bit is first converted into a group of bits called as chip
code. For example for 0, chip code is 100011, for 1 chip code is 111010 etc.
3. HR DSSS: Frequency band is 2.4 GHz ISM Band. Encoding is also used. 4 or 8 bits of original data
converted into one symbol.
4. OFDM: Frequency band is 5 GHz ISM Band. Band is sub divided into 52 sub bands. 48 are used for
sending 48 groups of bits and 4 are used for sending control information. These sub bands are used
randomly in order to increase the security of transmitted data
#Functions of medium access control (MAC) layer includes: On transmission, assemble data into a frame
with address and error detection fields, on reception, disassemble frame and perform address recognition
and error detection. Logical link control (LLC) Layer provides an interface to higher layers and perform flow
and error control.
#High-performance local area network (HIPERLAN)
A High-performance local area network (HIPERLAN) is an alternative wireless LAN standard to the IEEE
802.11. It is one of four standards specified by the European telecommunications standards institute (ETSI)

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 to provide a concatenated service of interoperable technologies from different locations. HIPERLAN uses
cellular-based data networks to connect to an ATM backbone. The main idea behind HIPERLAN is to
provide an infrastructure or ad-hoc wireless with low mobility and a small radius. HIPERLAN supports
isochronous traffic with low latency.
#Components of a HIPERLAN include:
1 Physical Layer: This layer provides the standard functions, including radio frequency functions.
Link Adaptation: This standard allows the access point to convey information in an uplink or downlink
direction.
The HIPERLAN physical layer also specifies some link adaptation algorithms to be used.

2 Data Link Control (DLC) Layer: This layer includes the Media Access Control (MAC), Radio Link Control
(RLC), Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS) and Error Control (EC) protocols. Convergence Layer: Its basic
function is to provide the HIPERLAN DLC and physical access to other data networks.
The standard serves to ensure the possible interoperability of different manufacturers' wireless
communications equipment that operate in this spectrum. The HIPERLAN standard only describes a
common air interface including the physical layer for wireless communications equipment, while leaving
decisions on higher level configurations and functions open to the equipment manufacturers.

Figure No.5.4 HIPERLAN

HIPERLAN is the short form of High Performance Radio LAN. It is variant of IEEE 802.11 standard developed
by ETSI BRAN for use in European region.

Features of HIPERLAN/1: Features of HIPERLAN/2:

Operates at 5GHz Operates at 5GHz with 455MHz bandwidth.
• Supports data rate up to 19 Mbps. • Supports data rate of 6 Mbps to 54 Mbps
• It uses SC (Single Carrier) modulation such as similar to 802.11a
GMSK. • it uses multi carrier (i.e. OFDM) modulation
• It uses complex equalizer to take care of delay like 802.11a
spread. • It uses two bands one for indoor use and the
other for outdoor use with power at 200 milli
Watt and 1 Watt respectively.

Difference between HIPERLAN/1 and HIPERLAN/2

Following table summarizes key difference between HIPERLAN/1 and HIPERLAN/2 standards.

Specifications HIPERLAN/1 HIPERLAN/2

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 Access technique TDMA, EY NPMA TDMA, TDD

BPSK-OFDM, QPSK-OFDM, 16QAM-

Modulation technique GMSK, FSK OFDM, 64QAM-OFDM

Data rate (Mbps) 23 (HBR), 1.4 (LBR) From 6, 9, 12, 18, 27, 36, 48, 54

Frequency of
operation 5.1 GHz to 5.3 GHz 5.1 GHz to 5.3 GHz

Data rate 23.2 Mbps Greater than 20 Mbps

Application WLAN Wireless ATM, Indoor Access

Infrastructure, De-
Topology centralised Ad-Hoc cellular, centralized

Antenna type Omni-directional Omni-directional

Coverage Range 50 meters 50 to 100 meters

Interface LAN ATM networks

Mobility less than 10 m/s less than 10 m/s

Difference between HIPERLAN Type-3 (HIPERACCESS) Vs HIPERLAN Type-4 (HIPERLINK)

Following are the features of HIPERLAN Type-3(HIPERACCESS):
Following are the features of
Features of HIPERLAN Type-3(HIPERACCESS) Features of HIPERLAN Type-4(HIPERLINK)
• Frequency: 5.1 GHz to 5.3 GHz • Frequency: 17.1 to 17.3 GHz
• Topology: Uni-directional or point to multi- • Topology: Directional
point • Antenna type: directional
• Antenna type: directional • Range: 150 meters
• Range: 5000 meters • Data rate: 155 Mbps
• Data rate: >20 Mbps • Mobility: stationary .
• Mobility: stationary
#Bluetooth
Bluetooth is, with the infrared, one of the major wireless technologies developed to achieve WPAN.
Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology used to connect devices of different functions such as telephones,
computers (laptop or desktop), notebooks, cameras, printers and so on. Bluetooth is an example of
personal area network.

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 • Bluetooth p oje t as sta ted SIG Spe ial I te est G oup fo ed fou o pa ies IBM, I tel,
Nokia and Toshiba for interconnecting computing and communicating devices using short-range, lower-
power, inexpensive wireless radios.
Bluetooth technology is used for several computer and non computer application:
1. It is used for providing communication between peripheral devices like wireless mouse or keyboard with
the computer.
2. It is used by modern healthcare devices to send signals to monitors.
3. It is used by modern communicating devices like mobile phone, PDAs, palmtops etc to transfer data
rapidly.
4. It is used for dial up networking. Thus, allowing a notebook computer to call via a mobile phone.
5. It is used for cordless telephoning to connect a handset and its local base station.
6. It also allows hands-free voice comml1nication with headset.
7. It also enables a mobile computer to connect to a fixed LAN.
8. It can also be used for file transfer operations from one mobile phone to another.
9. Bluetooth uses omni directional radio waves that can through wallsor other non-metal barriers.
Bluetooth devices have a built-in short range radio transmitter. The rate provided is 1Mbps and uses 2.4
GHz bandwidth.
Bluetooth is that when the device is within the scope of a other devices automatically start the transfer
information without the user noticing. A small network between the devices is created and the user can
accessed as if there were cables.
#Bluetooth Architecture
Bluetooth architecture defines two types of networks:
1. Piconet
2. Scattemet
1. Piconet
• Pi o et is a Bluetooth et o k that o sists of o e p i a aste ode and seven active secondary
(slave) nodes.
• Thus, pi o et a ha e up to eight active nodes (1 master and 7 slaves) or stations within the distance of
10 meters.
• The e a e o l o e p i a o aste statio i ea h pi o et.
• The o u i atio etween the primary and the secondary can be one-to-one or one-to-many.

Figure No.5.5 Piconet

• All o u i atio is et ee aste a d a sla e. Sal e-slave communication is not possible.
• I additio to se e a ti e sla e statio , a pi o et a ha e upto pa ked odes. These pa ked odes
are secondary or slave stations and cannot take part in communication until it is moved from parked state
to active state.
2. Scatternet
• S atte et is fo ed o i i g a ious pi o ets.
• A sla e i o e pi o et a a t as a aste o p i a i othe pi o et.
• Su h a statio o ode a e ei e essages f o the aste i the fi st pi o et a d deli e the essage
to its slaves in other piconet where it is acting as master. This node is also called bridge slave.
• Thus a statio a e a e e of t o pi o ets.
• A statio a ot e a aste i t o pi o ets.

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 Figure No.5.6 Scatternet

#Bluetooth layers and Protocol Stack

• Bluetooth sta da d has a p oto ols that a e o ga ized i to diffe e t la e s.
• The la e st u tu e of Bluetooth does not follow OS1 model, TCP/IP model or any other known model.
• The diffe e t la e s a d Bluetooth p oto ol a hite tu e.

Figure No.5.7 Bluetooth layers and protocol architecture

#Radio Layer
• The Bluetooth adio la e o espo ds to the ph si al la e of OSI odel.
• It deals ith atio t a s issio a d odulatio .
• The adio layer moves data from master to slave or vice versa.
• It is a lo po e s ste that uses . GHz ISM a d i a a ge of ete s.
• This a d is di ided i to 9 ha els of MHz ea h. Bluetooth uses the F e ue Hoppi g Sp ead
Spectrum (FHSS) method in the physical layer to avoid interference from other devices or networks.
• Bluetooth hops ti es pe se o d, i.e. ea h de i e ha ges its odulatio f e ue ti es pe
second.
#Baseband Layer
• Base a d la e is e ui ale t to the MAC su la e in LANs.
• Bluetooth uses a fo of TDMA alled TDD-TDMA (time division duplex TDMA).
• Maste a d sla e statio s o u i ate ith ea h othe usi g ti e slots.
• The aste i ea h pi o et defi es the ti e slot of µse .
• I TDD- TDMA, communication is half duplex in which receiver can send and receive data but not at the
same time.
• If the pi o et has o l o sla e; the aste uses e e u e ed slots , , , ... a d the sla e uses odd-
numbered slots (1, 3, 5, .... ). Both master and slave communicate in half duplex mode. In slot 0, master
sends & secondary receives; in slot 1, secondary sends and primary receives.

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 • If pi o et has o e tha o e sla e, the aste uses e e u e ed slots. The sla e se ds i the e t
odd-numbered slot if the packet in the previous slot was addressed to it.
In Baseband layer, two types of links can be created between a master and slave. These are:
1. Asynchronous Connection-less (ACL)
• It is used fo pa ket s it hed data that is a aila le at i egula i te als.
• ACL delivers traffic on a best effort basis. Frames can be lost & may have to be retransmitted.
• A sla e a ha e o l o e ACL li k to its aste .
• Thus ACL li k is used he e o e t deli e is p efe ed o e fast deli e .
• The ACL a a hie e a a i u data rate of 721 kbps by using one, three or more slots.
2. Synchronous Connection Oriented (SCO)
• s o is used fo eal ti e data su h as sou d. It is used he e fast deli e is p efe ed o e a u ate
delivery.
• I a s o li k, a ph si al li k is eated between the master and slave by reserving specific slots at regular
intervals.
• Da aged pa ket; a e ot et a s itted o e s o li ks.
• A sla e a ha e th ee s o li ks ith the aste a d a se d data at K ps.
#Logical Link, Control Adaptation Protocol Layer (L2CAP)
• The logi al u it li k o t ol adaptatio p oto ol is e ui ale t to logi al li k o t ol su la e of LAN.
• The ACL li k uses L CAP fo data e ha ge ut s o ha el does ot use it.
The various function of L2CAP is:
1. Segmentation and reassembly
• L CAP e ei es the pa kets of upto KB f o uppe la e s a d di ides the i to f a es fo
transmission.
• It adds e t a i fo atio to defi e the lo atio of f a e i the o igi al pa ket.
• The L CAP easse les the f a e i to pa kets again at the destination.
2. Multiplexing
• L CAP pe fo s ultiple i g at se de side a d de ultiple i g at e ei e side.
• At the se de site, it a epts data f o o e of the uppe la e p oto ols f a es the a d deli e the to
the Baseband layer.
• At the receiver site, it accepts a frame from the baseband layer, extracts the data, and delivers them to
the appropriate protocol1ayer.
3. Quality of Service (QOS)
• L CAP ha dles ualit of se i e e ui e e ts, oth he li ks a e esta lished a d du i g o al
operation.
• It also e a les the de i es to egotiate the a i u pa load size du i g o e tio esta lish e t.
#Bluetooth Frame Format
The various fields of blue tooth frame format are:

Figure No.5.8 Bluetooth Frame Format

1. Access Code: It is 72 bit field that contains synchronization bits. It identifies the master.
2. Header: This is 54-bit field. It contain 18 bit pattern that is repeated for 3 time.
The header field contains following subfields:
(i) Address: This 3 bit field can define upto seven slaves (1 to 7). If the address is zero, it is used for
broadcast communication from primary to all se o da ’s.
(ii)Type: This 4 bit field identifies the type of data coming from upper layers.
(iii) F: This flow bit is used for flow control. When set to 1, it means the device is unable to receive more
frames.

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 (iv) A: This bit is used for acknowledgement.
(v) S: This bit contains a sequence number of the frame to detect retransmission. As stop and wait protocol
is used, one bit is sufficient.
(vi) Checksum: This 8 bit field contains checksum to detect errors in header.
3. Data: This field can be 0 to 2744 bits long. It contains data or control information coming from upper
layers.
# WAP (Wireless Application Protocol)
WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) is a specification for a set of communication protocols to standardize
the way that wireless devices, such as cellular telephones and radio transceivers, can be used for Internet
access, including e-mail, the World Wide Web, newsgroups, and instant messaging. While Internet access
has been possible in the past, different manufacturers have used different technologies. In the future,
devices and service systems that use WAP will be able to interoperate.
The WAP layers are:
 Wireless Application Environment (WAE)
 Wireless Session Layer (WSL)
 Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS)
 Wireless Transport Layer (WTP)
The WAP was conceived by four companies: Ericsson, Motorola, Nokia, and Unwired Planet (now
Phone.com). The Wireless Mark-up Language (WML) is used to create pages that can be delivered using
WAP.
#Application Layer
Wireless Application Environment (WAE). This layer is of most interest to content developers because it
contains among other things, device specifications, and the content development programming languages,
WML, and WML Script.
Session Layer
Wireless Session Protocol (WSP). Unlike HTTP, WSP has been designed by the WAP Forum to provide fast
connection suspension and reconnection.
Transaction Layer
Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP). The WTP runs on top of a datagram service, such as User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) and is part of the standard suite of TCP/IP protocols used to provide a simplified protocol
suitable for low bandwidth wireless stations.
Security Layer
Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS). WTLS incorporates security features that are based upon the
established Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocol standard. It includes data integrity checks, privacy,
service denial, and authentication services.
Transport Layer
Wireless Datagram Protocol (WDP). The WDP allows WAP to be bearer-independent by adapting the
transport layer of the underlying bearer. The WDP presents a consistent data format to the higher layers of
the WAP protocol stack, thereby offering the advantage of bearer independence to application developers.
Each of these layers provides a well-defined interface to the layer above it. This means that the internal
workings of any layer are transparent or invisible to the layers above it. The layered architecture allows
other applications and services to utilise the features provided by the WAP-stack as well. This makes it
possible to use the WAP-stack for services and applications that currently are not specified by WAP.
The WAP protocol architecture is shown below alongside a typical Internet Protocol stack.

Figure No.5.9 Wireless Application Protocol

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 WAP works as follows −
 The user selects an option on their mobile device that has a URL with Wireless Markup language
(WML) content assigned to it.
 The phone sends the URL request via the phone network to a WAP gateway using the binary
encoded WAP protocol.
 The gateway translates this WAP request into a conventional HTTP request for the specified URL
and sends it on to the Internet.
 The appropriate Web server picks up the HTTP request.
 The server processes the request just as it would any other request. If the URL refers to a static
WML file, the server delivers it. If a CGI script is requested, it is processed and the content returned
as usual.
 The Web server adds the HTTP header to the WML content and returns it to the gateway.
 The WAP gateway compiles the WML into binary form.
 The gateway then sends the WML response back to the phone.
 The phone receives the WML via the WAP protocol.
 The micro-browser processes the WML and displays the content on the screen.

Figure No.5.10 working of Wireless Application Protocol

# Global System for Mobile Communication

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile communication. Today, GSM is used by more than 800 million
end users spread across 190 countries which represent a ou d pe e t of toda ’s digital i eless
a ket. So, let’s see ho it o ks.
In GSM, geographical area is divided into hexagonal cells whose side depends upon power of transmitter
and load on transmitter (number of end user). At the center of cell, there is a base station consisting of a
transceiver (combination of transmitter and receiver) and an antenna.
#General Features of GSM
 GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is a second-generation (2G) digital mobile telephones
standard using a combination Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Frequency Division Multiple
Access (FDMA) to share the bandwidth among as many subscribers as possible.
 GSM provides only 9.6 kbps data connection. Increase in data rates can be achieved when GSM changes
into a radio service based on wide band code division multiple access, and not TDMA.
 GSM digitizes and compresses voice data, then sends it down a channel with two other streams of user
data, each in its own time slot. It operates at either the 900, 1800 or 1,900 MHz frequency bands.
 The uplink and down link frequencies for GSM are different and therefore a channel has a pair of
frequencies 80 MHz apart. The separation between uplink and downlink frequencies is called duplex
distance.
 In a channel the separation between adjacent carrier frequencies is known as channel separation which
is 200 kHz in case of GSM.
 The services supported by GSM are telephony, fax and SMS, call forwarding, caller 10, call waiting and
the like.
 GSM supports data at rates up to 9.6 kbps on POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service), ISDN, Packet Switched
Public Data Networks, and Circuit Switched Public Data Networks.
 The access methods and protocols for GSM may be fromX.25 or X.32.

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  Being a digital system, GSM does not require a modem between subscriber and GSM network.
However, an audio modem is required inside the GSM network to establish connection with POTS.

#Architecture of the GSM Network

The generic GSM network architecture is composed of three subsystems as the Radio Subsystem (RSS), the
network and Switching Subsystem (NSS) and the Operation Subsystem (OSS). The subscriber carries the
Mobile Station, which is part or RSS.

Figure No.5.11 Architecture of the GSM Network

#Function of Components:
1. Mobile station (MS): It refers for mobile station. Simply, it means a mobile phone.
2. Base trans-receiver system (BTS): It maintains the radio component with MS.
3. Base station controller (BSC): Its function is to allocate necessary time slots between the BTS and MSC.
4. Home location register (HLR): It is the reference database for subscriber parameter like su s i e ’s ID,
location, authentication key etc.
5. Visitor location register (VLR): It contains copy of most of the data stored in HLR which is temporary and
exist only until subscriber is active.
6. Equipment identity register (EIR): It is a database which contains a list of valid mobile equipment on the
network.
7. Authentication centre (AuC): It perform authentication of subscriber.
Carrier Sensed Multiple Accesses (CSMA): CSMA is a network access method used on shared network
topologies such as Ethernet to control access to the network. Devices attached to the network cable listen
(carrier sense) before transmitting. If the channel is in use, devices wait before transmitting. MA (Multiple
Access) indicates that many devices can connect to and share the same network. All devices have equal
access to use the network when it is clear.

Figure No.5.11 Carrier Sensed Multiple Accesses

CSMA protocol was developed to overcome the problem found in ALOHA i.e. to minimize the chances of
collision, so as to improve the performance. CSMA protocol is based on the principle of 'carrier sense'. The
station senses the carrier or channel before transmitting a frame. It means the station checks the state of
channel, whether it is idle or busy.
Even though devices attempt to sense whether the network is in use, there is a good chance that two
stations will attempt to access it at the same time. On large networks, the transmission time between one
end of the cable and another is enough that one station may access the cable even though another has
already just accessed it.
The chances of collision still exist because of propagation delay. The frame transmitted by one station
takes some time to reach other stations. In the meantime, other stations may sense the channel to be idle
and transmit their frames. This results in the collision.

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 There Are Three Different Type of CSMA Protocols
(I) I-persistent CSMA
(ii) Non- Persistent CSMA
(iii) p-persistent CSMA

Figure No.5.12 Types of CSMA

(i) I-persistent CSMA

• I this ethod, statio that a ts to t a s it data o ti uousl se ses the ha el to check whether the
channel is idle or busy.
• If the ha el is us , the statio aits u til it e o es idle.
• Whe the statio dete ts a idle-channel, it immediately transmits the frame with probability 1. Hence it
is called I-persistent CSMA.
• This method has the highest chance of collision because two or more stations may find channel to be idle
at the same time and transmit their frames.
• Whe the ollisio o u s, the statio s ait a a do a ou t of ti e a d sta t allo e agai .
Drawback of I-persistent
• The p opagatio dela ti e g eatl affe ts this p oto ol. Let us suppose, just afte the statio I egi s its
transmission, station 2 also became ready to send its data and senses the channel. If the station I signal has
not yet reached station 2, station 2 will sense the channel to be idle and will begin its transmission. This
will result in collision.

Figure No.5.13 1 Persistent CSMA

(ii) Non-persistent CSMA

• I this s he e, if a statio a ts to t a s it a f a e a d it fi ds that the ha el is us so e other
station is transmitting) then it will wait for fixed interval of time.
• Afte this ti e, it agai he ks the status of the ha el a d if the ha el is free it will transmit.
• A statio that has a f a e to se d se ses the ha el.
• If the ha el is idle, it sends immediately.
• If the ha el is us , it aits a a do a ou t of ti e a d the se ses the ha el agai .
• I o -persistent CSMA the station does not continuously sense the channel for the purpose of capturing
it when it detects the end of previous transmission.
Advantage of non-persistent

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 • It edu es the ha e of ollisio e ause the statio s ait a a do a ou t of ti e. It is u likel that
two or more stations will wait for same amount of time and will retransmit at the same time.
Disadvantage of non-persistent
• It edu es the effi ie of et o k e ause the ha el e ai s idle he the e a e statio s ith
frames to send. This is due to the fact that the stations wait a random amount of time after the collision.

Figure No.5.14 Non-persistent

(iii) p-persistent CSMA
• This ethod is used he ha el has ti e slots su h that the ti e slot du atio is e ual to o g eate
than the maximum propagation delay time.
• Whe e e a statio e o es ead to se d, it se ses the ha el.
• If ha el is us , station waits until next slot.
• If ha el is idle, it t a s its ith a p o a ilit p.
• With the p o a ilit =l-p, the station then waits for the beginning of the next time slot.
• If the e t slot is also idle, it eithe t a s its o aits agai ith p obabilities p and q.
• This p o ess is epeated till eithe f a e has ee t a s itted o a othe statio has egu t a s itti g.
• I ase of the t a s issio a othe statio , the statio a ts as though a ollisio has o u ed a d it
waits a random amount of time and starts again.
Advantage of p-persistent
• It edu es the ha e of ollisio a d i p o es the effi ie of the et o k.
#Frame format of CSMA/CD
The frame format specified by IEEE 802.3 standard contains following fields.

Figure No.5.15 Frame format of CSMA/CD

1. Preamble: It is seven bytes (56 bits) that provides bit synchronization. It consists of alternating Os and
1s. The purpose is to provide alert and timing pulse.
2. Start Frame Delimiter (SFD): It is one byte field with unique pattern: 10 10 1011. It marks the beginning
of frame.
3. Destination Address (DA): It is six byte field that contains physical address of packet's destination.
4. Source Address (SA): It is also a six byte field and contains the physical address of source or last device to
forward the packet (most recent router to receiver).
5. Length: This two byte field specifies the length or number of bytes in data field.
6. Data: It can be of 46 to 1500 bytes, depending upon the type of frame and the length of the information
field.
7. Frame Check Sequence (FCS): This for byte field contains CRC for error detection.

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