Malawi University of Science and Technology

Malawi Institute of Technology

PHYSICS 1

(MECHANICS AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER)

Course Code

PHY 111

Module Writers:

FRANCIS BENARD

RODERICK CHIMOMBO

Module Reviewer:

Date

MARCH 2015
Malawi University of Science and Technology PHYSICS 1 MODULE

Copyright

This material is a property of the Malawi University of Science and Technology

This material is not to be sold.

2014

All rights are reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
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Malawi University of Science and Technology.

Malawi University of Science and Technology

P.O. Box 5196
Limbe
Malawi
Tel: (265) 1 478 000
Fax: (265) 1

Copyright Page ii
Malawi University of Science and Technology PHYSICS 1 MODULE

Acknowledgements
(MUST will provide, acknowledging contributions made by others)

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Malawi University of Science and Technology PHYSICS 1 MODULE

Table of Contents
Copyright ....................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ..........................................................................................iii
Table of Contents ........................................................................................... iv
Module Overview............................................................................................ x
PART 1 ............................................................................................................ 1
MECHANICS .................................................................................................... 1
1.0 Introduction............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Objectives of the unit................................................................................. 1
Unit 1 ............................................................................................................. 2
Units and Measurement ................................................................................. 2
Introduction.............................................................................................. 2
1.1 Objectives .......................................................................................... 2
1.2 Key Terms ........................................................................................ 2
1.3 Measurement and unit........................................................................... 2
1.3.1 Physical quantity ............................................................................. 2
1.3.2 Dimensional analysis ....................................................................... 6
1.3.3 Decimal point, scientific notation, order of magnitude, precision, accuracy
and order of magnitude .......................................................................... 8
1.3.4 Summary ...................................................................................... 10
1.3.5 End of unit 1 exercise...................................................................... 10
Unit 2............................................................................................................ 12
Scalar and Vector quantities........................................................................... 12
2.0 Introduction ....................................................................................... 12
2.1 Objectives........................................................................................... 12
2.2 Key Terms .......................................................................................... 12
2.3 Scalar and Vector Quantities ................................................................. 12
2.3.1 Vector Notation ............................................................................ 13
2.3.2 Adding vectors.............................................................................. 14
2.3.3 Techniques of Vector Addition ........................................................ 14
2.3.4 Vector Resolution.......................................................................... 21
2.3.5 Summary..................................................................................... 25
2.3.6 End of unit 2 Exercise.................................................................... 25
Unit 3........................................................................................................... 27
Motion in one Dimension ............................................................................ 27
3.0 Introduction ...................................................................................... 27

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Malawi University of Science and Technology PHYSICS 1 MODULE

3.1 Objectives ...................................................................................... 27

3.2 Key Terms ......................................................................................... 28
3.3 Kinematics in one dimension................................................................ 28
3.3.1 Frame of Reference ....................................................................... 28
3.3.2 Motion graphs ............................................................................. 30
3.3.2.1 Displacement-Time graph......................................................... 30
3.3.2.2 Velocity-Time graph ................................................................ 31
3.3.3 Equations of Uniform motion (Motion with constant acceleration) ...... 31
3.3.4 Freely falling object ...................................................................... 34
3.3.5 Unit 3 Summary........................................................................... 37
3.3.6 End of unit 3 Exercise.................................................................... 38
Unit 4........................................................................................................... 40
Motion in two dimensions ........................................................................... 40
4.0 Introduction ...................................................................................... 40
4.1 Objectives.......................................................................................... 40
4.2 Key words......................................................................................... 40
4.3.1 Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration in Two dimensions................ 41
4.3.2 Projectile motion.......................................................................... 42
4.3.2.1 Parts of a Projectile motion: ..................................................... 43
4.3.2.2 Motion of a projectile projected at an angle with the horizontal
(oblique projection)........................................................................... 43
4.3.3 Relative motion ........................................................................... 48
4.3.4 Summary..................................................................................... 52
4.3.5 End of Unit 4 Exercise ................................................................... 53
Unit 5........................................................................................................... 55
Forces and Motion...................................................................................... 55
5.0 Introduction ...................................................................................... 55
5.1 Objectives.......................................................................................... 55
5.2 Key Terms ......................................................................................... 55
5.3 Force and Motion .............................................................................. 55
5.3.1 What is force? .............................................................................. 55
5.3.2 Newton’s laws of motion.............................................................. 56
5.3.2.1 Newton’s first law of motion.................................................... 56
5.3.2.2 Newton’s Second Law of Motion and Weight ............................ 58
5.3.2.3 Newton’s Third Law of Motion................................................ 58
5.3.3 Application of Newton’s Laws of motion ........................................ 59
5.3.3.1 Objects in translational Equilibrium ........................................... 59

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Malawi University of Science and Technology PHYSICS 1 MODULE

5.3.3.2 Accelerating objects and Newton’s second law ........................... 62

5.3.4 Friction Force .............................................................................. 66
5.3.5 Summary..................................................................................... 68
5.3.6 End of unit 5 exercise.................................................................... 69
Unit 6........................................................................................................... 73
Work, Energy and Power ............................................................................. 73
6.0 Introduction ...................................................................................... 73
6.1 Objectives.......................................................................................... 73
6.2 Key words......................................................................................... 73
6.3.1 Work done .................................................................................. 74
6.3.2 Energy ........................................................................................ 75
6.3.2.1 Kinetic Energy and the Work-Energy Theorem ............................ 76
6.3.3 Conservative and non-conservative forces ....................................... 77
6.3.4 Potential Energy ........................................................................... 78
6.3.4.1 Gravitational Work and Potential Energy ................................... 78
6.3.5 Gravity and the Conservation of Mechanical Energy .......................... 81
6.3.6 The law of conservation of Mechanical energy .................................. 81
6.3.8 Summary..................................................................................... 84
6.3.9 End of Unit 6 Exercise ................................................................... 85
Unit 7........................................................................................................... 86
Linear Momentum ...................................................................................... 86
7.0 Introduction ...................................................................................... 86
7.1 Objectives.......................................................................................... 86
7.2 Key words......................................................................................... 86
7.3. Linear Momentum............................................................................. 86
7.3.1 Linear Momentum and Newton’s second law of motion .................... 87
7.3.2 The law of Conservation of Linear Momentum ................................ 88
7.4 Impulse............................................................................................. 89
7.4.1 Collision in two dimensions ........................................................... 90
7.4.2 Three types of Collisions ................................................................ 91
7.4.2.1 Perfectly Inelastic Collision ........................................................ 91
7.4.2.2 Elastic Collisions ..................................................................... 92
7.4.3 Summary..................................................................................... 93
7.4.4 End of Unit 7 exercise ................................................................... 94
Unit 8........................................................................................................... 95
Uniform Circular Motion and Newton’s law of Universal Gravitation ................ 95
8.0 Introduction ...................................................................................... 95

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Malawi University of Science and Technology PHYSICS 1 MODULE

8.1 Objectives.......................................................................................... 95
8.3 Uniform Circular motion..................................................................... 95
8.3.1 Angular displacement .................................................................... 95
8.3.2 Rotational Kinematics ................................................................... 97
8.3.3 Relationship between angular and linear quantities ........................... 99
8.3.4 Centripetal acceleration................................................................ 100
8.3.5 Centripetal force .......................................................................... 101
8.3.6 Newton’s law of universal gravitation ............................................ 104
8.3.7 Gravitational force and weight...................................................... 105
8.3.8 Summary.................................................................................... 105
8.3.8 End of unit 8 exercise................................................................... 106
Unit 9.......................................................................................................... 108
Rotational Dynamics and Equilibrium ........................................................... 108
9.0 Introduction ..................................................................................... 108
9.1 Objectives......................................................................................... 108
9.2 Key words........................................................................................ 108
9.3 Conservation of angular momentum.................................................... 109
9.3.1 Toque ........................................................................................ 109
9.3.2 Toque and angular acceleration...................................................... 111
9.3.3 Static Equilibrium.......................................................................... 112
9.3.3.1 Conditions for statistic equilibrium ............................................ 112
9.3.4 Centre of mass and center of gravity ............................................... 114
9.3.5 Rotational kinetic Energy and moment of inertia .............................. 116
9.3.6 Conservation of Energy................................................................. 118
9.3.7 Angular momentum ..................................................................... 119
9.3.8 Summary.................................................................................... 120
9.3.9 End of unit 8 Exercise................................................................... 122
PART 2........................................................................................................ 123
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER .............................................................. 123
1.0 Introduction......................................................................................... 124
1.1 Objectives ............................................................................................ 124
1.2 Key terms ............................................................................................ 124
Unit 1 .......................................................................................................... 125
THERMODYNAMICS ................................................................................. 125
1.0 Introduction...................................................................................... 125
1.1 Objectives ....................................................................................... 125
1.2 Key terms; ........................................................................................ 125
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1.3 TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS ........ 125

1.3.1 Temperature................................................................................ 125
i. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics ....................................................... 126
1.4 THERMOMETERS AND THE TEMPERATURE SCALES ............................ 127
1.4.1.1 PROBLEMS WITH LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETERS. ................. 128
1.4.2.1. THE CELSIUS, FAHRENHEIT, AND KELVIN TEMPERATURE SCALES.
....................................................................................................... 131
1.5 THERMAL EXPANSION...................................................................... 132
1.5.1 BIMETALLIC STRIPS AND THERMOSTATS ...................................... 136
1.5.2 THE UNUSUAL BEHAVIOUR OF WATER....................................... 137
UNIT SUMMARY ................................................................................... 139
UNIT TEST ............................................................................................ 140
Unit 2.......................................................................................................... 142
IDEAL GAS ................................................................................................... 142
2.0 Introduction ........................................................................................ 142
2.1 Objectives ............................................................................................ 142
2.2 Keywords: ........................................................................................... 142
2.3 MACROSCOPIC DESCRIPTION OF AN IDEAL GAS .................................. 142
UNIT SUMMARY ...................................................................................... 147
UNIT TEST................................................................................................ 148
Unit 3.......................................................................................................... 149
HEAT AND FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS ............................................. 149
3.0 introduction ........................................................................................ 149
3.1Objectives............................................................................................. 149
3.2. Keywords; .......................................................................................... 149
3.3 HEAT AND INTERNAL ENERGY ............................................................ 149
3.3.1 UNITS OF HEAT............................................................................. 150
3.4 SPECIFIC HEAT .................................................................................... 150
3.5 CALORIMETRY .................................................................................... 152
3.6 LATENT HEAT ................................................................................. 154
3.6.1. P R O B L E M - S O LV I N G H I N T S ............................................ 157
CALORIMETRY PROBLEMS ..................................................................... 157
3.7. THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS ............................................. 158
3.7.1. WORK IN THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES ...................................... 158
3.8. MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT OF AN IDEAL GAS............................................. 161
3.8.1 CONSTANT VOLUME SPECIFIC HEAT ............................................... 161
3.9 NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING ............................................................ 164

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3.9.1 THE FIVE-FOURTHS POWER LAW ................................................... 165

Unit summary............................................................................................... 166
Unit Test. ..................................................................................................... 167
References.................................................................................................... 168

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Malawi University of Science and Technology PHYSICS 1 MODULE

Module Overview

This module is intended………… The goal of this module is to help you acquire a
deep understanding of the principles of mechanics, thermal properties of matter and
the gas laws.
Provide a general introduction to the whole module covering aims, objectives,
outcomes, major activities and requirements for the module. Include pointers to
references, tests and assignments, text books, etc......

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Malawi University of Science and Technology PHYSICS 1 MODULE

PART 1

MECHANICS
Outline

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Objectives

1.2 Key terms

1.3 Units and Measurements

1.3.1 SI Units
1.4 Concepts of Motion and vectors
1.5 Forces and Motion
1.5.1 Circular motion
1.5.2 Rotation motion

1.6 Kinematics and Dynamics

1.7 Work and Energy

1.8 Impulse and Momentum

1.0 Introduction

Mechanics is “an area of science concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies
when subjected to forces or displacement and the subsequent effects of the bodies on
their environment.”(wikipedia) the study of motion and forces. “

1.1 Objectives of the unit

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

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Unit 1

Units and Measurement

Introduction
Physics can be described as the branch of science dealing with the study of properties
of materials. To understand the properties of materials, measurement of physical
quantities such as length, mass, time are involved. The uniqueness of physics lies in the
measurement of these physical quantities. In this unit, we define what a physical
quantity is, classifying physical quantities as base or derived. We will also classify
these physical quantities as scalar or vector. Finally, we will carry out dimensional
analysis which will help us in checking the consistency of equation and the derivation
of an equation.

1.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Define a physical quantity correctly
 State units of a given quantities
 Differentiate base quantities from derived quantities
 Applying dimensional analysis in checking the consistency of an equation
 Applying dimensional analysis in equation derivation

1.2 Key Terms

Physical quantity

SI Unit

Base quantities

Derived quantities

1.3 Measurement and unit

1.3.1 Physical quantity

A physical quantity is any quantity that can be measured e.g length, time, speed,
density, electric charge, temperature

Units: A physical quantity is expressed as a number with units e.g length: L=2m, time;
t=1s. Meter represented by m is a unit of length and second represented by s is unit of
time.

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A unit is a standard quantity (unit comes from latin for ‘one’) e.g length: 1 meter,
time: 1 second, mass 1 kilogram.

S.I Units

S.I stands for systeme internatinale in French, meaning “international system”.

Therefore, SI units are agreed international standard units. Base quantities are
measured using in SI units.

Basic physical quantities are quantities which are not expressed in terms of other
quantities. They are also called fundamental physical quantities.

The SI units of base quantities are called basic units or fundamental units.

There are seven base quantities as shown in Table 1 below:

Table 1: Base Physical Quantities

Quantity SI Unit Name Unit Symbol

Mass kilogram kg

Length meter m

Time second s

Electric current Ampere A

Temperature Kelvin K

Amount of mole mole

substance

Luminous intensity candela cd

Derived quantities are expressed in terms of basic quantities by multiplication or

division. Table 2 shows some examples of derived quantities.

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Table 2: Examples of Derived Physical Quantities

Derived Quantity Unit Name Unit Symbol

Force Newton N = kgms −2

Acceleration Meter per second square ms −2

Pressure Pascal Pa = Nm−2

Work Joule J = kgm2

Power Watt W = kgm2 s −3

Density Mass per volume kgm −3

Unit Prefixes

For larger and smaller units, we write them in a short hand by multiply by powers of
10 as in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Unit Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol Factor

Peta P 1015 deci d 10−1

Tera T 1012 centi c 10−2

Giga G 109 milli m 10−3

Mega M 106 micro 𝜇 10−6

Kilo k 103 nano n 10−9

Hector h 102 pico p 10−12

Deca da 10 fento f 10−15

Examples: cm =0.01m= 10−2 m, mm=0.001 m=10−3 𝑚, km=1000 𝑚 = 103 m

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Changing units

Replace the unit you are given with the equivalent quantity in the unit you want

Example : Write 72km/hr in m/s

Solution

We know that 1km= 1000m (we are given km, we want m)

We also know that 1hr=3600s (we are given hr, we want s)
𝑘𝑚 1000 𝑚
Then:72 ℎ𝑟
= 72 𝑋 3600 𝑠
= 20 𝑚/𝑠

SI standards
Length
Length is defined as the distance between two points. The SI unit
of length is metre.
One standard metre is equal to 1 650 763.73 wavelengths of the orange − red light
emitted by the individual atoms of krypton − 86 in a krypton discharge lamp.

Mass
Mass is the quantity of matter contained in an object? It is independent of
temperature and pressure. It does not vary from place to place. The SI unit of mass is
kilogram.
One kilogram is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram (a
platinum-iridium alloy cylinder) kept at the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures at Sevres, near Paris, France.
Time
Until 1960 the standard of time was based on the mean solar day, the time interval
between successive passages of the sun at its highest point across the meridian. It is
averaged over an year. In 1967, an atomic standard was adopted for second, the SI
unit of time.

One standard second is defined as the time taken for 9 192 631 770 periods of the
radiation corresponding to unperturbed transition between hyperfine levels of the
ground state of cesium – 133 atom. Atomic clocks are based on this. In atomic clocks,
an error of one second occurs only in 5000 years.

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Activity 1.1

1. Define physical quantity

2. Explain the difference between basic quantities and derived quantities
3. Classify each of the following quantities as a basic quantity or a derived
quantity:
a. 30µs
b. 20𝑚𝑠 −2
c. 1000 kJ
d. 5W

1.3.2 Dimensional analysis

It deals with the physical quantity in question. It describes any quantity in terms of
fundamental quantities.
Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental quantities
must be raised. Table 4 shows same quantities with their dimensions.

Table 4: Some Physical quantities with their dimensions

Quantity Dimension

Mass M

Length L

Time T

Acceleration 𝐿𝑇 −2

We write [X] meaning ‘‘dimension of quantity X’’

Activity 1.2

1. What are the dimensions of the following physical quantities:

a. Area of a triangle
b. Stress
c. Frequency
d. Impulse

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Application of Dimensional analysis

Checking if an equation is consistent/valid

An equation is said to be dimensionally consistent if the SI unit(s) on the left side are
the same as the SI units on the right of the equation

Example

Let us consider the following equation of motion with constant acceleration:

1
s = ut + at 2
2
where:

S: displacement with dimension of L and SI unit of m

u: velocity with dimensions of LT −1 and SI unit of ms −2
a: acceleration with dimensions of LT −2 and SI units of ms −2
t: time with dimension of T and SI unit of s

Then, we rewrite the equation, all quantities replaced by their dimensions, we get:

1
s = ut + 2 at 2 → L = LT −1 × T + LT −2 × T 2

L=L+L
L=L

We finally get the same dimension of length both sides of the equation. Therefore,
the equation is dimensionally correct.

We also use dimensional analysis to derive an equation

If we know that a quantity is related in same way to other quantities, then it is

possible to derive an equation expressing the relationship.

Example: Suppose we are told that the acceleration a of a particle moving with
uniform speed v in a circle of radius r is proportional to some power of r, say r n, and
some power of v, say v m. Determine the values of n and m and write the simplest
form of an equation for the acceleration.

We write the relation as

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:a ∝ r n v m
a = kr n v m

where k is the proportionality constant

Writing the equation dimensionally, we get

LT −2 = k[L]n [LT −1 ]m

k is dimensionless, so we can take it out of the equation

LT −2 = [L]n [LT −1 ]m
LT −2 = Ln Lm T −m
LT −2 = Ln+m T −m

equating the powers, we get

1 = n + m and − 2 = −m

from which, we get m = 2 and n = −1

Therefore, the derived equation is

v2
a=k
r
Activity 1.3

1. Given that, the time period T of a simple pendulum depends upon mass m of
the bob, length l of the pendulum and acceleration due to gravity g at the
place where the pendulum is suspended. Find an expression for the time
period T in terms of m, l and g.

1.3.3 Decimal point, scientific notation, order of magnitude, precision, accuracy and
order of magnitude
Decimal point: the number 7.32 has two decimal places and 1500 has no decimal
point.

Scientific notation: this is writing numbers in powers of 10. In general any number in
the form of 𝑥 × 10𝑦 is in scientific notation where x is any number such that 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤
10 and y is an exponent. E.g 7.41 × 103 is in scientific notation.

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Example

Convert 6342147.14 to scientific notation

Solution

6.3421714 × 106

When counting decimal places from right to left, the exponent is positive

Example

Write 0.0042 in scientific notation

Solution

4.2 × 10−3

When counting decimal places from left to right, the exponent is negative

Order of magnitude: it is a rough approximation of a quantity to the closest power of

10 e.g 8~10 this reds 8 is of the order of 10

Examples

123~100, and 0.07~0.1

To find order of magnitude, round up or down to nearest power of 10 e.g 7.62 ×

104 ~105 , 3.2 × 102 ~102 , 8.417 × 10−6 ~10−5 , 1.5 × 10−8 ~10−8

Significant figures (s.f) are the number of digits in scientific notation e.g 4.71 has 3 s.f.

Uncertainty in measurement: in any measurement there is always an error, and this is

called uncertainty.

Accuracy refers to closeness of a measured value to a standard or known value. For

example, if in a lab you obtain a weight measurement of 3.2 kg for a given substance,
but the actual or the known weight is 10 kg, then your measurement is not accurate.
In this case your measurement is not close to the known value.

Precision refers to the closeness of two or more measurements to each other. For
example, if you weigh a given substance five times and get 3.2 kg each time, then
your measurement is very precise.

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1.3.4 Summary
In this unit we have discussed units and measurements as fundamental concepts of
physical quantities.

Physical quantity is any quantity that can be measured

Physical quantity has unit. Unit is a standard quantity from which other quantities are
compared.

Basic quantities are not expressed in terms of other quantities

Derived quantities are expressed in terms of basic quantities by multiplication or

division.

We use unit prefixes as shorthand in presenting large or small number of units

Dimensional analysis describes any quantity in terms of fundamental quantities. It is

used for checking the validity of an equation. It also helps in derivation of an
equation.

Decimal points, significant figures, scientific notation, order of magnitude, precision

and accuracy are worth to be considered in describing a physical quantity.

1.3.5 End of unit 1 exercise

1. It is advantageous that fundamental standards, such as those for length and
time, be accessible (easy to compare to), invariable (do not change),
indestructible and reproducible. Discus why these are advantageous and
whether any of these criteria can be incompatible with others.
2. What are the merits and drawbacks of using a person’s foot as a standard?
Consider both (a) a particular person’s foot (b) any person’s foot
3. You measure the radius of a wheel to be 4.16 cm. If you multiply by 2 to get
the diameter, should you write the result as 8 cm or as 8.32 cm? Justify your
answer.
4. If an equation is dimensionally correct, does this mean that the equation must
be true? If an equation is not dimensionally correct, does this mean that the
equation is cannot be true?
5. The age of the universe is believed to be somewhere around 14 billion year.
Write this in powers of ten in (a) years (b) months

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6. Write the following numbers in full with a decimal number of zeros:

(a) 8.69 × 104 (b)7.1 × 103 (C) 6.6 × 10−1
7. How many significant figures do each of the following numbers have: (a)214
(b) 81.60 (c) 7.03 (d) 0.03 (e) 0.0086 (f) 3236 (g) 8700
8. Express the following using the prefixes: (a) 106 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠, (b) 10−1 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠,
(c)5 × 103 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 (d)8 × 102 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑠 (e) 8 × 10−9 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠
9. Write the following as full (decimal) numbers with standard units: (a) 86.6
mm (b) 35𝜇𝑉 (c) 860 mg (d) 600 picoseconds (e) 12.6 fentometers (f)
250 gigavolts
10. The volume of an object is 1000 𝑚3 . Express this volume in (a) 𝑐𝑚3 (b) 𝑘𝑚3
11. Write dimensional formula for each of the following: (a) impulse (b)
frequency (c) power (d)heat capacity
ℎ
12. Check whether the equation 𝜆 = is dimensionally correct. 𝜆 is wavelength,
𝑚𝑣

ℎ is plank’s constant which has dimensions 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −1 , m is mass and v is the

velocity.

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Unit 2

Scalar and V ector quantities

2.0 Introduction
In unit 1, we discussed physical quantities in terms of base and derived quantities
which are used to describe the physical quantities. In this unit we classify these
physical quantities into scalar and vector quantities. We will particularly pay more
attention to mathematical techniques of vector addition.

2.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be to:

 Define scalar quantity and vector quantity

 Classify given quantities into scalar and vector quantities
 Represent vectors geometrically
 Resolve a given vector into its components

2.2 Key Terms

 Scalar quantity
 Vector quantity
 Resultant vector
 Vector resolution

2.3 Scalar and Vector Quantities

Scalar quantity is a physical quantity that is completely described by magnitude only,
e.g mass, temperature, distance and speed. A scalar quantity tells you how much a
given quantity is. For example, 20 Kg of meat is a scalar quantity. It is simply telling
you how much meat is there. No direction is required for it to make a complete
sense.

Vector quantity is a physical quantity that requires the specification of magnitude and
direction e.g velocity, displacement and acceleration. A vector tells you how much is
the quantity and which way. For example if you drive a bicycle East along the road at
5ms −1 . What you have here is a vector-velocity. The bicycle is moving at 5𝑚𝑠 −1 (this
is the magnitude) and you know where you are going –East (this is the direction).

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Activity 2.1

1. Explain the difference between vector and scalar quantities

2. Give examples of physical quantities that are both base and scalar
3. Give examples of physical quantities that are both derived and vector

2.3.1 Vector Notation

Mathematical representation: vectors are represented by a symbol with an arrow
→ → →
pointing to the right above it e.g , and represents vectors acceleration, velocity
𝑎 𝑣 𝐹
and force respectively.

→ →
Two vectors and are equal if they have the same magnitude and the same
OA BC
direction. This property allows us to translate a vector parallel to itself in a diagram
→ →
without affecting the vector. See Figure 1.3.1, vector is translated to vector .
OA BC
y
C
A B
O x
Figure 1.3.1: Equal Vectors

Graphical Representation: Vectors are drawn as arrows. An arrow has both a

magnitude (how long it is) and a direction (the direction in which it points). The
starting point of a vector is known as the tail and the end point is known as the head
as shown in the Figure below:

Figure 1.3.2: Parts of a vector

If you want to present a force of 15 N North East, you present it as follows:

N

𝐹 = 15𝑁

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Activity 2.2

1. Represent the following vectors geometrically on a plane:

i. Velocity, v = 10ms −1 Noth
ii. Velocity, v = 10ms −1 North West
iii. Acceleration a = 5ms −2 at an angle of 300°

2.3.2 Adding vectors

When vectors are added, we need to add both a magnitude and a direction. For
example, take 2 steps in the forward direction, stop and then take another 3 steps in
the forward direction. The first 2 steps is a displacement vector and the second 3 steps
is also a displacement vector. If we did not stop after the first 2 steps, we would have
taken 5 steps in the forward direction in total. Therefore, if we add the displacement
vectors for 2 steps and 3 steps, we should get a total of 5 steps in the forward
direction. Graphically, this can be seen by first following the first vector two steps
forward and then following the second one three steps forward:

The final answer when adding vectors is called the resultant. The resultant
displacement in this case will be 5 steps forward.

Definition: Resultant of Vectors

The resultant of a number of vectors is the single vector whose effect is the same as
the Individual vectors acting together

2.3.3 Techniques of Vector Addition

1. Graphical Techniques
Graphical techniques involve drawing accurate scale diagrams to denote individual
vectors and their resultants.

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We next discuss the two primary graphical techniques, the head-to-tail technique and
the parallelogram method.
The Head-to-Tail Method
In describing the mathematical properties of vectors we used displacements and the
head-to-tail graphical method of vector addition as an illustration. The head-to-tail
method of graphically adding vectors is a standard method that must be understood.
Steps to follow: Head-to-Tail Method of Vector Addition
1. Choose a scale and include a reference direction.
2. Choose any of the vectors and draw it as an arrow in the correct direction and of
the correct length – remember to put an arrowhead on the end to denote its
direction.
3. Take the next vector and draw it as an arrow starting from the arrowhead of the
first vector in the correct direction and of the correct length.
4. Continue until you have drawn each vector – each time starting from the head of
the previous vector. In this way, the vectors to be added are drawn one after the
other head-to-tail.
5. The resultant is then the vector drawn from the tail of the first vector to the head
of the last. Its magnitude can be determined from the length of its arrow using the
scale. Its direction too can be determined from the scale diagram.
Example 2.1
A ship leaves harbor H and sails 6 km north to port A. From here the ship travels 12
km east to port B, before sailing 5,5 km south-west to port C. Determine the ship’s
resultant displacement using the head-to-tail technique of vector addition.
Solution
Step1: Draw a rough sketch of the situation

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Step 2 : Choose a scale and include a reference direction.

The choice of scale depends on the actual question – you should choose a scale such
that your vector diagram fits the page.
It is clear from the rough sketch that choosing a scale where 1 cm represents 2 km
(scale: 1 cm = 2 km) would be a good choice in this problem. The diagram will then
take up a good fraction of an A4 page. We now start the accurate construction.
Step 3 : Choose any of the vectors to be summed and draw it as an arrow
in the correct direction and of the correct length – remember to put an
arrowhead on the end to denote its direction.
Starting at the harbour H we draw the first vector 3 cm long in the direction north.

Step 4 : Take the next vector and draw it as an arrow starting from the head
of the first vector in the correct direction and of the correct length.
Since the ship is now at port A we draw the second vector 6 cm long starting from
point A in the direction east.

Step 5 : Take the next vector and draw it as an arrow starting from the head of the
second vector in the correct direction and of the correct length.
Since the ship is now at port B we draw the third vector 2,25 cm long starting from
this point in the direction south-west. A protractor is required to measure the angle
of 45°.
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Step 6 : The resultant is then the vector drawn from the tail of the first vector to the
head of the last. Its magnitude can be determined from the length of its arrow using
the scale. Its direction too can be determined from the scale diagram.
As a final step we draw the resultant displacement from the starting point (the
Harbor H) to the end point (port C). We use a ruler to measure the length of this
arrow and a protractor to determine its direction.

Step 7 : Apply the scale conversion.

We now use the scale to convert the length of the resultant in the scale diagram to
the actual displacement in the problem. Since we have chosen a scale of 1 cm = 2 km
in this problem the resultant has a magnitude of 9.2 km. The direction can be
specified in terms of the angle measured either as 072.3° east of north or on a bearing
of 072.3°.
Step 8 : Quote the final answer
The resultant displacement of the ship is 9.2 km on a bearing of 072.3°.

The Parallelogram Method

The parallelogram method is another graphical technique of finding the resultant of

two vectors.

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2. The Parallelogram Method

1. Choose a scale and a reference direction.
2. Choose either of the vectors to be added and draw it as an arrow of the correct
length in the correct direction.
3. Draw the second vector as an arrow of the correct length in the correct direction
from the tail of the first vector.
4. Complete the parallelogram formed by these two vectors.
5. The resultant is then the diagonal of the parallelogram. The magnitude can be
determined from the length of its arrow using the scale. The direction too can be
determined from the scale diagram.
Example 2.2 Parallelogram Method of Vector Addition

A force of 𝐹1 = 5N is applied to a block in a horizontal direction.

A second force 𝐹2 = 4N is applied to the object at an angle of 30° above the
horizontal.

Determine the resultant force acting on the block using the parallelogram method of
accurate construction.
Solution
Step 1 : Firstly make a rough sketch of the vector diagram

Step 2 : Choose a suitable scale

In this problem a scale of 1 cm = 1 N would be appropriate, since then the vector
diagram would take up a reasonable fraction of the page. We can now begin the
accurate scale diagram.
Step 3 : Draw the first scaled vector

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Let us draw 𝐹1 first. According to the scale it has length 5 cm.

Step 4 : Draw the second scaled vector

Next we draw F2. According to the scale it has length 4 cm. We make use of a
protractor to draw this vector at 30° to the horizontal.

Step 5 : Determine the resultant vector

Next we complete the parallelogram and draw the diagonal.

The resultant has a measured length of 8.7 cm.

Step 6 : Find the direction

We use a protractor to measure the angle between the horizontal and the resultant.
We get 13.3°.

Step 7 : Apply the scale conversion

Finally we use the scale to convert the measured length into the actual magnitude.
Since 1 cm = 1 N, 8.7 cm represents 8.7 N. Therefore the resultant force is 8.7 N at
13,3 above the horizontal.
The parallelogram method is restricted to the addition of just two vectors. However,
it is arguably the most intuitive way of adding two forces acting at a point.
3. Algebraic Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

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Vectors in a Straight Line

Whenever you are faced with adding vectors acting in a straight line (i.e. some
directed left and some right, or some acting up and others down) you can use a very
simple algebraic technique:
Steps in Addition/Subtraction of Vectors in a Straight Line
1. Choose a positive direction. As an example, for situations involving displacements
in the directions west and east, you might choose west as your positive direction. In
that case, displacements east are negative.
2. Next simply add (or subtract) the vectors using the appropriate signs.
3. As a final step the direction of the resultant should be included in words (positive
results are in the positive direction, while negative resultants are in the negative
direction).
When vectors act at an angle, Simple geometric and trigonometric techniques can be
used to find resultant vectors.

Example 2.3
A man walks 40 m East, then 30 m North. Calculate the man’s resultant displacement.
Solution
Step 1: Draw a rough sketch
As before, the rough sketch looks as follows:

Step 2 : Determine the length of the resultant

Note that the triangle formed by his separate displacement vectors and his resultant
displacement vector is a right-angle triangle. We can thus use the Theorem of
Pythagoras to determine the length of the resultant. Let R represent the length of the
resultant vector. Then:
R2 = (40m)2 + (30m)2

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R = √(40m)2 + (30m)2

∴ R = 50m

Step 3 : Determine the direction of the resultant

Now we have the length of the resultant displacement vector but not yet its direction.
To determine its direction we calculate the angle 𝛼 between the resultant
displacement vector and East, by using simple trigonometry:
30m
tanα =
40m

α = tan−1 (30m⁄40m)

α = 36.9°

Step 4 : Quote the resultant

The resultant displacement is then 50 m at 36.9° North of East.
This is exactly the same answer we arrived at after drawing a scale diagram!

Activity 2.3

1. A man walks 40 m East, then 30 m North. Using Head-to-Tail Graphical

Addition:
i. What was the total distance he walked?
ii. What is his resultant displacement?
2. A man walks from point A to point B which is 12 km away on a bearing of
45°. From point B the man walks a further 8 km east to point C. Calculate the
resultant displacement using geometric and trigonometric techniques to find
resultant vectors.

2.3.4 Vector Resolution

A vector can be resolved into x-component and y-component. The sum of these
components is equal to the original resultant vector.
Vector resolution is the process of breaking a vector into its components. The
components of a vector are also vectors and are perpendicular to each other. Vector
resolution can be done anywhere in the Cartesian plane as long as the components of
the vector are perpendicular to each other.
Consider vector OA shown in Figure 2.3 below which is acting at an angle of < 𝐴𝑂𝑋:
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Figure 2.3 Components of Vector OA

In Figure 2.3 𝑂𝐴𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂𝑋𝑌 are x-component and y-component of vector 𝑶𝑨
respectively.
Using trigonometry, you can get the components of the vector shown in Figure 2.3
by:
𝑂𝐴𝑋 = 𝑂𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(< 𝐴𝑂𝑋)
and
𝑂𝐴𝑌 = 𝑂𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(< 𝐴𝑂𝑋)
In general for any given vector Q at any angle of 𝜃 from X-axis, the x-component and
y-components can be found as,
𝑄𝑋 = 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 𝑄𝑌 = 𝑄𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 respectively
Example 2.4
A motorist undergoes a displacement of 250 km in a direction 30° North of East.
Resolve this displacement into components in the directions north and east.
Solution

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Then Eastern component is the same as x-component = 250 cos 30° = 125 𝑘𝑚 and
North component is the same as y-component = 250𝑠𝑖𝑛30° = 216.5 𝑘𝑚

Example 2.5
As a further example of components let us consider a block of mass m placed on a
frictionless surface inclined at some angle 𝜃 to the horizontal. The block will obviously
slide down the incline, but what causes this motion?
The forces acting on the block are its weight, 𝑚𝑔, and the normal force N exerted by
the surface on the object and they are equal. These two forces are shown in the
diagram below.

Resolving weight into its components, we get:

𝐹𝑔// = 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
and
𝐹𝑔 ⊥ = 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
The component of the weight perpendicular to the slope Fg⊥ exactly balances the
normal force N exerted by the surface. The parallel component, however, Fg// is
unbalanced and causes the block to slide down the slope.
Example 2.6
A person going for a walk follows the path shown in Figure below. The total trip
consists of four straight-line paths. At the end of the walk, what is the person’s
resultant displacement measured from the starting point?

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Solution
𝑅𝑥 = 100 − 150𝑐𝑜𝑠30° − 200𝑐𝑜𝑠60° = −129.90 𝑚
𝑅𝑦 = −300 − 150𝑠𝑖𝑛30° + 200𝑠𝑖𝑛60° = −201.79 𝑚
Then, the resultant displacement can be represented in the Figure below:

𝑅 = √(−129.90)2 + (−201.79)2 = 239.99 𝑚

−201.79
∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ( ) = 57.23°
−129.90
𝜃 = 180° + 57.23° = 237.23°
The resultant displacement is 239.99 m at an angle of 57.24° South West or at
237.23°.

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Activity 2.4
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the following four forces
acting at a point by vector resolution method.

2.3.5 Summary

A quantity that has magnitude only is called a scalar quantity. A quantity that has
both magnitude and direction is called a vector quantity.
Addition of vectors can be done graphically by placing the tail of each successive
arrow at the tip of the previous one. The resultant vector, is the arrow drawn from
the tail of the first vector to the tip of the last vector. Two vectors can also be added
using parallelogram method.
Vectors can be added more accurately by adding their components along chosen axis
with the aid of trigonometric functions.

2.3.6 End of unit 2 Exercise

1. Does the odometer of a car measure a scalar or a vector quantity? What about
the speedometer?
2. Two vectors are added together, and their vector sum is zero. What can you
say about the magnitude of direction of the two vectors?
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3. Can the displacement vector for an object moving in two dimensions ever be
longer than the length of the path traveled by the object over the same time
interval? Can it ever be less? Discuss.
4. Two vectors have magnitudes 𝑣1 = 3.5 𝑘𝑚 and 𝑣2 = 4.0 𝑘𝑚. What are the
maximum and the minimum magnitudes of their vector sum?
5. An airplane is traveling 785 km/h in a direction 38.5° West of North.
a. Find the components of the velocity vector in the Northerly and Westerly
directions.
b. How far North and how far West has the plane traveled after 3.00 h?
6. A skier is accelerating down a 30.0° hill at 3.80 m/𝑠 2 . What is the vertical
component of her acceleration? How long will it take her to reach the bottom
of the hill, assuming she starts from rest and accelerates uniformly if the
elevation change is 335m ?
7. Three vectors are shown in Figure below. Their magnitudes are given in
arbitrary units. Determine the sum of the three vectors in terms of:
a. Components
b. Magnitude and angle with respect to x-axis

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Unit 3

Motion in one Dimension

3.0 Introduction
This chapter is about how things move in a straight line (moving in one dimension)
without the cause of the motion. This unit will help you to understand how any
object moves in a straight line, for example a car on the freeway, a soccer ball being
kicked towards the goal or your dog chasing the neighbour’s cat. Three basic ideas
about what it means when something is moving will be discussed. These three ideas
describe different parts of exactly how an object moves and these are: (i) position or
displacement which tells you exactly where the object is, (ii) speed or velocity which
tells you exactly how fast the object’s position is changing (how fast the object is
moving) and (iii) acceleration which tells you exactly how fast the object’s velocity is
changing.

In this unit, you will also learn how to use position, displacement, speed, velocity and
acceleration to describe the motion of simple objects. You will learn how to read and
draw motion graphs. You will further learn about the equations that can be used to
describe motion and how to apply these equations to objects moving in one
dimension.

3.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 State the difference between distance and displacement, speed and velocity
 Explain the difference between average velocity and instantaneous velocity,
average acceleration and instantaneous acceleration
 Draw distance-time graph, velocity-time graph
 Derive the equations of motion for uniform acceleration
 Solve problems of linear motion by applying the derived equations
 Analyse projectile motion

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3.2 Key Terms

Frame of reference

Position

Displacement

Velocity

Speed

Acceleration

3.3 Kinematics in one dimension

Kinematics is the study of motion of an object. In this unit, you are going to learn
motion of an object without considering its cause. The motion of an object can be
described by displacement, velocity, acceleration and time. Recall that displacement,
velocity and acceleration are vectors. They have both magnitudes and directions. This
means that vector methods are employed when dealing with displacement, velocity
and acceleration. To do so, you need a frame of reference.

3.3.1 Frame of Reference

A frame of reference is a reference point combined with a set of direction. For
example, a boy is standing still inside a train as it pulls out of a station. You are
standing on the platform watching the train move from left to right. To you it looks
as if the boy is moving from left to right, because relative to where you are standing
(the platform), he is moving. According to the boy, and his frame of reference (the
train), he is not moving.

Figure 2.3.1 Frame of Reference

From your frame of reference the boy is moving from left to right.

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Displacement is distance covered in a specified direction. It is measured in meters. E.g.

50 m West. Displacement is commonly denoted by letter, s. Figure 3.3.1 Illustrates
displacement.

Figure 3.3.1 Illustrates displacement

From Figure 3.3.1, if you walk from school to the shop following the doted path,
then the displacement is the straight line joining the two points from school to the
shop. The length of the dotted line gives you the distance.

Distance is the total length between two points. The magnitude of displacement gives
you a distance. Distance is also measured in meters, m.

Velocity is the time rate of change of displacement (change in displacement divide by

time). It is measured in meters per second (m/s). It is commonly denoted by 𝑢 for
initial velocity and 𝑣 for final velocity.

Instantaneous velocity is the time rate of change of displacement at an instant time, 𝑡.

(Change of displacement per infinitesimal time interval, limit of displacement as time
approaches to zero i.e
∆𝑆
lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

Average velocity is change of displacement per unit time (total displacement divide by
total time taken)

Acceleration 𝒂, is the time rate of change of velocity. It is measured in (𝑚𝑠 −2 ).

Average acceleration is change of velocity per unit time (total velocity divide by total
time taken)
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Instantaneous acceleration is the time rate of change of displacement at an instant

time, 𝑡. (Change of velocity per infinitesimal time or limit of change of velocity as
time approaches to zero i.e
∆𝑣
lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

3.3.2 Motion graphs

Motion can be presented by a displacement-time graph and velocity-time graph.

3.3.2.1 Displacement-Time graph

Figure 3.3.3. Displacement-Time graph

In a displacement time graph, the gradient (slope) of the graph gives you the velocity.

From figure 3.3.3, The object is starting from rest and moving with constant velocity
between O and A and its velocity is the slope of line segment OA. Between A and B,
the object is not moving and its velocity is zero. The motion of an object between B
and C and C and D are the same as OA and AC respectively. Between D and E the
slope is negative meaning that its velocity is negative. The object is moving back to
the original position.

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3.3.2.2 Velocity-Time graph

Figure 3.3.4

The slope of Velocity-Time graph gives you acceleration.

In Figure 3.3.4, the object moves with uniform acceleration between OA. This means
that its velocity increases uniformly. Between A and B, the object moves with zero
acceleration since its velocity is not changing (it is constant). Between B and C, the
slope is negative. The object is moving with constant negative acceleration
(Deceleration). The velocity between BC is decreasing uniformly.

3.3.3 Equations of Uniform motion (Motion with constant a cceleration)

Consider an object which is initially moving at velocity 𝑢 when you first see it (at 𝑡 =
0). Then during time interval,𝑡, the object increases its velocity uniformly to final
value, 𝑣. During the same interval its displacement increases from zero to s.

The object’s motion is represented by the graph in Figure 3.3.5 below:

Figure 3.3.5

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Recall that acceleration is equal to the gradient of velocity-time graph.

from Figure 3.3.5

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
∆𝑣
𝑎=
∆𝑡
𝑣 −𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡

∴ 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 (3.01)

This is the first equation of motion.

The area under velocity-time graph gives you displacement covered by an object
during the time interval, 𝑡. From the graph in Figure 3.3.5, displacement (s) is equal
to the area under the trapezium. Therefore,

𝑠 = 1/2(𝑢 + 𝑣)𝑡
𝑢+𝑣
∴𝑠= 𝑡 (3.02)
2

This is the second equation of motion.

Substituting equation 3.3.1, into equation 2.3.2 for v, we have:

(𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑢)𝑡
𝑠=
2

This reduces to:

𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 12 𝑎𝑡 2 (3.03)

This is the third equation of motion.

Making t the subject of the formula in equation 3.3.1 you get:

𝑣−𝑢
𝑡= (3.04)
𝑎

Substituting equation 3.04 into equation 3.02 for, 𝑡, you get the last equation of
motion:

𝑣 +𝑢 𝑣 − 𝑢
𝑠= ×
𝑡 𝑎

𝑣 2 − 𝑢2
𝑠=
2𝑎
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∴ 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 (3.05)

You will be using these equations to solve problems of motion with constant velocity.
For free-fall motion i.e. motion under the influence of gravity, you substitute
acceleration, 𝑎, with acceleration due to gravity, 𝑔.

Example 3.1

A race car starting from rest accelerates at a rate of 5.00 𝑚/𝑠 2 . What is the velocity of
the car after it has travelled 100 ft? Given that 1 m=3.281 ft.

Solution

1m=3.281 ft →1ft=0.305 m

Thus, 100 ft = 30.50 m

We have been given

U=0 m/s, a=+5 m/𝑠 2 , x=30.5 m, v=?

We apply the following equation:

𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎∆𝑥

𝑣 2 = 02 + 2(5𝑚/𝑠 2 )(30.5 𝑚)

𝑣 = ∓√305 𝑚2 /𝑠 2 = ∓17.5 𝑚/𝑠

The car is travelling to the right, we choose +17.5 m/s as the correct solution for final
velocity v.

Example 3.2

A car travelling at a constant speed of 30.0 m/s passes a trooper hidden behind a
billboard. One second after the speeding car passes the billboard, the trooper sets off
in chase with a constant acceleration of 3.00 m/𝑠 2 . How long does it take the trooper
to overtake the speeding car?

Solution

The car is travelling at a constant speed, therefore, its acceleration is zero and

1
∆𝑥 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡2

1
𝑥 𝑐 = 𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡2

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𝑥 𝑐 = 30 + 30𝑡

For the trooper who starts from rest i.e 𝑡𝑖 = 0, 𝑥 𝑖 = 0, 𝑣𝑖 = 0 and 𝑎 = 3𝑚/𝑠 2 , we
have
1
𝑥 𝑇 = 𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2

1
𝑥 𝑇 = (3.00 𝑚/𝑠 2 )𝑡 2
2

The trooper overtakes the car at the instant that 𝑥 𝑐 = 𝑥 𝑇

1
30 + 30𝑡 = 2 (3.00)𝑡 2

This reduces to:

𝑡 2 − 20𝑡 − 20 = 0

−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑡=
2𝑎

−(−20) ± √(−20)2 − 4 × 1 × (−20)

𝑡=
2×1
From which we get:

𝑡 = 21.0𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = −0.95𝑠

Time is never negative. Therefore, the trooper overtakes the car at t=21.0 s.

3.3.4 Freely falling object

A freely falling object is the one moving under the influence of gravity only regardless
of its initial motion.

Objects thrown upward or downward and those released from rest are all falling
freely once they are released.

Once they are in free fall, all objects have acceleration downward, which is free-fall
acceleration g.

The equations describing free fall motion are the same as those of an object moving
with constant acceleration along x-axis with the substitutions𝑥 = 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = 𝑔.

For a downward motion 𝑎 = 𝑔, because the object moves in the direction of the
gravity.

For upward motion𝑎 = −𝑔, since the object is moves against the gravity.

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For a freely falling object, 𝑎 = 𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑖 = 0, since it starts from rest.

Example 3.3

A golf ball is released from rest at top of a very tall building. Neglecting air resistance,
calculate the position and velocity of the ball after 1.00 s.

Solution

Taking the downward motion to be positive we have:

𝑦𝑖 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣𝑖 = 0, 𝑎 = 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2
1
∆𝑦 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2

1
𝑦 = (9.8)(1.00)2
2

𝑦 = +4.90 𝑚

𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡

𝑣𝑓 = 0 + 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 (1.00𝑠)

∴ 𝑣𝑓 = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠

Example 3.4

A stone is thrown from the top of a building with an initial velocity of 20 𝑚/𝑠 straight
upward. The building is 50.0 m high, and the stone just misses the edge of the roof
on its way down. Determine:

(a) The time needed for the stone to reach its maximum height
(b) The maximum height
(c) The time needed for the stone to return to the level of the thrower
(d) The velocity of the stone at this instant
(e) The velocity of the stone at t=5.00 s.

Solution

Sketch

𝑣𝑖

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Unit 3: Mechanics
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50.0 𝑚

𝑣𝑓

(a) Taking the upward direction to be negative and downward to be positive and
noticing that at maximum height 𝑣𝑓 = 0, we get:
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
−20.0 𝑚/𝑠 + 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 𝑡 = 0
20.0
𝑡= 𝑠 = 2.04 𝑠
9.8
(b) To find the maximum height we use:
1
𝑦 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2
𝑚 1 9.80𝑚
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (−20.0 ) (2.04 𝑠) + 2 ( 2 ) ((2.04 𝑠)2 ) = −20.4 𝑚
𝑠 𝑠
(c) When the stone is back, ∆𝑦 = 0, then,
1
∆𝑦 = −𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 2 𝑔𝑡 2
1
0 = −20.0𝑡 + (9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )𝑡 2
2

Solving for t, we get 𝑡 = 0 or 𝑡 = 4.08 𝑠

𝑡 = 0 Corresponds to the time at which the stone starts its motion. 𝑡 = 4.08 is
the time taken for the ball to return to the level of the thrower.
(d) The velocity of the ball as it reaches back to the level of the thrower:
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑣𝑓 = −20.0 𝑚/𝑠 + 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 (4.08 𝑠) = +20.0 𝑚/𝑠
Notice that the velocity of the stone when it arrives back at its original height is
equal in magnitude to the stone’s initial velocity but opposite in direction.
(e) To get the velocity and position of the stone at t=5.00 s
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
Taking the upward motion to be negative and downward motion to be
positive, we have:
𝑣𝑓 = −20.0 𝑚/𝑠 + (9.8 𝑚/𝑠)(5.00𝑠) = 29.0 𝑚/𝑠
We now find the position by
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Unit 3: Mechanics
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1
∆𝑦 = (−20.0 𝑚/𝑠)(5 𝑠) + 2 (9.80𝑚/𝑠 2 )(5.00𝑠)2 = 22.5 𝑚

Activity 3.1

1. In example 2.4 find the velocity of the stone just before it hits the ground.
2. An airplane accelerates down a runway at 3.20 𝑚/𝑠 2 for 32.8 s until is finally
lifts off the ground. Determine the distance travelled before taking off.
3. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly over a time of 5.21 s for a
distance of 100 m. Determine the acceleration of the car.
4. The driver of a car travelling at 72km/h observes the light 300 m ahead of
turning red. The traffic light is timed to remain red for 20 s before it turns
green. If the motorist wishes to pass the light without stopping to wait for it to
turn green, determine:
i. The required uniform acceleration of the car
ii. The speed with which the motorist crosses the traffic light
5. A stone is dropped from the top of the tower 50 m high. At the same time
another stone is thrown up from the foot of the tower with a velocity of
25 𝑚𝑠 −1 . At what distance from the top and after how much time the stones
cross each other?

3.3.5 Unit 3 Summary

Kinematics deals with the description of object’s motion. The description of the
motion any object must always be given relative reference frame.

The displacement of an object is the change in position of the object

Average speed is the distance travelled divided by the elapsed time. An object’s
velocity over a particular time interval ∆𝑡 is the displace is the displacement ∆𝑥
divided by ∆𝑡.

Instantaneous velocity, whose magnitude is the average velocity taken over an

infinitesimal short time interval

Acceleration is the change of velocity per unit time.

Instantaneous acceleration is the average acceleration taken over infinitesimal time

interval.

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If an object moves in a straight line with constant acceleration, the velocity 𝑣 and
position ∆𝑥 are related to the acceleration 𝑎, the elapse time t and the initial velocity
𝑢 by the following equations:
𝑣+𝑢
𝑣𝑎𝑣 = (1)
2

𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 (2)

∆𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡 + 12 𝑎𝑡 2 (3)

𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎∆𝑥 (4)

Objects that move vertically near the surface of the Earth, either falling or having
been thrown up or down, move with constant downward acceleration due to gravity
with magnitude 𝑔 = 9.80 𝑚/𝑠 2, if air resistance is ignored.

3.3.6 End of unit 3 Exercise

1. A race car accelerates uniformly from 18.5 m/s to 46.1 m/s in 2.47 seconds.
Determine the acceleration of the car and the distance travelled.
2. A feather is dropped on the moon from a height of 1.40 meters. The
acceleration of gravity on the moon is 1.67 m/s2. Determine the time for the
feather to fall to the surface of the moon.
3. Rocket-powered sleds are used to test the human response to acceleration. If a
rocket-powered sled is accelerated to a speed of 444 m/s in 1.83 seconds, then
what is the acceleration and what is the distance that the sled travels?
4. A bike accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 7.10 m/s over a distance of
35.4 m. Determine the acceleration of the bike.
5. A kangaroo is capable of jumping to a height of 2.62 m. Determine the takeoff
speed of the kangaroo.
6. If Michael Jordan has a vertical leap of 1.29 m, then what is his takeoff speed
and his hang time (total time to move upwards to the peak and then return to
the ground)?
7. An 18 year old runner complete a 10.0 km course with an average speed of
4.39 m/s. a 50 year old runner can cover the same distance with an average
speed of 4.27 m/s. How much later (in seconds) the younger runner starts the
race in order to finish the course at the same time as the older runner?

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Unit 3: Mechanics
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8. The space Shuttle travels at a speed of about 7.6 × 103 𝑚/𝑠. The brink of an
astronaut’s eye lasts about 110 ms. How many football fields (length =91.4 m)
does the Shuttle cover in the blink of an eye?
9. A tourist in Nyika national park being chased by an angry elephant is running
in a straight line toward his car at a speed of 4.0 m/s. The car is at a distance d
away. The elephant is 26 m behind the tourist and running at 6.0 m/s. The
tourist reaches the car safely. What is the maximum possible value for d?
10. The left ventricle of the heart accelerates blood from rest to a velocity 0f +26
cm/s.
a. If the displacement of the blood is +2.0 cm, determine its acceleration (in
cm/𝑠 2 )
b. How much time does the blood take to reach its final velocity?
11. A dog running at 10 m/s is 30 m behind a rabbit moving at 5 m/s. When will
the dog catch up with the rabbit assuming both their velocities remain constant
during the chase?
12. A small rocket is launched vertically from rest and reaches an altitude of h. the
acceleration is constant at 11.5 𝑚/𝑠 2 until the fuel burns out after 5.8 s.
Assuming that from the point of burn-out onwards the rocket is travelling
freely vertically upwards with constant deceleration 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 , find the
value of h.

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Unit 3: Mechanics
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Unit 4

Motion in two dimensions

4.0 Introduction
In our discussion of one dimensional motion in Unit 3, we used the concept of
vectors only to a limited extent. Positive sign or negative sign, up or down, North or
South, East or West can be used to indicate direction of an object moving in one
dimension. However these methods of indicating direction cannot work with an
object moving in two dimensions. In this unit we will employ vector manipulation
techniques we learned in unit 2 such as vector resolution when dealing with motion
in two dimensions. We will apply these mathematical tools to special two
dimensional motions called projectile and to the understanding of relative motion. As
it was in chapter 3 we discus motion in two dimensions in this unit, without
considering the cause of the motion.

4.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Define projectile motion


4.2 Key words

Projectile

Trajectory

Angle of projection

Velocity of projection

Time of fright

Range

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Unit 4: Mechanics
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4.3.1 Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration in Two dimensions

Consider an object moving in space as shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 4.1 Displacement of an object in two dimension s

The object moves from initial point P at time 𝑡𝑖 to point Q at time 𝑡𝑓 then:

An object’s displacement in two dimensions is defined as the change in its position

vector given by:

∆𝒓 = 𝒓𝒇 − 𝒓𝑖 (4.01)

Its SI unit: meter (m)

We can now present the generalisations of the definitions of velocity and acceleration
given in unit 3 as follows:

An object’s average velocity during time interval ∆𝑡 is its displacement divide by ∆𝑡:

∆𝒓
𝒗𝑎𝑣 = (4.02)
∆𝑡

Its SI unit: meter per second (m/s)

An object’s instantaneous velocity is the limit of its average velocity as ∆𝑡 goes to

zero:

∆𝑟
lim (𝟒. 𝟎𝟑)
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

Its SI unit: meter per second squared (m/s)

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Unit 4: Mechanics
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The direction of the instantaneous velocity is along the line that is tangent to the
object’s path and in the direction of motion.

An object’s average acceleration is the change in its velocity divide by time interval:

∆𝑣
𝒂𝑎𝑣 = (𝟒. 𝟎𝟒)
∆𝑡
SI unit: meter per second squared (m/𝑠 2 )

An object’s instantaneous acceleration is the limit of its average acceleration as time

interval goes to zero:

∆𝑟
lim (𝟒. 𝟎𝟓)
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

SI unit: meter per second squared (m/𝑠 2 )

4.3.2 Projectile motion

Projectile motion is a good example of motion of an object moving in two
dimensions. A projectile moves in both x-and y-directions simultaneously.

A body thrown with some initial velocity and then allowed to move under the action
of gravity alone is known as a projectile.
The projectile moves in a path, which can be considered as a part of parabola. Such a
motion is known as projectile motion.
Some examples of projectiles are:
(i) a bomb thrown from an aero plane
(ii) a javelin or a shot-put thrown by an athlete
(iii) motion of a ball hit by a cricket bat
The different types of projectiles are shown in Fig. 4.01.

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Unit 4: Mechanics
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Figure 4.01 Types of projectile motion

A body can be projected in two ways:

i. It can be projected horizontally from a certain height.
ii. It can be thrown from the ground in a direction inclined to it.
The projectiles undergo a vertical motion as well as horizontal motion. The two
components of the projectile motion are
i. vertical component and
ii. Horizontal component
These two components of projectile are perpendicular to each other and are
independent of each other

4.3.2.1 Parts of a Projectile motion:

i. Angle of projection
The angle between the initial direction of projection and the horizontal
direction through the point of projection is called the angle of projection.
ii. Velocity of projection
The velocity with which the body is projected is known as velocity of
projection.
iii. Range
Range of a projectile is the horizontal distance between the point of
projection and the point where the projectile hits the ground.
iv. Trajectory
The path described by the projectile is called the trajectory.
v. Time of flight
Time of flight is the total time taken by the projectile from the instant of
projection till it strikes the ground

4.3.2.2 Motion of a projectile projected at an angle with the horizontal (oblique

projection)
Consider a body projected from a point O on the surface of the
Earth with an initial velocity u at an angle 𝜃 with the horizontal as shown in Fig. 4.02
The velocity u can be resolved into two components

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Unit 4: Mechanics
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Figure 4.02
(i) ux = u cos 𝜃 , along the horizontal direction OX and
(ii) 𝑢 𝑦 = u sin 𝜃, along the vertical direction OY
The horizontal velocity 𝑢 𝑥 of the object shall remain constant as no acceleration is
acting in the horizontal direction. But the vertical component uy of the object
continuously decreases due to the effect of the gravity and it becomes zero when the
body is at the highest point of its path. After this, the vertical component uy is
directed downwards and increases with time till the body strikes the ground at B.
Path of the projectile:
Let 𝑡1 be the time taken by the projectile to reach the point C from the instant of
projection.
Horizontal distance travelled by the projectile in time 𝑡1 is,
𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡
𝑥
𝑥 = (𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑡 → 𝑡 = (𝟒. 𝟎𝟔)
𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

The vertical distance traveled by the projectile, y at time t, is given by

𝑦 = 𝑢 𝑦 𝑡 − 1⁄2 𝑔𝑡 2
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑡 − 1⁄2 𝑔𝑡 2 (𝟒. 𝟎𝟕)
Substituting equation 3.6 into equation 3.7 for time t, you have:
𝑦 = (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑡 − 1⁄2 𝑔𝑡 2
𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 = (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) ( ) − 1⁄2 𝑔( )2
𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑔
𝑦 = (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃)𝑥 − 2
𝑥2 (𝟒. 𝟎𝟖)
(
2 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) )
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Equation 4.3.8 describes the path taken by a projectile as parabolic (quadratic) in

nature which can be rewritten as:
𝑔
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 where a, b and c are constants such that 𝑎 = − 2(𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )2 , 𝑏 =

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = 0
Resultant velocity of the projectile at any instant t

Figure 4.03
At any time, t, 𝑢 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑦𝑓 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡. The
resultant is found by applying Pythagoras theorem:
𝑢 𝑅 = √𝑢 𝑥 2 + 𝑢 𝑦𝑓 2

𝑢 𝑅 = √(𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)2 + (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 − 𝑔𝑡)2 (4.09)

The direction of the resultant velocity can be found by:
𝑢 𝑦𝑓
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 =
𝑢𝑥
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ((𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 − 𝑔𝑡) ⁄ (𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼) (4.10)
where 𝛼 is the angle made by 𝑢 𝑅 with the horizontal line as shown in Figure 3.6
Maximum height reached by the projectile
The maximum vertical displacement produced by the projectile is
known as the maximum height reached by the projectile. In Figure 4.02,
EA is the maximum height attained by the projectile. It is represented
as ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
At O, 𝑢 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 𝑦𝑓 = 0
Using equation 1.3.5 which is 𝑢 𝑦𝑓 2 = 𝑢 𝑦𝑖 2 − 2𝑔𝑠 substituting appropriate variables,
you get 0 = (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 − 2𝑔ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 and making ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 the subject of the formular, you
finally get the maximum height of projectile as:
𝑢2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (4.11)
2𝑔

Time taken to attain maximum height (𝒕𝒎𝒂𝒙 )

You are now familiar with the fact that at O, 𝑢 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑦𝑓 = 0
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Unit 4: Mechanics
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Applying the equation of motion (𝑢 𝑦𝑓 = 𝑢 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑔𝑡) with proper substitutions, you get:
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
0 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡 → 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑔
∴ the time taken for projectile to reach maximum height is given by:
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (4.12)
𝑔

You may also find ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 by substituting 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 into equation 𝑦 = 𝑢 𝑦𝑖 𝑡 − 1⁄2 𝑔𝑡 2 . Do it
as an activity.
Time taken by the projectile for the whole flight (𝒕𝒇𝒕 )
You want to find time taken for the projectile to move from O to B in Figure 4.7
At point B, the projectile has returned to where it started. Therefore, its displacement
at point B is zero. Applying equation 𝑦 = 𝑢 𝑦𝑖 𝑡 − 1⁄2 𝑔𝑡 2 and making substitutions,
you get:
2
0 = (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑡𝑓𝑡 − 1⁄2 𝑔𝑡𝑓𝑡 and solving for 𝑡𝑓𝑡 , you get time for the whole fright as:
2𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑡𝑓𝑡 = (4.13)
𝑔

Note that, the time taken by the projectile for the whole fright is just twice the time
for the projectile to reach maximum height.
Horizontal range (R)
From Figure 4.02, Range R is the distance between OB.
Along OB, the projectile moves with constant velocity i.e it has zero acceleration.
Therefore:
𝑅 = 𝑢 𝑥 𝑡 = (𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑡 , t is time for the whole fright.
2𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑅 = (𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑡𝑓𝑡 = (𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)( )
𝑔
2𝑢2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑅=
𝑔
𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
𝑅= (4.14)
𝑔

Maximum Range
From equation 4.3.13, The Range R is maximum only if 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 is maximum
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 1
2𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1 (1)
2𝜃 = 90°
∴ 𝜃 = 45°

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Unit 4: Mechanics
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Then
𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2 × 45°) 𝑢2 × 1 𝑢2
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = =
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
𝑢2
∴ 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (4.15)
𝑔

Example 4.1
A movie student driver on a motorcycle speeds horizontally off a 50 m high cliff.
How fast must the motorcycle leave the cliff-top if it is to land on level ground
below, 90.0 m from the base of the cliff where the cameras are?

Solution
Sketch diagram

Taking the downward motion to be positive, we have 𝑣0 =?, 𝑦 = 50 𝑚, 𝑔 = 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2

𝑥 = 90 𝑚, and 𝑣0𝑦 = 0 since it speeds horizontally,
1
𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜𝑦 𝑡 + 2 𝑔𝑡 2
1
50 = 2 (9.8)𝑡 2
Solving for t, we get t=3.19 s.
To get the initial velocity, 𝑣0𝑥 , we apply:
𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜𝑥 𝑡
90 = 𝑣𝑜𝑥 (3.19)
We solve for𝑣0𝑥 , and get:
𝑣0𝑥 = 28.2 𝑚/𝑠

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Unit 4: Mechanics
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Example 4.2
A football is kicked at an angle 𝜃 = 37.0° with velocity of 20 𝑚/𝑠. Calculate the
maximum height reached by the ball.
Solution
At maximum height 𝑣0𝑦 = 0, and this occurs at time
𝑣𝑜𝑦 (sin 𝜃)
𝑡=
𝑔
20.0 sin 37.0°
𝑡= = 1.22 𝑠
9.8
We the find the maximum height:
1
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜𝑦 𝑡 + 2 𝑔𝑡 2
And taking the upward to be negative and the downward to be positive, we have:
1 𝑚
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (−20 sin 37°)(1.22 𝑠) + 2 (9.8 ) (1.22 𝑠)2 = 7.35 𝑚
𝑠2
Activity 4.1
1. A tiger leaps horizontally from a 7.5 m high rock with a speed of 4.5 m/s. how
far from the base of the rock will she land?
2. A diver running 1.6 m/s dives out horizontally from the edge of a vertical cliff
and reaches the water below 3.0 s later. How high was the cliff and how far
from its base did the diver hit the water?
3. In example 3.2 calculate:
(a) The time of travel before the football hits the ground
(b) How far away it hits the ground
(c) The velocity vector at the maximum height
(d) The acceleration vector at the maximum height

4.3.3 Relative motion

Relative motion is about relating the measurements of two different observers, one
moving with respect to the other. Measurements of velocities depend on the
reference frame of the observer. Recall that reference frames are just the coordinate
systems from which motion measurements are based. Most of the time we use a
stationary frame of reference relative to the Earth, but occasionally we use a moving
frame of reference associated with a bus, car or a plane moving with constant velocity
relative to the Earth.
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In two dimensions, let E be an observer, assumed stationary with respect to the Earth.
Let two cars labeled A and B, and introduce the following notation see Figure 4.02.
𝑟𝐴𝐸 = the position of Car A as measured by E (in a coordinate system fixed with
respect to the Earth)
𝑟𝐵𝐸 = the position of Car B as measured by E
𝑟𝐴𝐵 = the position of Car A as measured by an observer in Car B
Then:
𝒓𝐴𝐵 = 𝒓𝐴𝐸 − 𝒓𝐵𝐸 (4.16)
And the rate of change of these quantities with time gives us relative velocities as:
𝒗𝐴𝐵 = 𝒗𝐴𝐸 − 𝒗𝐵𝐸 (4.17)

For any two objects or reference frames, A and B, the velocity of A relative to B has
the same magnitude, but opposite direction, as the velocity of B relative to A:
𝑣𝐵𝐴 = −𝑣𝐴𝐵 (4.17)

Example 4.1
A boat’s speed in still water is 𝑣𝐵𝑊 = 2.00 𝑚/𝑠. If the boat is to travel directly across a
river whose current has speed of 𝑣𝑊𝑆 = 1.50 𝑚/𝑠 , at what upstream angle must the
boat head?
Solution
Letting 𝑣𝐵𝑆 be the velocity of boat as seen from the shore, the situation can be
presented diagrammatically as follows:

𝑣𝑊𝑆 1.50 𝑚/𝑠

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = =
𝑣𝐵𝑊 2.00 𝑚/𝑠
1.50
𝜃 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 −1 ( )
2.00
∴ 𝜃 = 48.59°
So the boat must head upstream at 48.59° angle.

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Example 4.2
The same boat in example 4.1,(𝑣𝐵𝑊 = 2.00 𝑚/𝑠) now heads directly across the stream
whose current is still 1.5 m/s.
(a) What is the velocity of (magnitude and direction) of the boat relative to the
shore?
(b) If the river is 110 m wide, how long will it take to cross and how far
downstream will the boat be then?
Solution
(a)

𝒗𝐵𝑆 = 𝒗𝐵𝑊 + 𝒗𝑊𝑆

𝑣𝐵𝑆 = √𝑣 2 𝐵𝑊 + 𝑣 2 𝑊𝑆 = √(2.00 𝑚/𝑠)2 + (1.50 𝑚/𝑠)2
𝑣𝐵𝑆 = 2.5 𝑚/𝑠
(b) Given the river’s width 𝐷 = 110 𝑚, and using the definition of velocity, we
solve for
𝐷
𝑡=
𝑣𝐵𝑊
110 𝑚
𝑡= = 55 𝑠
2.00 𝑚/𝑠
The boat will have been carried downstream in this time a distance of:
𝑑 = 𝑣𝑊𝑆 𝑡 = (1.50 𝑚/𝑠)(55 𝑠) = 82.5 𝑚
Activity 4.2
(1) A plane whose air speed is 200 km/h heads due North. But a 100 km/h
northeast wind suddenly begins to blow. What is the resulting velocity of
the plane with respect to the ground?
Solution

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Let 𝑣𝐴𝑃 be the velocity of the plane relative to air, 𝑣𝐴𝐺 be the velocity of air
relative to the ground and 𝑣𝑃𝐺 be the velocity of the plane relative to the
ground:
Then 𝑣𝑃𝐺 = 𝑣𝑃𝐴 + 𝑣𝐴𝐺

From the sketch diagram, we find:

𝑣𝐴𝐺𝑥 = −𝑣𝐴𝐺 cos 45° = −(100 𝑘𝑚/ℎ)(cos 45°) = −70.7 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
𝑣𝐴𝐺𝑦 = −𝑣𝐴𝐺 sin 45° = −(100 𝑘𝑚/ℎ)(sin 45°) = −70.7 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
𝑣𝑃𝐴𝑥 = 0 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
𝑣𝑃𝐴𝑥 = 200 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
Then:
𝑣𝑃𝐺𝑥 = 0 𝑘𝑚/ℎ + (−70.7 𝑘𝑚/ℎ) = −70.7 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
𝑣𝑃𝐺𝑥 = 200 𝑘𝑚/ℎ + (−70.7 𝑘𝑚/ℎ) = 129 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
We now sketch the resultant 𝑣𝑃𝐺 as follows:

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Applying Pythagoras theorem

𝑣𝑃𝐺 = √𝑣 2 𝑃𝐺𝑥 + 𝑣 2 𝑃𝐺𝑦

= √(−70.7)2 + (129)2 = 147 𝑘𝑚/ℎ

To find the angle 𝜃 that 𝑣𝑃𝐺 makes with the x axis, we use:
𝑣𝑃𝐺𝑦 129 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
tan 𝜃 = =
𝑣𝑃𝐺𝑥 −70.7 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
And
129
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 (−70.7) = −61.3° with respect to negative x-axis.

4.3.4 Summary
An object moving in both x-direction and y-direction simultaneously is said to
undergo two dimensional motions. Graphical methods of vector addition and vector
resolution are much involved in analysis of two dimensional motions.

An object that moves under the influence of acceleration due to gravity is said to
undergo projectile motion. The path it takes is called trajectory and it is parabolic in
nature.

The velocity of an object relative to one frame of reference can be found by vector
addition if its velocity relative to a second frame of reference and the relative velocity
of the two reference frames are known.
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4.3.5 End of Unit 4 Exercise

A boy on a small hill aims his water-balloon slingshot horizontally, straight at a

second boy hanging from a tree branch a distance d away. At the instant the water
balloon is released, the second boy lets go and falls from the tree, hoping to avoid
being hit. Show that he made the wrong move; he had not studied physics yet.
1. A ball is thrown horizontally from the roof of a building 56 m tall and lands
45 m from the base. What was the ball’s initial speed?
2. A fire hose held near the ground shoots water at a speed of 6.5 m/s. at what
angle(s) should the nozzle point in order that the water land 2.0 m away?
Why are there two different angles?
3. Romeo is chucking pebbles gently up to Juliet’s window, and he wants the
pebbles to hit the window with only a horizontal component of velocity. He is
standing at the edge of a rose garden 8.0 m below her window and 9. 0 m
from the base of the wall. How fast are the pebbles going when they hit her
window?
4. A projectile is fired in such a way that its horizontal range is equal to three
times its maximum height. What is the angle of projection?
5. A rock is thrown upward from the level ground in such a way that the
maximum height of its flight is equal to its horizontal range d. (a) At what
angle ' is the rock thrown? (b) What If? Would your answer to part (a) be
different on a different planet? (c) What is the range dmax the rock can attain
if it is launched at the same speed but at the optimal angle for maximum
range?
6. An astronaut on a strange planet finds that she can jump a maximum
horizontal distance of 15.0 m if her initial speed is 3.00 m/s. What is the free-
fall acceleration on the planet?
7. A 2.00-m-tall basketball player is standing on the floor 10.0 m from the basket,
as in Figure below. If he shoots the ball at a 40.0° angle with the horizontal, at
what initial speed must he throw the basketball so that it goes through the
hoop without striking the backboard? The height of the basket is 3.05 m.

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8. If you are in riding on a train that speeds past another train moving in the
same direction on an adjacent track, it appears that the slower moving train is
moving backwards. Why?
9. Two soccer players; Nyamane and Lukhelero, approach the centre of the field
at right angle to each other. Nyamane runs with velocity of 30 km/h and
Lukhelero runs with velocity of 50 km/h as shown in the diagram below:

What is the velocity of Nyamane as seen by Lukhelero? What is the velocity of

Lukhelero as seen by Nyamane?
10. A passenger on a boat moving at 1.50 m/s on a still lake walks up a fright of
stairs at a speed of 0.50 m/s. the stairs are angled at 45° pointing in the
direction of motion of the boat. What is the velocity of the passenger relative
to the water?
11. Two planes approach each other head-on. Each has a speed of 835 km/h, and
they spot each other when they are initially 10.0 km apart. How much time
do the pilots have to take evasive action? Answer: 21.60 s
12. A passenger on a boat moving at 1.50 m/s on a still lake walks up a fright of
stairs at a speed of 0.50 m/s. the stairs are angled at 45° pointing in the
direction of motion of the boat. What is the velocity of the passenger relative
to the water?

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Unit 4: Mechanics
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Unit 5

Forces and Motion

5.0 Introduction
In Kinematics; units 3 and 4, we studied motion excluding what caused the motion.
Motion was discussed in terms of displacement, acceleration and acceleration. Now
we deal with the question of why objects move. What causes an object to accelerate
or decelerate? We can answer in each case that a net force is needed to cause motion.
We recall what a force is and learn about how force and motion are related. We will
then be introduced to Newton’s three laws of motion. We will finally deal with a
retarding force called friction.

5.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Define force

 Define friction force

 State Newton’s laws of motion

 Apply Newton’s laws of motion in problem solving

 Solve problems related to friction force

5.2 Key Terms

Force

Net force/ resultant force

Newton’s first law of motion

Newton’s second law of motion

Newton’s third law of motion

5.3 Force and Motion

5.3.1 What is force?

A force is anything that can cause a change to an object. Forces can:

 Change the shape of an object

 Move or stop an object
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 Change the direction of a moving object

 Produce heat in an object

A force can be contact or noncontact

A contact force is in contact with an object to cause a change e.g

 The force that is used to push or pull things, like on a door to open or close it
 The force that a sculptor uses to turn clay into a port
 The force of the wind to turn the windmill

A non-contact force does not have to touch an object to cause a change. E.g

 Gravitational force, like the earth pulling the moon towards itself
 Electric force, like a proton and an electron attracting each other
 Magnetic force, like a magnet pulling a paper clip towards itself

The unit of force is Newton (N). 1 Newton is a force that produces an acceleration of
1𝑚𝑠 −2 when applied on a mass of 1 kg. i.e 1𝑁 = 1𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −2 . Force is a vector physical
quantity i.e it is completely described by both magnitude and direction.

Resultant force or net force is a single force representing the vector sum of the forces
that act on the object.

Activity 5.1

1. Find the resultant force of the two forces 𝐹1 = 3 𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹2 = 4 𝑁 which are at
an angle of 60° to each other.

5.3.2 Newton’s laws of motion

5.3.2.1 Newton’s first law of motion
It states that an object will remain at its state of rest or state of motion with constant
velocity except when it is acted upon by a non-zero net force. This means that force is
not needed to maintain its motion. According to this law, an object may either be in
a static or dynamic equilibrium.

Newton’s first law is also called the law of inertia. Inertia is the resistance (inability) of
an object to start moving or to stop moving once it started.

This resistance is directly proportional to the mass of object.

There are three types of inertia:

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(i) Inertia of rest

It is the inability of the body to change its state of rest by itself.
Examples
(i) A person standing in a bus falls backward when the bus suddenly starts moving.
This is because, the person who is initially at rest continues to be at rest even after the
bus has started moving.
(ii) A book lying on the table will remain at rest, until it is moved by some external
agencies.
(iii) When a carpet is beaten by a stick, the dust particles fall off vertically downwards
once they are released and do not move along the carpet and fall off.
(ii) Inertia of motion
Inertia of motion is the inability of the body to change its state of motion by itself.
Examples
(a) When a passenger gets down from a moving bus, he falls down in the direction of
the motion of the bus.
(b) A passenger sitting in a moving car falls forward, when the car stops suddenly.
(c) An athlete running in a race will continue to run even after reaching the finishing
point.
(iii) Inertia of direction
It is the inability of the body to change its direction of motion by itself.
Examples
When a bus moving along a straight line takes a turn to the right, the passengers are
thrown towards left. This is due to inertia which makes the passengers travel along
the same straight line, even though the bus has turned towards the right.

From the first law, you can infer that to change the state of rest or uniform motion,
an external agency called force is required.
Therefore, force can also be defined as an agency which when acting on a body
changes or tends to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of the body along a
straight line.

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Mass and Inertia

You recall that Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist being accelerated by a
force and that inertia depends on mass.

Therefore mass, m, can be defined as a measure of an object’s inertia

Mass can also be defined as a measure of the quantity of substance in a physical object

The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg).

Mass is a scalar quantity

Mass is not weight; mass is a property of an object, whereas weight is the force
exerted on the object by gravity.

5.3.2.2 Newton’s Second Law of Motion and Weight

It can be stated as acceleration is equal to force divided by mass
Expressed by the equation:
𝐅𝐑 = m𝐚 (5.04)
Equation 5.04 can also be written as:
∑ 𝐅 = m𝐚 (5.05)
Writing equation 5.05 in Vector components you get:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝒂𝑥 (5.06)
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝒂𝑦 (5.07)

From Newton’s Second Law of motion, the magnitude of gravitational force (weight) can be
found by:
𝑭𝒈 = 𝑚𝒈 (5.08)
Where 𝐹𝑔 is gravitational force, m is the mass of an object and g is the object’s acceleration
due to gravity.

5.3.2.3 Newton’s Third Law of Motion

This law is the action-reaction law. It states that
“To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction”
OR
“If object A exerts a force on object B then object B exerts a force on object A that is
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction”
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Newton’s third law of motion implies that if an object A exerts force on object B,
then object B will exert an equal amount of force on object A but in opposite
direction. These forces do not cancel each other because they act on different objects.
The effect of third law of motion can be observed in many activities in our everyday
life. Some examples are:
(i) When a bullet is fired from a gun with a certain force (action), there is an equal
and opposite force exerted on the gun in the backward direction (reaction).
(ii) When a man jumps from a boat to the shore, the boat moves away from him. The
force he exerts on the boat (action) is responsible for its motion and his motion to the
shore is due to the force of reaction exerted by the boat on him.
(iv) The swimmer pushes the water in the backward direction with a certain force
(action) and the water pushes the swimmer in the forward direction with an
equal and opposite force (reaction).

5.3.3 Application of Newton’s Laws of motion

The following steps can be followed when solving problems related to Newton’s
laws of motion:
1. Read the problem carefully at least once
2. Draw a picture of the system, identify the object of primary interest, and indicate
forces with arrows
3. Label each force in the picture in the way that will bring to mind what physical
quantity the label stands for e.g T is for tension
4. Draw a free body diagram of the object of interest, based on the labeled picture.
If additional objects are involved, draw separate free-body diagrams for them.
Choose convenient coordinates for for each object
5. Apply Newton’s second law. The x-and y-components of Newton’s second law
should be taken from the vector equation and written individually. This usually
result in two equations and two unknowns
6. Solve for the desired unknown quantity, and substitute the numbers

5.3.3.1 Objects in translational Equilibrium

Objects that are at rest or are moving with constant velocity are said to be in
equilibrium. In this situation acceleration 𝒂 is zero and Newton’s second law applied
to an object in translational equilibrium gives:
∑𝑭 = 0 (5.09)
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This equations tells you that the vector sum of all forces (net force) acting on an
object in equilibrium is equal to zero.
Equation 5.09 can be written in the following equivalent vector forms in two
dimensions:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 (5.10)
Note that an object at rest and an object moving with constant velocity are both at
translational equilibrium because in both cases acceleration is zero giving us a net
force equal to zero.
Example
A brick of mass 3 kg hangs from a vertical cable tied to two other cables that are
fastened to a support as shown in the Figure below. Find the tension in each of the
three cables.

Solution
We draw the free-fall diagrams:

(a) (b)
From the first free-fall diagram (a) we write the following equation:
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∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 𝑇3 − 𝐹𝑔 = 0

𝑇3 = 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 = 3𝑘𝑔(9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )
𝑇3 = 29.4 𝑁
We write the two equations from the second free-fall diagram (b):

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝑇2 𝐶𝑜𝑠53° − 𝑇1 𝐶𝑜𝑠37° = 0 (𝑖 )

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 𝑇2 𝑆𝑖𝑛53° + 𝑇1 𝑆𝑖𝑛37° − 𝑇3 = 0 (𝑖𝑖)

𝐶𝑜𝑠 37°
From Equation I, 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 ( ) = 1.327𝑇1
𝐶𝑜𝑠 53°

Substitute this result into ii,

1.327𝑇1 𝑆𝑖𝑛53° + 𝑇1 𝑆𝑖𝑛37° − 𝑇3 = 0
𝑇3 29.4
𝑇1 = = = 17.690 𝑁
1.327𝑆𝑖𝑛 53° + 𝑆𝑖𝑛37° 1.662
𝑇1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 37°
𝑇2 𝐶𝑜𝑠53° = 𝑇1 𝐶𝑜𝑠37° → 𝑇2 =
𝐶𝑜𝑠 53°
17.690𝐶𝑜𝑠 37°
= = 23.475 𝑁
𝐶𝑜𝑠 53°
Example
A sled is tied to a tree on a frictionless, snow-covered hill as shown in the Figure
below. If the sled weighs 77.0 N, find the magnitude of the tension 𝑻 exerted by the
rope on the sled and the normal force 𝒏 exerted by the hill on the sled.

Solution
Draw a free-fall diagram

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𝑛 − 𝑚𝑔𝐶𝑜𝑠 30° = 0
𝑛 = 𝑚𝑔𝐶𝑜𝑠 30° = 77.0𝐶𝑜𝑠30° = 66.68 𝑁
𝑇 + 𝑓 − 𝑚𝑔𝑆𝑖𝑛 30°
𝑇 + 0 − 77.0𝑆𝑖𝑛 30°
𝑇 = 77.0𝑆𝑖𝑛 30° = 38.5 𝑁
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇 = 66.68 N and normal force n=38.50 N

5.3.3.2 Accelerating objects and Newton’s second law

When a net force acts on an object, the object accelerates and Newton’s second Law
is applied.
Example
The weight of a box containing books is 300 N. If a student pulls on the rope with a
constant force of 20 n, what is the acceleration of the crate and how far will it move
in 2.00 s? Assume the box starts from the rest and that there is no friction between
the surface and the box.
Solution

F=20 N

And its free-fall diagram is

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There is no motion in y direction and therefore no acceleration in y direction

300
We find mass from 𝑚𝑔 = 300 𝑁 → 𝑚 = = 30.6 𝑘𝑔
9.8

𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐹
20 𝑁
𝑎𝑥 = = 0.654 𝑚/𝑠 2
30.6 𝑘𝑔
We now apply the following equation of motion:
1
𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥 𝑖 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡2
1
𝑥𝑓 − 0 = (0)(2.00 𝑠) + 2 (0.654 ) (2.00 𝑠)2 = 1.308 𝑚
Example
A toy car of mass 0.5 kg is on a frictionless inclined plane at an angle of 20°.
(a) Determine its acceleration down the incline plane.
(b) If the length of the incline plane is 5.0 m and the car starts from rest at the top,
how long does it take to travel to the bottom?
(c) What is the car’s speed at the bottom?
Solution
(a) Free-fall diagram:

𝑚𝑔𝑆𝑖𝑛 20° = 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑚𝑔𝑆𝑖𝑛 20° 9.8𝑚
𝑎𝑥 = = 𝑔𝑆𝑖𝑛 20° = ( 2 ) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 20° = 3.352𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑚 𝑠

(b) ∆𝑥 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 12 𝑎𝑡 2
1
5.0 = (0)𝑡 + 2 (3.352)𝑡 2

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5.0 × 2
𝑡 =√ = 1.727 𝑠
3.352

(c) 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑣𝑓 = 0 + (3.352 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(1.727 𝑠) = 5.789 𝑚/𝑠
Example
Two objects of mass 𝑚 1 and 𝑚 2 , with 𝑚 2 > 𝑚 1, are connected by a light, inextensible
cord and hung over a frictionless pulley, as in the Figure below. Both cord and pulley
have negligible mass. Find the magnitude of the acceleration of the system and the
tension in the cord.

Solution
the following are the free-fall diagrams for 𝑚 1 and 𝑚 2 :

For 𝑚 1, we write the following Equation:

𝑇 − 𝑚 1 𝑔 = 𝑚 1 𝑎𝑦 (𝑖)
For 𝑚 2 , we have the following Equation:
𝑚 2 𝑔 − 𝑇 = 𝑚 2 𝑎𝑦 (𝑖𝑖)
Adding the two equations, you get:
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( 𝑚 2 − 𝑚 1 ) 𝑔 = ( 𝑚 2 + 𝑚 1 ) 𝑎𝑦
(𝑚 2 − 𝑚 1 )𝑔
𝑎𝑦 =
(𝑚 2 + 𝑚 1 )
Lets use Equation I to get T:
𝑇 = 𝑚 1 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑚 1 𝑔 and Substituting𝑎𝑦 , we get:
(𝑚 2 − 𝑚 1 )𝑔
𝑇 = 𝑚1 ( ) + 𝑚1𝑔
(𝑚 2 + 𝑚 1 )
After further simplification, we get:
2𝑚 1 𝑚 2 𝑔
𝑇=
(𝑚 2 + 𝑚 1 )
Note that the acceleration of the second block is the same as that of the first, but
negative. When 𝑚 2 gets very large compared with 𝑚 1, the acceleration of the system
approaches g, as expected, because 𝑚 2 is falling nearly freely under the influence of
gravity. Indeed, 𝑚 2 is only slightly restrained by the much lighter 𝑚 1.
Activity 5.1
1. Why does a child in a wagon seem to fall backward when you give the wagon
a sharp pull?
2. A ball of mass 𝑚 1 and a block of mass 𝑚 2 are attached by a lightweight cord
that passes over a frictionless pulley of negligible mass, as in Figure below. The
block lies on a frictionless incline of angle 𝜃. Find the magnitude of the
acceleration of the two objects and the tension in the cord.

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5.3.4 Friction Force

Consider a applied force F on a brick at rest on the surface as shown in the Figure
below:

The applied force F is opposed by friction force, 𝑓. Before the brick starts moving 𝐹 is
equal to 𝑓 and 𝑓𝑠 is directly proportional to the applied force 𝐹 until 𝑓𝑠 reaches its
maximum value 𝑓𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 as shown in the graph of Figure

𝑓𝑠 is maximum when the brick is on the verge of moving. At this point F

exceeds𝑓𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 , the brick accelerates to the right. When the object is in motion the
friction force is less than applied force. The friction force for an object in motion is
called kinetic friction, 𝑓𝑘.
The magnitude of maximum static friction is given by:
𝑓𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑛
where 𝜇𝑠 is constant called coefficient of static friction. And n is the magnitude of the
normal force exerted by one surface on the other.
The magnitude of kinetic friction is found by:
𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑛
Where 𝜇𝑘 is constant called the coefficient of kinetic friction.

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Example
Suppose a block with a mass of 2.50 kg is resting on a ramp. If the coefficient of static
friction between the block and ramp is 0.350, what maximum angle can the ramp
make with the horizontal before the block starts to slip down?

Solution
Free-fall diagram

𝑛 = 𝑚𝑔𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑓𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑔𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 (𝑖)
And you know that
𝑓𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑛 = 𝜇𝑠 (𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) (𝑖𝑖)
Equating the two Equations, you have:
𝜇𝑠 (𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) = 𝑚𝑔𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝜇𝑠
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 (𝜇𝑠 ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 (0.350) = 19.29°
Activity 5.2
1. Your little sister wants a ride on her sled. If you are on flat ground, will you
exert less force if you push her or pull her? Assume you push her at the same
angle 𝜃 to the ground.

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2. Two boxes are connected by a cord running over a pulley. The cooeficient of
kinetic friction between box I and the table is 0.20. we ignore the mass of the
cord and the pulley and any friction in the pulley, which means we can assume
that a force applied to one end of the cord will have the same magnitude at
the other end. Find the acceleration of both boxes.

3. The skier has just begun descending the 30° slope. Assuming the coefficient of
kinetic friction is 0.10, (a) draw the free body diagram (b) calculate her
acceleration (c) calculate the speed she will reach after 4.0 s.

5.3.5 Summary
Newton’s three laws of motion are the basic classical laws describing motion.
Newton’s first law (the law of inertia) states that if the net force on an object is zero,
an object originally at rest remains at rest and an object in motion remains in motion
in a straight line with constant velocity.
Newton’s second law states that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional
to the net force acting on it, and inversely proportional to its mass:
∑ 𝑭 = 𝑚𝒂
Newton’s third law states that whenever one object exerts a force on a second object,
the second object always exerts a force on the first object which is equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction:
𝑭𝐴𝐵 = −𝑭𝐵𝐴
The tendency of an object to resist a change in its motion is called inertia. Mass is a
measure of an object’s inertia.

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Weight refers to the force of gravity on an object and is equal to the product of mass,
m, and the acceleration due to gravity g:
𝑭𝑔 = 𝑚𝒈
Force can be considered as a push or pull. From Newton’s second law of motion,
force can be defined as an action capable of giving rise to acceleration. The net force
on an object is the vector sum of all forces acting on it.
Friction force is one which opposes motion.
The maximum static friction is given by
𝑓𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝐹𝑁
where 𝜇𝑠 is the constant called coefficient of static friction and 𝐹𝑁 is the normal force.
Normal force is the one which an object exerts on the other object perpendicular to
their contact surfaces.
Kinetic friction is given by:
𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝐹𝑁
where 𝜇𝑘 is the constant called coefficient of kinetic friction.

5.3.6 End of unit 5 exercise

1. A ball is held in a person’s hand:
a. Identify all the external forces acting on the ball and the reaction to each
b. If the ball is dropped, what force is exerted on it while it is falling? Identify
the reaction force in this case (neglect air resistance)
2. If a car is traveling Eastward with a constant speed of 20 m/s. what is the
resultant force acting on it?
3. What is wrong with the statement “Because the car is at rest, there are no
forces acting on it.” How would you correct this sentence?
4. A rubber ball is dropped onto the floor. What force causes the ball to bounce?
5. While the football is in fright, what forces act on it? What are the action-
reaction pair while the football is being kicked and while it is in fright?
6. What force causes automobile to move? A propeller-driven airplane? A
rowboat?
7. Find the weight on Earth of an object whose mass is (a) 3.00 Kg (b) 200 g.
8. If a man weighs 900 N on the Earth, what would he weigh on Jupiter, where
the acceleration due to gravity is 25.9 m/s2?
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9. A 20.0 kg object that can move freely is subjected to a resultant force of 45.0 𝑁
in the x direction. Find the acceleration of the object
10. What force is needed to accelerate a child on a sled (total mass = 60.0 kg) at
1.15 𝑚/𝑠 2 ?
11. A net force of 255 N accelerates a bike and rider at 2.20 m/𝑠 2 . What is the
mass of the bike and rider?
12. An electron of mass 9.11 × 10−31 kg has an initial speed of 3.00 105 m/s. It
travels in a straight line, and its speed increases to 7.00 × 105 m/s in a distance
of 5.00 cm. Assuming its acceleration is constant, (a) determine the force
exerted on the electron and (b) compare this force with the weight of the
electron, which we neglected.
13. A 1.00-kg object is observed to have an acceleration of 10.0 𝑚/𝑠 2 in a
direction 30.0° north of east as shown in the figure below. The force 𝑭𝟐 acting
on the object has a magnitude of 5.00 N and is directed north. Determine the
magnitude and direction of the force 𝑭𝟏 acting on the object.

14. The systems shown in Figure below are in equilibrium. If the spring scales are
calibrated in newtons, what do they read? (Neglect the masses of the pulleys
and strings, and assume the incline in part (c) is frictionless.)

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15. A car is traveling at 50.0 mi/h on a horizontal highway. (a) If the coefficient of
static friction between road and tires on a rainy day is 0.100, what is the
minimum distance in which the car will stop? (b) What is the stopping distance
when the surface is dry and 𝜇𝑠 0.600?
16. A 3.00-kg block starts from rest at the top of a 30.0° incline and slides a
distance of 2.00 m down the incline in 1.50 s. Find (a) the magnitude of the
acceleration of the block, (b) the coefficient of kinetic friction between block
and plane, (c) the friction force acting on the block, and (d) the speed of the
block after it has slid 2.00 m.
17. Two blocks connected by a rope of negligible mass are being dragged by a
horm2 = 18.0 𝑘𝑔, and the coefficient of kinetic friction between each block
and the surface is 0.100. (a) Draw a free-body diagram for each block. (b)
Determine the tension 𝑇 and the magnitude of the acceleration of the system.

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18. A 20.0 kg box rests on a table.

a. What is the weight of the box and the normal force acting on it?
b. A 10.0 kg box is placed on top of 20.0 kg as shown in the Figure below.
Determine the normal force that the table exerts on the 20.0 kg box and
the normal force that the 20.0 kg box exerts on the 10.0 kg.

10.0 kg

20.0 kg

Table

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Unit 6

Work, Energy and Power

6.0 Introduction
Until now we have been studying the motion of an object in terms of Newton’s three
laws of motion. In that analysis, force played a central role as the quantity that causes
an object’s motion. In this unit and unit 7 we discuss the analysis of motion of an
object in terms of energy and momentum. The importance of these quantities is that
they are conserved. The conservation of energy and momentum gives us a deep
understanding of the nature of the world and gives us alternative way to approach
practical problems. This unit is devoted to energy and a very closely concept of work.
Energy and work are scalar quantities as such they are easier to deal with than force
and acceleration. The importance of energy is that it is conserved and is useful in the
study of motion and in other areas of physics as well as in other sciences.

6.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Define work
 Define energy
 Define power
 State work-energy theorem
 State different forms of energy
 Solve work and Energy related problems
 Derive equations of Kinetic and Potential energy
 State the law of conservation of energy
 Solve problems related to the conservation of Energy

6.2 Key words

 Work
 Energy
 Power
 Efficiency

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6.3.1 Work done

Work is done when a force F, exerted on an object causes the object to move in the
direction of the force. Work is a scalar quantity.
If a constant force F acts on an object which moves a distance ∆𝑥 in the direction of
the force as shown in Figure 6.1, then work done on the object by this force is given
by:
𝑊 = 𝑭∆𝒙 (6.01)
Where W=work done in joules (J)
F=Constant applied force in newton (N)
∆𝑥 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 (𝑚)

Figure 6.1 A constant force F in the same direction as the displacement∆𝑥, does work
𝐹∆𝑥
If a constant force F acts on an object at an angle which moves a distance ∆𝑥 in the x-
direction as shown in Figure 6.2, then work done on the object by this force is given
by:
𝑊 = (𝑭𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)∆𝒙 (6.02)

Figure 6.2 A constant force exerted at an angle 𝜃 with respect to the displacement,∆𝑥
, does work (𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)∆𝑥.
Where:
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, ∆𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 and 𝜃 is the
angle between the directions of F and ∆𝑥.

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Example 6.1
A man cleaning his apartment pulls the canister of a vacuum cleaner with a force of
magnitude 𝐹 = 50.0 𝑁 at an angle of 30.0° with the horizontal. He moves the vacuum
cleaner a distance of 3.00 m. calculate the work done by the 50.0 N force.

Solution
We draw the free body diagram as follows:

From the free the free body diagram, we notice that 𝐹𝑁 and 𝑚𝑔 do no work because
there is no movement in y-direction. Therefore,
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑥 𝑠 = (50.0 cos 30.0°)(3.00 𝑚) = 130 𝐽
Activity 6.1
1. Define work
2. A 2.0 kg object is moving at 3m/s. A 4.0 N force is applied in the direction of
motion and then removed after the object has traveled an additional 5.0 m.
calculate the value of work done on the object
3. A man wishes to pull a crate 15 m across a rough floor by exerting a force of
100 N. the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.25. Find the angle between the
force and the horizontal distance for the man to do the least work.

6.3.2 Energy
Energy is the ability to do work. The SI unit of energy is joule (J).
There are many forms of energy. Here the focus is on mechanical energy which
consists of Kinetic and Potential energy.

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6.3.2.1 Kinetic Energy and the Work -Energy Theorem

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object by virtue of movement.
Suppose an object of mass, m, moves under the action of constant net force, F shown
in Figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3

The force is constant and therefore the object moves with constant acceleration. If the
object is displaced by ∆𝑥, then the work done by 𝐹 is:
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑭𝑛𝑒𝑡 ∆𝑥 = 𝑚𝒂∆𝒙 (6.03)
You know that when the object moves with constant acceleration, then the following
equation holds:
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎∆𝑥
𝑚(𝑣2 −𝑢2 )
→ 𝑎∆𝑥 = (6.04)
2

Substituting Equation 6.4 into equation 6.3 for 𝑎∆𝑥, you get:
𝑣 2 − 𝑢2
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚( )
2
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 12 𝑚𝑣2 −12 𝑚𝑢2 (6.05)
The Kinetic Energy (KE) of an object of mass m moving with speed v is
𝐾𝐸 = 12 𝑚𝑣 2 (6.06)
Equation 6.5 is Known as Work-Energy Theorem.
Work-Energy theorem states that the net work done on an object is equal to the
change of object’s Kinetic energy:
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖 = ∆𝐾𝐸 (6.07)
The change in kinetic energy is due to the object’s change in speed.

Example 6.2
A 1400 kg car has a net forward force of 4500 N applied to it. The car starts from rest
and travels down a horizontal high-way. What are its kinetic energy and speed after it

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has traveled 100 m? (Ignore losses in kinetic energy because of friction and air
resistance.)
Solution
𝑣𝑖 = 0,and work is given by:
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖 = ∆𝐾𝐸
1 1
= 2 𝑚𝑣𝑓 2 − 2 𝑚𝑣𝑖 2
= 12 (1400)𝑣𝑓 2 − 12 (1400)(0)2 = 700𝑣𝑓 2 (i)
And the work done by the net force on the car is:
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝑠 = 4500 𝑁 × 100 𝑚 = 4.50 × 105 𝐽 (ii)
To get the final speed, we equate the two equations:
700𝑣𝑓 2 = 4.50 × 105 𝐽

4.50 × 105
𝑣𝑓 = √ = 25.4 𝑚/𝑠
700

Activity 6.2
1. State the kinetic energy theorem
2. A 8000 N car is traveling at 12 m/s along a horizontal road when the brakes
are applied. The car skids to a stop in 4.0 s. how much kinetic energy does the
car lose in this time?
3. A 5.0 kg cart is moving horizontally at 6.0 m/s. Find the work required to be
done in order to change its speed to 10.0 m/s.
4. A 4.0 kg cart starts up an inclined with a speed of 3 m/s and comes to rest 2 m
up the inclined. Find the total work done on the car.

6.3.3 Conservative and non-conservative forces

A force is said to be conservative if the work it does in moving an object between
two points is the same no matter what path is taken, otherwise it is non-conservative.
Force of gravity is the best example of conservative force.
Non-conservative force disperses object’s energy which is in the form of heat or sound
energy. Examples of non-conservative forces are kinetic friction and air drag.
Suppose 𝑊𝑛𝑐 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 and 𝑊𝑐 𝑏𝑒 work done by
conservative force, the net work done is given by the sum of 𝑊𝑛𝑐 and 𝑊𝑐 i.e
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊𝑛𝑐 + 𝑊𝑐

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From equation 5.7 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∆𝐾𝐸, you get:

𝑊𝑛𝑐 + 𝑊𝑐 = ∆𝐾𝐸 (6.08)

6.3.4 Potential Energy

Potential energy is the energy possessed by an object by virtue of its position.

6.3.4.1 Gravitational Work and Potential Energy

Gravity is a conservative force and for every conservative force potential energy can
be found.
Consider a book of mass m falls from a height ℎ𝑖 to a height ℎ𝑓 and assume that the
only force acting on the book is gravitation. The magnitude of gravitational force 𝐹𝑔 is
mg and the displacement ∆ℎ is ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑓 . The angle between 𝐹𝑔 and ∆ℎ is 0° since both
pointing down as shown in Figure 6.5

Figure 4.5
Applying the definition of work:
𝑊𝑔 = (𝐹𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)∆ℎ = 𝑚𝑔(ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑓 )𝐶𝑜𝑠0° = −𝑚𝑔(ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑖 ) (6.09)
Suppose that the system involves only conservative and non-conservative forces and
you know that 𝑊𝑔 is work done by conservative force, then:

𝑊𝑛𝑐 + 𝑊𝑔 = ∆𝐾𝐸
and
𝑊𝑛𝑐 − 𝑚𝑔(ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑖 ) = ∆𝐾𝐸 (6.10)
Making 𝑊𝑛𝑐 the subject of the formula, you get:
𝑊𝑛𝑐 = ∆𝐾𝐸 + 𝑚𝑔(ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑖 )
𝑊𝑛𝑐 = ∆𝐾𝐸 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑓 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑖 (6.11)
The gravitational energy of a system is:
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ (6.12)

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Where g is the acceleration due to gravity and h is the vertical position of the mass m
relative to the surface of the earth.
From equation 6.3.9:
𝑊𝑔 = −𝑚𝑔(ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑖 )
∴ 𝑊𝑔 = −(𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑓 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑖 )
𝑊𝑔 = −(𝑃𝐸𝑓 − 𝑃𝐸𝑖 ) (6.13)
Equation 6.13 tells you that the work done by gravity is the same as negative change
in gravitational potential energy.
Using Equation 6.13 in Equation 6.11 then work-energy theorem is given by:
𝑊𝑛𝑐 = (𝐾𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖 ) + (𝑃𝐸𝑓 − 𝑃𝐸𝑖 ) (6.14)
which states that the work done by non-conservative forces is equal to the change of
kinetic energy plus the change of gravitational potential energy.

Example 6.3
A 60.0 kg skier is at the top of a slope. At the initial point A the skier is 10.0 m
vertically above point B.
a. Setting the zero level for gravitational potential energy at B, find the
gravitational potential energy at A and B.
b. Repeat this problem with zero level at point A

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Solution
a.
𝑃𝐸𝑖 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑖 = 60 𝑘𝑔 × 9.80 × 10.0 𝑚 = 5880 𝐽
Because 𝑃𝐸𝑓 = 0, the difference in potential energy is

𝑃𝐸𝑖 − 𝑃𝐸𝑓 = 5880 𝐽 − 0 𝐽 = 5800 𝐽

b. 𝑃𝐸𝑓 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑓 = 60 𝑘𝑔 × 9.80 × (−10.0 𝑚) = −5880 𝐽
In this case the distance 𝑦𝑓 = 0.

𝑃𝐸𝑖 − 𝑃𝐸𝑓 = 0 𝐽 − (−5880 𝐽) = 5800 𝐽

The potential energy at the top of the slope is greater than the potential energy at the
bottom by 5880 J regardless of the zero level selected.
Activity 6.3
1. A projectile of mass 0.50 kg is fired with an initial speed of 10 m/s at an angle
of 60° above the horizontal. Find the potential energy of the projectile.

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6.3.5 Gravity and the Conservation of Mechanical Energy

In the absence of non-conservative forces on the system, 𝑊𝑛𝑐 = 0 and Equation 6.14
becomes:
0 = (𝐾𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖 ) + (𝑃𝐸𝑓 − 𝑃𝐸𝑖 )
Putting initial terms and final terms together, you get:

𝐾𝐸𝑖 + 𝑃𝐸𝑖 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 + 𝑃𝐸𝑓 (6.15)

You see from equation 6.15 that the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy
remains constant all times i.e. mechanical energy is conserved for an isolated system.
Equation 6.15 can be rewritten as:
𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 (6.16)
where Emec is the total mechanical energy.

6.3.6 The law of conservation of Mechanical energy

It states that in an isolated system in which only conservative force is involved the
total mechanical energy of the system remains constant i.e. the total initial mechanical
energy is equal to total final mechanical energy.
You can write equation 6.3.15 in the form:
1
2
𝑚𝑢2 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑖 = 12 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑓 (6.17)
if the only force doing work on an isolated system is conservative.
Example 6.4
A diver of mass m drops from a board 10.0 m above the water’s surface, as in Figure
6.16. Neglect air resistance. (a) Use conservation of mechanical energy to find his
speed 5.00 m above the water’s surface. (b) Find his speed as he hits the water.

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Solution
𝐾𝐸𝑖 + 𝑃𝐸𝑖 = 𝐾𝐸𝑖 + 𝑃𝐸𝑖
1 2 1 2
𝑚𝑣𝑖 + 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑖 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓 + 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑓
2 2
1
0 + 𝑔𝑦𝑖 = 2 𝑣𝑓 2 + 𝑔𝑦𝑓

𝑣𝑓 = √2𝑔(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦𝑓 ) = √2(9.8)(10.0 − 5.0) = 9.90 𝑚/𝑠

Find the diver’s speed at the water’s surface, 𝑦𝑓 = 0:

1
0 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑖 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓 2 + 0
2

𝑣𝑓 = √2𝑔𝑦𝑖 = √2(9.8)(10.0) = 14.0 𝑚/𝑠

Activity 6.4
1. State the law of conservation of mechanical energy
2. A powerful grasshopper launches itself at an angle of 45° above the horizontal
and rises to a maximum height of 1.00 m during the leap. (See Figure 5.17.)
With what speed 𝑣𝑖 did it leave the ground? Neglect air resistance.

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6.3.7 Power
Power can be defined as:
i. The rate at which work is done
ii. The rate at which energy is transformed from one form to another
iii. The rate at which energy is transferred from one point to another in a
medium
Average amount of power can be found by:
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑
𝑃= = (6.18)
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Example 6.5
A 70.0 kg jogger runs up a long flight of stairs in 4.0 s. the vertical height of the stairs
is 4.5 m. (a) estimate the jogger’s power output in watts (b)how much energy did this
require?
Solution
𝑊 𝑚𝑔𝑦 (70.0 𝑘𝑔)(9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(4.5 𝑚)
𝑃= = = = 770 𝑊
𝑡 𝑡 4.0 𝑠
The energy required is:
𝐸 = 𝑃𝑡 = 770 𝐽/𝑠)(4.0𝑠) = 3100 𝐽

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6.3.8 Summary
Work is done on an object by a net force when the object moves a distance, d. if the
direction of a constant force F makes an angle 𝜃 with the direction of motion, the
work done by this force is:
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 cos 𝜃
Energy can e defined as the ability to do work. In SI units, work and energy are
measured in joules (1J=1N.m).
Kinetic Energy (KE) is energy of an object’s motion. An object of mass m and speed v
has translational kinetic energy
1
𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
Potential Energy (PE) is energy associated with forces that depend on the position or
configuration of the body. Gravitational potential energy is given by
𝑃𝐸𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
where h is the height of the object of mass m above an arbitrary reference point
elastic potential energy is equal to
1
𝑃𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑎 = 𝑘𝑥 2
2

for a compressed or stretched spring, where x is the displacement from the

outstretched position and k is proportionality constant called elasticity constant.
Other potential energies include chemical, electrical and nuclear energy. The change
in potential energy when an object changes position is equal to the external work
needed to take the object from one position to the other.
The Work-Energy principle states that the net work done on an object by the net
force equals the change in Kinetic energy of that object
1 1
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑚𝑣𝑖 2
2 2

The general law of conservation of energy states that the total energy is neither is
neither increased nor decreased in any process. Energy can be transformed from one
form to another, and transferred from one body to another, but the total amount
remains constant.
In an isolated system, mechanical energy is conserved:
𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
When non-conservative forces act, then:
𝑊𝑛𝑐 = ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸

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Power is defined as the rate at which work is being done or the work at which energy
is transformed or is transferred. The SI unit of power is watt (1W=1J/s).

6.3.9 End of Unit 6 Exercise

1. Can a centripetal force ever do work on an object?
2. Why is it tiring to push hard against a solid wall even though no work is done?
3. Can kinetic energy ever be negative? Explain.
4. A 75.0 kg firefighter climbs a flight of stairs 10.0 m high. How much work is
required?
5. A 900 N crate rests on the floor. How much work is required to move it at
constant speed (a) 6.0 m along the floor against a friction force of 180 N (b)
and 6.0 m vertically
6. How much work did the movers do horizontally pushing a 150 kg crate 12.3 m
across a rough floor without acceleration, if the effective coefficient of friction
was 0.70.
7. How much work must be done to stop a 100 kg car traveling at 110 km/h?
8. How long will it take a 1750 W motor to lift a 285 kg piano to a six-story
window 16.0 m above?

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Unit 7

Linear Momentum

7.0 Introduction
The law of conservation of energy we have just discussed in unit 6 is one of
conservation laws in physics including conservation of linear momentum. We will
discuss linear momentum and its conservation in this unit. We will then make use of
the conservation of linear momentum and of Energy to analyze collisions. The law of
conservation of linear momentum is particularly useful when dealing with two or
more objects that interact with each other, as in collisions.

7.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Define linear momentum
 Explain types of collisions
 State the law of conservation of linear momentum
 State impulse-momentum theorem

7.2 Key words

Momentum
Impulse

7.3. Linear Momentum

Linear momentum is mass multiply by velocity given by:
𝐏 = m𝐯 (7.01)
Where P is linear momentum, m is mass and v the object’s velocity.
The unit of momentum is 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1 and it is a vector quantity.
Example 7.1
An object of mass 500g accelerates uniformly from rest at 4𝑚𝑠 −2 . Calculate its
momentum at time 𝑡 = 6𝑠
Solution:
You need first of all find the final velocity of an object at 𝑡 = 6𝑠:

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Applying equation; 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 and noting that initial velocity is 𝑢 = 0 (it accelerates

from rest), then you get:
𝑣 = 0 + 4𝑚𝑠 −2 (6𝑠)
𝑣 = 24𝑚𝑠 −2
From the definition of momentum:
𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣
𝑃 = 0.5𝑘𝑔(24𝑚𝑠 −1 )
𝑃 = 12𝑚𝑠 −1

7.3.1 Linear Momentum and Newton’s second law of motion

Newton stated the second law of motion as the resultant force acting on an object is
directly proportional to the time rate of change of linear momentum.
We now know that Linear momentum is mass multiply by velocity:
𝐏 = m𝐯 (7.01)
Where P is linear momentum, m is mass and v the object’s velocity.
Suppose an object of mass m, moving with initial velocity u and changes its velocity
to v in time t, then the change of momentum is given by:
∆𝐏 = m(𝐯 − 𝐮) (7.02)
and the time rate of change of momentum becomes:
∆𝐏 m(𝐯 − 𝐮)
=
t t
From the definition of Newton’s second law in terms of momentum:
𝒗−𝒖
𝐅𝐑 ∝ m ( ) (7.03)
𝒕

Relationship 7.03 in equation form becomes:

km(v−u)
𝐅𝐑 = (7.04)
t

where k is the proportionality constant.

Recall that the first equation of motion is v = u + at. Substituting this equation into
equation 6.04 for v and taking k = 1, you get:
km(𝐮 + 𝐚t − 𝐮)
𝐅𝐑 =
t
which reduces to:
𝐅𝐑 = m𝐚 (7.05)
which is the same as equation 4.4 in unit 4.

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You notice that the two statements of Newton’s second law of motion are the same:
i. Acceleration is equal to force divided by mass of an object.
ii. The resultant force acting on an object is directly proportional to the time
rate of change of linear momentum in the direction of the force.

7.3.2 The law of Conservation of Linear Momentum

It states that in a closed system, the total momentum of the system remains constant.
To show that linear momentum is conserved, let’s consider Figure Figure 7.1 in which
two objects are involved in collision:

Figure 7.1 Conservation of Momentum

The force experienced by 𝑚 1 due to 𝑚 2 is 𝐹12 and the force experienced by 𝑚 2 due
to 𝑚 1 is 𝐹21 .
Newton’s third law of motion tells us that:
𝐹12 = −𝐹21 (7.06)
Suppose that 𝑚 1 changes its velocity from initial velocity 𝑣1𝑖 to final velocity 𝑣1𝑓
during the time interval of ∆𝑡 and object 𝑚 2 changes its velocity from initial value 𝑣2𝑖
to final value 𝑣2𝑓 during the same time interval of ∆𝑡, then according to Newton’s
second law:
𝑚1 (𝑣1𝑖 −𝑣1𝑓 )
𝑭12 = (7.07)
∆𝑡
𝑚2 (𝑣2𝑖 −𝑣2𝑓 )
𝑭21 = (7.08)
∆𝑡

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Substituting 7.06 and 6.08 into 7.06 we get:

𝑚1 (𝑣1𝑖 −𝑣1𝑓 ) 𝑚2 (𝑣2𝑖 −𝑣2𝑓 )
=
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

𝑚 1 𝑣1𝑖 − 𝑚 1 𝑣1𝑓 = −𝑚 2 𝑣2𝑖 + 𝑚 2 𝑣2𝑓

and putting initial values and final values to the left and to the right hand sides
respectively, we get:
𝑚 1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚 2 𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑚 1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚 2 𝑣2𝑓 (7.09)
Equation 7.09 is the Law of Conservation of linear momentum.
The law of conservation of linear momentum states that for an isolated system of
objects, the total linear momentum before collision is equal to the total linear
momentum after collision.

7.4 Impulse
Impulse is the product of the net force and the time interval for which the force acts.
Impulse is defined as:
Impulse = 𝐅𝑛𝑒𝑡 . ∆t (7.10)
From Newton’s second law of motion:
∆𝑷
F𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∆𝑡

F𝑛𝑒𝑡 . ∆𝑡 = ∆𝑷
Therefore,
Impulse = ∆𝑷 (7.11)
Equation 7.11 is the impulse-momentum theorem.
Impulse-momentum theorem states that impulse is equal to the change of an object’s
linear momentum.
Example 7.2
A 150 N resultant force acts on 300 kg trailer. Calculate how long it takes this force to
change the trailer’s velocity from 2𝑚𝑠 −1 to 6𝑚𝑠 −1 in the same direction.
Solution:
𝑚 = 300𝑘𝑔, 𝐹𝑛 = 150 𝑁, 𝑢 = 2𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 6𝑚𝑠 −1
𝐹𝑛 . ∆𝑡 = ∆𝑃
𝐹𝑛 . ∆𝑡 = 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝑚(𝑣−𝑢)
∆𝑡 = 𝐹𝑛

300𝑘𝑔 (6𝑚𝑠 −1 −2𝑚𝑠 −1 )

∆𝑡 = = 8𝑠
150 𝑁

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7.4.1 Collision in two dimensions

So far you have looked at collisions in one dimension. You should be aware that
there are also collisions in two dimensions which objects move off at some angle after
collision. This is also called glancing collision.
Consider the glancing collision between two billiard balls shown in figure 8.14. Ball 1
is moving to the right at the velocity 𝒗𝟏𝒊 and ball 2 is at rest (𝒗𝟐𝒊 = 0). After the
collision, ball 1 is found to be moving at an angle 45.0° above the horizontal and ball
2 is moving at an angle 𝛼 = 45.0° below the horizontal. Let us find the velocities of
both balls after the collision.

Figure 3.3.4 Glancing collision

As in all collisions, the law of conservation of momentum holds, that is,

𝐏𝐟 = 𝐏𝐢
∑ 𝑃𝑥 = 𝑚 1 𝑣1𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑚 2 𝑣2𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜗 = 𝑚 1 𝑣1𝑖 (7.12)
∑ 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑚 1 𝑣1𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑚 2 𝑣2𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜗 = 0 (7.13)
Solving equation 6.20 for 𝑣2𝑓 , with 𝜃 = 𝜗 = 45.0°, we get:
𝑚 1 𝑣1𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛45.0° = 𝑚 2 𝑣2𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛45.0°
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓
𝑣2𝑓 = (7.14)
𝑚2

Substituting equation (6.14) into equation 6.12 for 𝑣2𝑓 and making𝑣1𝑓 the subject of
the formula, you get:
𝑣
1𝑖
𝑣1𝑓 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠45 .0°
(7.15)

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Activity 7.1
Billiard ball 1 is moving at a speed of v1i = 10.0 cm/s, when it has a glancing collision
with an identical billiard ball that is at rest. After the collision, θ = ϑ = 45.0°. The mass
of the billiard ball is 0.170 kg.
(a) Find the speed of ball 1 and 2 after the collision.
(b) Is energy conserved in this collision?

7.4.2 Three types of Collisions

(i). Elastic collision is a collision in which both momentum and kinetic energy are
conserved
(ii). Inelastic collision is the one in which momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is
not conserved
(iii). Perfectly inelastic collision is the one in which momentum is conserved but
kinetic energy is not conserved and the colliding objects stick together and move with
the same final velocity after collision.

7.4.2.1 Perfectly Inelastic Collision

Consider two objects of masses 𝑚 1 and 𝑚 2 moving with initial velocities 𝑣1𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2𝑖
respectively before collision. They collide and move with common velocity 𝑣2𝑖 as

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shown in the figure above. You can find the common velocity using conservation of
momentum alone:
𝑷𝑖 = 𝑷𝑓
𝑚 1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚 2 𝑣2𝑖 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚 2 )𝑣𝑓 (7.16)
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 +𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖
𝑣𝑓 = (7.17)
𝑚1 +𝑚2

7.4.2.2 Elastic Collisions

Let’s now consider the collision of two objects in which both momentum and kinetic
energy are conserved as shown in the Figure below:

Conservation of momentum is given by:

𝑚 1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚 2 𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑚 1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚 2 𝑣2𝑓 (7.18)

Conservation of kinetic energy is given by:

1
2
𝑚 1 𝑣1𝑖 2 + 12 𝑚 2 𝑣2𝑖 2 = 12 𝑚 1 𝑣1𝑓 2 + 12 𝑚 2 𝑣2𝑓 2 (7.19)
Cancelling 12 and putting together those terms containing 𝑚 1 and those containing 𝑚 2 ,
equation 6.19 becomes:
𝑚 1 (𝑣1𝑖 2 − 𝑣1𝑓 2 ) = 𝑚 2 (𝑣2𝑓 2 − 𝑣2𝑖 2 ) (7.20)
Factorizing equation 6.20 we get:
𝑚 1 (𝑣1𝑖 − 𝑣1𝑓 )(𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑣1𝑓 ) = 𝑚 2 (𝑣2𝑓 − 𝑣2𝑖 )(𝑣2𝑓 + 𝑣2𝑖 ) (7.21)
You can rewrite equation 6.18 as:
𝑚 1 (𝑣1𝑖 − 𝑣1𝑓 ) = 𝑚 2 (𝑣2𝑓 − 𝑣2𝑖 ) (7.22)
Dividing equation 6.21 by Equation 6.22 produces:

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𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑣1𝑓 = 𝑣2𝑓 + 𝑣2𝑖

Gathering initial and final terms together:
𝑣1𝑖 − 𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑣2𝑓 − 𝑣1𝑓
which can be rewritten as:
𝑣1𝑖 − 𝑣2𝑖 = −(𝑣1𝑓 − 𝑣2𝑓 ) (7.23)
Equation 7.23 together with Equation 7.18 can be used to solve problems dealing
with perfectly elastic head-on collisions.

7.4.3 Summary
Linear momentum, P, of an object is defined as the product of its mass and its
velocity,
𝑷 = 𝑚𝒗
In terms of momentum, Newton’s second law states that the net force is equal to the rate of
change of momentum:
∆𝑷
𝑭𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
∆𝑡
The Law of Conservation of Linear momentum states that in an isolated system of
objects, the total momentum remains constant.
𝑚 1 𝒗1 + 𝑚 2 𝒗2 = constant
An isolated system is one in which the net force acting on it is zero.

The Impulse of a force on an object is defined as 𝐹∆𝑡, where F is the average force
acting on an object during time interval ∆𝑡.

Impulse-Momentum theorem states that impulse is equal to the change of an object’s

linear momentum:
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝑭∆𝑡 = ∆𝑷
Elastic collision is a collision in which both momentum and kinetic energy are
conserved
Inelastic collision is the one in which momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not
conserved

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Perfectly inelastic collision is the one in which momentum is conserved but kinetic
energy is not conserved and the colliding objects stick together and move with the
same final velocity after collision.

7.4.4 End of Unit 7 exercise

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Unit 8

Uniform Circular Motion and Newton’s law of Universal Gravitation

8.0 Introduction
The revolution of the Earth around the Sun, rotating fly wheel, electrons revolving
around the nucleus, spinning top, the motion of a fan blade, revolution of the moon
around the Earth etc. are some examples of circular motion. In all the above cases, the
bodies or particles travel in a circular path. So, it is necessary to understand the
motion of such bodies.

8.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Explain uniform circular motion
 Describe centripetal acceleration and centripetal force
 Discus road banking
 Explain Newton’s law of universal gravitation, gravitational force and weight
8.2 Key words
Angular displacement
Angular velocity
Angular acceleration

8.3 Uniform Circular motion

If a body moves in a circle or a circular arc with constant linear speed, it is said to
undergo uniform circular motion. The magnitude of its velocity remains the same but
changes direction continuously.

8.3.1 Angular displacement

Consider an object moving in a circular path from position A to position B in time ∆𝑡 ,
it starts at an angle 𝜃𝑖 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜃𝑓 as in the diagram below:

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Figure 7.1
Then an object’s angular displacement ∆𝜃 is the difference in its final and initial angles
given by:
∆𝜃 = 𝜃𝑓 − 𝜃𝑖 (8.01)
The SI unit of angular displacement is radian (rad)
From figure 8.1, an object covers a displacement along the circular arc equal to ∆𝑠
with radius r, then angular displacement can also be expressed by:
∆𝑠
∆𝜃 = (8.02)
𝑟

The average angular speed 𝜔𝑎𝑣 of a rotating rigid object during the time interval ∆𝑡 is
the angular displacement divide by time interval:
∆𝜃 𝜃𝑓 −𝜃𝑖
𝜔𝑎𝑣 = ∆𝑡
= 𝑡𝑓−𝑡𝑖
(7.03)

The SI unit of angular speed is radian per second (rad/s)

Instantaneous angular speed 𝜔 of a rotating rigid object is the limit of average speed
∆𝜃
as time interval ∆𝑡 approaches zero:
∆𝑡
∆𝜃
𝜔 = lim (8.04)
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

Its SI unit is radian per second squared (rad/s)

An average angular acceleration 𝛼𝑎𝑣 during the time interval ∆𝑡 is the change in its
angular speed ∆𝜔 divide by ∆𝑡:
∆𝜔 𝜔𝑓−𝜔𝑖
𝛼𝑎𝑣 = = (8.05)
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓−𝑡𝑖

Its Si unit is radian per second squared (rad/𝑠 2 )

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The instantaneous angular acceleration 𝛼 is the limit of the average angular

acceleration as time interval approaches to zero:
∆𝜔
𝜶 = lim (8.06)
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

Its SI unit is radian per second squared (rad/𝑠 2 )

Activity 8.1
1. Define the following terms:
i. Angular velocity
ii. Angular acceleration
iii. Instantaneous angular velocity
iv. Instantaneous angular acceleration
2. Convert 270° into radian
3. A spot on centrifuge motor moves in a circular path of radius 0.2 m. when the
spot has travelled a linear distance of 3 m, through what angle has the motor
rotated? Write your answer in radians.

8.3.2 Rotational Kinematics

Rotational kinematics describes rotational motion in the same way linear kinematics
was described in unit 2. Remember that we are considering acceleration to be
constant both rotational and translation kinematics in this module. The equations of
rotational motion can be derived in the same way as you derived the equations of
motion in translational motion.
For example, consider a rotating object changing its angular speed from 𝜔𝑖 to 𝜔𝑓
during time interval ∆𝑡 = 𝑡 i.e during time interval 𝑡𝑖 = 0 to 𝑡𝑓 = 𝑡., then:
𝜔𝑓 − 𝜔𝑖
𝛼=
𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖
𝜔𝑓 − 𝜔𝑖
𝛼=
𝑡
𝜔𝑓 = 𝜔𝑖 + 𝛼𝑡 (8.07)
You see that equation 8.07 is similar to equation 2.01 in unit 2 which is
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
You can therefore derive the other equations of rotational motion in the same way as
you did in chapter 2. We summarize these equations in the Table 7.01

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Table 7.01: Linear equations versus angular equations

Linear equations with a=constant Angular acceleration with a=constant
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝑓 = 𝜔𝑖 + 𝛼𝑡

1 1
∆𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡2 ∆𝜃 = 𝜔𝑖 𝑡 + 2 𝛼𝑡2

𝑢+𝑣 𝜔𝑖 + 𝜔𝑓
∆𝑠 = ( )𝑡 ∆𝜃 = ( )𝑡
2 2

𝑣 2 + 𝑢2 + 2𝑎∆𝑠 𝜔𝑓 2 = 𝜔𝑖 2 + 2𝛼∆𝜃

The angular equations will be used in the same way equations of linear motion were
used in solving problems in unit 2.
Example 8.1
A wheel rotates with a constant angular acceleration of 3.50 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2 . if the angular
speed of the wheel is 2.00 rad/s at 𝑡𝑖 = 0,
(a) Through what angle does the wheel rotate between 𝑡𝑖 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑓 = 2.00𝑠 ?
(b) What is the angular speed of the wheel a 𝑡 = 2.00𝑠 ?
Solution
(a) 𝛼 = 3.50 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2 , 𝜔𝑖 = 2.00 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 and 𝑡 = 2.00𝑠
1
∆𝜃 = 𝜔𝑖 𝑡 + 2 𝛼𝑡2
𝑟𝑎𝑑 1 3.50𝑟𝑎𝑑
∆𝜃 = 2.00 + ( 2 )(2.00)2
𝑠 (2.00 𝑠) 2 𝑠
∆𝜃 = 11.0 𝑟𝑎𝑑
(b) 𝜔𝑓 = 𝜔𝑖 + 𝛼𝑡
𝜔𝑓 = 2.00 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 + (3.5 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2 )(2.00 𝑠)
𝜔𝑓 = 9.00 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
Example 8.2
An airplane propeller slows from an initial angular speed of 12.5 rev/s to final angular
speed of 5.00 rev/s. during this process the propeller rotates through 21.0 revolutions.
Find the angular acceleration of the propeller in radians per second squared, assuming
its constant.
Solution

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∆𝜃 = 21.0 𝑟𝑒𝑣 = (21.0)(2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ) = 42.0 𝑟𝑎𝑑

𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔𝑖 = 12.5 = (12.5 ) (2𝜋 ) = 25.0 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑠 𝑠
𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔𝑓 = 5.00 = (5.00 ) (2𝜋 ) = 10.0𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑠 𝑠
(10.0𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)2 = (25.0𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)2 + 2𝛼(42.0 𝑟𝑎𝑑)
𝛼 = −6.25𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2

8.3.3 Relationship between angular and lin ear quantities

Angular variables are closely related to linear variables. Consider an object rotating an
the z-axis through the point O. assume the object rotates through an angle ∆𝜃, and
hence point P moves through the arc length ∆𝑠, in time interval ∆𝑡. From the
definition of radian measure:
∆𝑠
∆𝜃 =
𝑟
Dividing both sides of this equation by ∆𝑡, we get:
∆𝜃 ∆𝑠
= 𝑟∆𝑡 (8.08)
∆𝑡
∆𝜃
When ∆𝑡 is very small, the angle ∆𝜃 is also small and is close to instantaneous
∆𝑡
∆𝑠
angular velocity 𝜔 where as ∆𝑡 approaches to instantaneous linear velocity 𝑣, then

equation 8.08 is equivalent to:

𝒗
𝝎= (8.09)
𝑟

The magnitude of 𝒗 is the linear speed 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑡 called the tangential speed of a particle
moving in circular path written as:
𝑣𝑡 = 𝑟𝝎 (8.10)

If the object changes its angular speed by ∆𝜔 in the time interval ∆𝑡, this means that
tangential speed changes by ∆𝑣𝑡 . From equation 7.10, you have:
∆𝑣𝑡 = 𝑟∆𝜔
Dividing both sides of this equation by ∆𝑡, you have:
∆𝑣𝑡 ∆𝜔
= 𝑟 ∆𝑡 (8.11)
∆𝑡
∆𝜔
As the time interval approaches zero, approaches instantaneous angular
∆𝑡
∆𝑣𝑡
acceleration 𝛼 and ∆𝑡
approaches to instantaneous tangential acceleration 𝛼𝑡. Then

equation 8.11 becomes:

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𝑎𝑡 = 𝑟𝛼 (8.12)

Example 8.3
A compact disc rotates from rest up to an angular speed of 31.4 rad/s in time 0.892 s.
(a) What is the angular acceleration of the disc, assuming the angular acceleration
is uniform?
(b) Through what angle does the disc turn while coming up to speed?
(c) If the radius of the disc is 4.45 cm, find the tangential of microbe riding on the
rim of the disc when t=0.892 s.
(d) What is the magnitude of the tangential acceleration of the microbe at the
given time?
Solution
𝑟𝑎𝑑
(a) 𝜔𝑖 = 0, 𝜔𝑓 = 31.4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 0.892 𝑠
𝑠

𝜔𝑓 = 𝜔𝑖 + 𝛼𝑡
𝑟𝑎𝑑
31.4 = 0𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 + 𝛼(0.892 𝑠)
𝑠
𝛼 = 35.2 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2
(b) ∆𝜃 = 𝜔𝑖 𝑡 + 12 𝛼𝑡2
1 𝑟𝑎𝑑
∆𝜃 = 0(0.892) + 2 (35.2 𝑠2 )(0.892 𝑠) 2

∆𝜃 = 14.0 𝑟𝑎𝑑
(c) 𝑣𝑡 = 𝑟𝜔
𝑣𝑡 = (0.0445 𝑚)(31.4 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)
𝑣𝑡 = 1.40 𝑚/𝑠

(d) 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑟𝛼
𝑎𝑡 = 0.0445 𝑚)(35.2 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)
𝑎𝑡 = 1.57 𝑚/𝑠 2

8.3.4 Centripetal acceleration

In uniform circular motion, acceleration of an object is always perpendicular to the
path and always points towards the centre of the circular path. It is called centripetal
acceleration. ‘Centripetal’’ means centre seeking. The magnitude of centripetal
acceleration is given by:
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𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 = (8.13)
𝑟

Where 𝑎𝑐 is centripetal acceleration, 𝑣 is the linear speed of the object, and r is the
radius of the circular path. Centripetal acceleration is also called radial acceleration
because its direction coincides with the radius of the circular path at every point.
Centripetal acceleration is also given by:
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑟𝜔2 (8.14)

8.3.5 Centripetal force

The force that causes centripetal acceleration of an object undergoing circular mo tion
is called centripetal force. It is this force that enables an object to move in a circular
path.
For an object of mass m, moving in a circular path of radius r, with constant linear
speed v, the magnitude of its centripetal force 𝐹𝑐, is given by Newton’s second law of
motion:
𝑣2
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐 = 𝑚 (8.15)
𝑟

When an object moves in a circle but is speeding up or slowing down, a tangential

component of acceleration 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑟𝜔, is also present. Because the tangential and
centripetal components of acceleration are perpendicular to each other, we can find
the magnitude of the total acceleration with the Pythagorean Theorem:

𝑎𝑅 = √𝑎𝑡 2 + 𝑎𝑐 2 (8.16)
The direction of the resultant acceleration is found by :
𝛷 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 (𝑎𝑐 ⁄𝑎𝑡 ) (8.17)
Example 8.4
A car travels at a constant speed of 30.0 mi/h (13.4 m/s) on a level circular turn of
radius 50.0 m, as shown in the bird’s-eye view in Figure 7.13a. What minimum
coefficient of static friction, 𝜇𝑠 , between the tires and roadway will allow the car to
make the circular turn without sliding?

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Solution:
The net force acting on the car in the radial direction is the force of static friction
toward the centre of the circular path which causes the car to have centripetal
acceleration.

𝑛 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0
𝑛 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑣2
𝑚 = 𝑓𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑛 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔
𝑟
2
𝑣 (13.4 𝑚/𝑠)2
𝜇𝑠 = = = 0.366
𝑟𝑔 (50.0 𝑚)(9.80 𝑚/𝑠 2 )
The value of 𝜇𝑠 for rubber on dry concrete is very close to 1, so the car can negotiate
the curve with ease. If the road were wet or icy, however, the value for 𝜇𝑠 could be
0.2 or lower. Under such conditions, the radial force provided by static friction
wouldn’t be great enough to keep the car on the circular path, and it would slide off
on a tangent, leaving the roadway.
Banking of curved roads and tracks
When a car goes round a level curve, the force of friction between the tyres and the
road provides the necessary centripetal force. If the frictional force, which acts as
centripetal force and keeps the body moving along the circular road is not enough to
provide the necessary centripetal force, the car will skid. In order to avoid skidding,
while going round a curved path the outer edge of the road is raised above the level
of the inner edge. This is known as banking of curved roads or tracks.

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Example 8.5
The Daytona International Speedway in Daytona Beach, Florida, is famous for its
races, especially the Daytona 500, held every spring. Both of its courses feature four-
story, 31.0° banked curves, with maximum radius of 316 m. If a car negotiates the
curve too slowly, it tends to slip down the incline of the turn, whereas if it’s going
too fast, it may begin to slide up the incline.
(a) Find the necessary centripetal acceleration on this banked curve so the car
won’t slip down or slide up the incline. (Neglect friction.)
(b) Calculate the speed of the race car.

Solution
(a) From the free-fall diagram:
𝑛 cos 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔
and
𝑚𝑔
𝑛=
cos 𝜃
Centripetal force is given by
𝑭𝑐 = 𝑚𝒂𝒄
𝑚𝑔
This force is equal to 𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃

Equating the two equations, we get:

𝑚𝑔 tan 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑔 tan 𝜃° = (9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(tan 31.0°) = 5.89 𝑚/𝑠 2
(b) We can get the speed of the race car by:
𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 = → 𝑣 = √𝑟𝑎𝑐 = √316 × 5.89 = 43.14 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑟

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Activity 8.1
1. A 1.50-kg bucket of water is tied by a rope and whirled in a circle with a radius of
1.00 m. At the top of the circular loop, the speed of the bucket is 4.00 m/s.
Determine the acceleration, the net force and the individual force values when the
bucket is at the top of the circular loop

8.3.6 Newton’s law of universal gravitation

Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that: Every particle in the universe
attracts every other particle with a force that is proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This
force acts along the line joining the two particles.
If two particles having masses 𝑚 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 2 are separated by a distance r, a gravitational
force F acts along a line joining them, with magnitude given by
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝐺 (9.18)
𝑟2

Where𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 𝑘𝑔−1 𝑚3 𝑠 −2 , is proportionality constant called the constant of

universal gravitation. The gravitational force is always attractive.
Example:
A 50 kg Physics student and a 75 Physics teacher are sitting on a beach so that their
centers are about 50 cm apart. Estimate the magnitude of gravitational force each
exerts on the other.
Solution:
𝑚 1 = 50 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚 2 = 75 𝑘𝑔, 𝑟 = 50 𝑐𝑚 = 0.50 𝑚, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 𝑘𝑔−1 𝑚3 𝑠 −2
𝑚1 𝑚2 6.67×10 −11 𝑘𝑔−1 𝑚3 𝑠 −2 ×50 𝑘𝑔×75 𝑘𝑔
Then: 𝐹 = 𝐺 = = 1.0 × 10−6 𝑁 This is unnoticeably
𝑟2 (0.50 𝑚) 2

small.
In everyday life experience, the gravitational force between two objects is not felt
because the masses involved are too small to produce an appreciable value of
attractive force.
NOTE
The law of universal gravitation describes a particular force, gravity, and how its
magnitude varies with the distance and masses involved.

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Newton’s second law of motion relates the net force acting on an object to the mass
and acceleration of that object.

8.3.7 Gravitational force and weight

Weight is the earth’s gravitational force acting on a particular object. In the Equation
of the Law of universal gravitation, if one of the object is the earth having mass, 𝑀𝐸 ,
then gravitational force is given by:
𝑀𝐸 𝑚
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝐺 (9.19)
𝑟2

where g is the acceleration due to gravity.

From Equation 8.19 you can make g the subject of the formula to get:
𝑀𝐸
𝑔=𝐺 (9.20)
𝑟2

With 𝑟 = 𝑅𝐸 + ℎ where 𝑅𝐸 is the radius of the earth and h is the height above sea
level.
In equation 9.20, G and 𝑀𝐸 are constants, therefore, g varies inversely as 𝑟2 only.
If 𝑟 approaches infinity, g approaches zero. As a result the weight of the object also
approaches to zero. This explains the reason why in the outer space object becomes
weightless.
Activity 8.2
1. Explain the differences between mass and weight
2. Three 4-kg masses are each at a corner of an equilateral triangle located in
space far from other masses.
a. If the sides of the triangle are 1.00 m long, find the magnitude of the net
force exerted on each of the three masses.
b. How does the net force change if the sides of the triangle are halved in
length?

8.3.8 Summary
Angles are conveniently measured in radians, where one radian is the angle sub
tended by an arc whose length is equal to radius, or
2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 360°
or
1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ≈ 57.3°
Angular velocity 𝜔, is defined as the rate of change of angular position:

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∆𝜃
𝜔=
∆𝑡
Angular acceleration, 𝛼, defined as the rate of change of angular velocity:
∆𝜔
𝛼=
∆𝑡
The linear velocity 𝑣 and acceleration 𝑎 of a point fixed at a distance r from the axis
of rotation are related to 𝜔 and 𝛼 by:
𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔, 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑟𝛼, 𝑎𝑐 = 𝜔 2 𝑟
Where 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛 and 𝑎𝑐 are the tangential and centripetal components of the linear
acceleration respectively.

The equations describing uniformly accelerated rotational motion have the same form
as for uniformly accelerated linear motion:
𝜔𝑓 = 𝜔𝑖 + 𝛼𝑡; 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑖 𝑡 + 12 𝛼𝑡 2 ;
𝜔𝑓 + 𝜔𝑖
𝜔𝑓 2 = 𝜔𝑖 2 + 2𝛼𝜃; 𝜔𝑎𝑣 =
2

8.3.8 End of unit 8 exercise

1. It is sometimes said that water is removed from clothes in spin dryer by
centrifugal force throwing the water outward. Is this correct?
2. Will the acceleration of a car be the same when it travels around a sharp curve
at 60 km/h as when it travels around a gentle curve at the same speed?
Explain.
3. A bucket of water can be whirled in a vertical circle without water spilling out,
even at the top of the circle when the bucket is upside down. Explain.
4. A 150 g ball at the end of a string is revolved uniformly in a horizontal circle of
radius 0.600 m. the b all makes 2.00 revolutions in a second. What is its
centripetal acceleration?
5. A jet plane travelling 1800 km/h pulls out of a dive by moving in an arc of
radius 6.00 km. what is the plane’s acceleration in g’s?
6. A 25.0 kg child on a merry-go-go round is moving with a speed of 1.35 m/s
when 1.20 m from the centre of the marry-go-round. Calculate:
(a) The centripetal acceleration of the child

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(b) The net horizontal force exerted on the child

7. A 1200 kg car rounds a curve of radius 70 m banked at an angle of 12.0°. if the
car is traveling at 90.0 km/h, will a friction force be required? If so, how much
and in what direction?
8. A racing car starts from rest in the pit area and accelerates at a uniform rate to
a speed of 35 m/s in 11 s, moving on a circular track of radius 500 m. assuming
constant tangential acceleration, find
(a) The tangential acceleration
(b) The centripetal acceleration when the speed is 30 m/s
(c) The tangential and centripetal components of the net force exerted on the
car when its speed is 30 m/s and the car’s mass is 1000 kg.
9. How large must the coefficient of friction be between the tires and the road if
a car is to round a level curve of radius 85 m at a speed of 95 km/h?
10. A 0.150 kg ball on the end of a 1.10 m long cord (negligible mass) is swung in a
vertical circle.
(a) Determine the minimum speed the ball must have at the top of its arc so
that it continues moving in a circle.
(b) Calculate the tension the cord at the bottom of the arc assuming the ball is
moving at twice the speed of part (a).

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Unit 9

Rotational Dynamics and Equilibrium

9.0 Introduction
In unit 7, you only concentrated on the description of rotational motion regardless of
the cause of motion. In this unit your focus will be on rotational dynamics-the cause
of rotational motion. This will help you to understand how a net force causes angular
acceleration.
You will also deal with a quantity called toque which is similar to the net force in
linear motion. Toque is experienced by you in everyday activities e.g when opening
doors, walking. You will see how toques achieve static equilibrium of objects.
Centre of mass is another concept you will learn in this unit. You will proceed with
this unit looking at rotational momentum and its conservation. Finally you will learn
rotational work and energy.

9.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to;
 define toque
 state the two conditions for static equilibrium
 describe centre of mass, centre of gravity and centre of a system of particles
 describe conservation of angular momentum

9.2 Key words

 toque
 static equilibrium
 centre of mass
 centre of gravity
 moment of inertia

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9.3 Conservation of angular momentum

9.3.1 Toque
Toque, 𝝉, is defined the measure of the tendency of the force to give an object a
turning effect about some axis of rotation.
Mathematically, toque can be defined as the product of the force component
perpendicular to the lever arm and the lever arm. Lever arm is the perpendicular
distance the axis of rotation to the line of action of the force. Toque is given by:
𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (9.01)
Where r is the lever arm, F is the applied force and 𝜃 is the angle between r and F.
The SI unit of toque is Nm. This unit of toque is not the same as the unit of work. In
work the displacement and the force are in the same line. In toque, however the lever
arm and the force are perpendicular to each other. So the SI unit of toque is not a
joule.
Equation 9.01 is a general equation for toque and it can be written in two ways:
1. 𝜏 = 𝑟(𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) (9.02)
Equation 9.02 defines toque as the product of lever arm, r, and the perpendicular
component of the force, 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
The force component which is parallel to the lever arm gives zero toque because the
angle, 𝜃, is zero as shown in Figure 9.01.

Figure 9.01

2. 𝜏 = (𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝐹 (9.03)
Equation 8.03 defines toque as the product of the perpendicular lever arm, 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 to
the applied force and the applied force, F as shown in Figure 8.02.

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Figure 9.02

From the definition of toque, you see that toque varies directly as both force and
lever arm. When the applied force, F, and lever arm are perpendicular (forming a
right angle) to each other, then you get maximum toque given by:
𝜏 = 𝑟𝑭 (9.04)
Recall that in linear motion, resultant force causes linear acceleration according to
Newton’s second law of motion. Likewise here in rotational motion it is the toque
that causes angular acceleration of an object. Therefore, resultant toque acting on an
object at rest will cause rotational motion of the object.
It universally agreed that toque is positive in anticlockwise direction and negative in
clockwise direction.
Example 9.01
The minimum toque required to remove a bottle top using an opener is 50.0 Nm at
the distance from the fulcrum. What tangential force is required to remove the bottle
top when:
(a) Lever arm of the opener is 2 m?
(b) Lever arm of the opener is 5 m?
Solution
(a) 𝑟 = 2 𝑚, 𝐹 = 50.0 𝑁
𝝉 50.0 𝑁𝑚
𝑭= = = 25.0 𝑁
𝑟 2𝑚
(b) 𝑟 = 5 𝑚, 𝐹 = 50.0 𝑁

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𝝉 50.0 𝑁𝑚
𝑭= = = 10.0 𝑁
𝑟 5𝑚
Example 9.01 above shows that increasing the moment arm significantly reduces the
force required to produce the same turning effect. This principle is very useful when it
comes to unscrewing or screwing a nut using spanner. Holding the spanner closer the
nut requires a lot of effort to unscrew or to screw the nut. Holding the spanner at
further end requires less effort to unscrew or screw the nut.

9.3.2 Toque and angular acceleration

You recall that resultant toque or net toque causes angular acceleration, 𝜶. Our major
concern now is to establish the relationship that exists between toque and angular
acceleration.
You know that an object of mass, m, being acted upon by a net force, F, experiences
linear acceleration whose magnitude is given by:
𝑎 = 𝐹/𝑚 (9.05)
Equation 9.05 is a mathematical expression of Newton’s second law of motion.
Equation 9.12 gives us the relationship between linear acceleration and angular
acceleration as follows:
𝑎 = 𝑟𝛼 (9.06)
Substituting Equation 9.06 into Equation 8.05 for linear acceleration, a, you get:
𝐹
𝑟𝛼 =
𝑚
𝐹
𝛼 = 𝑚𝑟 (9.07)

Multiplying both the denominator and the numerator to the right hand side of
Equation 9.07 by r, you reach:
𝑟𝐹
𝛼= (9.08)
𝑚𝑟2

Equation 9.07 tells you that for the applied force, F, which is perpendicular to the
lever arm, r, angular acceleration is equal to the toque, 𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹, divide by moment of
inertia, 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟2
You can rewrite Equation 8.08 as:
𝝉
𝜶=
𝐼
From which you get:
𝝉 = 𝐼𝜶 (9.09)

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Equation 9.09 is Newton’s second law of rotational motion and it is similar to

Newton’s second law of motion described in kinematics.
Table 9.01 shows the linear quantities and their analogies of rotational quantities with
respect to Newton’s second law of motion.
Table 9.01
Linear Quantity Angular Quantity

𝑭 = 𝑚𝒂 𝝉 = 𝐼𝜶
m I
𝒂 𝜶
F 𝝉

Example 9.2

Activity 9.2

9.3.3 Static Equilibrium

Static equilibrium is a condition in which an object is at rest and remains at a fixed
position. The object at static equilibrium does not experience any form of motion in
any direction apart from molecular motion.

9.3.3.1 Conditions for statistic equilibrium

1. The net force acting on the object must be equal to zero
∑ 𝑭𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0 (9.10)
Writing Equation 6.10 in x and y components, you get:
𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑦 = 0
Condition one is called translational equilibrium.
2. The net toque acting on the object must be zero
∑𝝉 = 0 (9.11)
Condition two is called rotational equilibrium
For an object to be in static equilibrium, it must satisfy both translational and
rotational equilibrium
Example

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A woman of mass 𝑚 = 55.0 𝑘𝑔 sits on the left end of see-saw-a plank of length
L=4.00 m, pivoted in the middle as shown in the figure below.
(a) Where should a man of mass 75.0 kg sit if the system is to be balanced?
(b) Find the normal force exerted by the pivot if the plank has a mass of 𝑚 𝑝𝑙 =

12.0 𝑘𝑔

Figure 9.03
Solution

Figure 9.04
(a) Let x be the distance from the pivot where the man is to sit to balance the
system.
Applying the second condition for static equilibrium, ∑ 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0 you have:
𝜏𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡 + 𝜏𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 + 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑛 + 𝜏𝑤𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑛 = 0
The woman is at a distance of 𝐿/2 from the pivot. Therefore:
0 + 0 − 𝑀𝑔𝑥 + 𝑚𝑔𝐿/2 = 0
𝑚𝑔𝐿/2 𝑚𝐿/2 (55.0 𝑘𝑔)(2.00 𝑚)
𝑥= = = = 1.47 𝑚
𝑀𝑔 𝑀 75.0 𝐾
(b) Apply the first condition of equilibrium to the plank, ∑ 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0:
𝑛 − 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑀𝑔 − 𝑚 𝑝𝑙 𝑔 = 0

𝑛 = (𝑚 + 𝑀 + 𝑚 𝑝𝑙 )𝑔 = (55.0 𝑘𝑔 + 75.0 𝑘𝑔 + 12.0 𝑘𝑔)(9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )

𝑛 = 1.39 × 103 𝑁

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Activity 9.
1. Explain the two conditions required for an object to be in static
equilibrium.

9.3.4 Centre of mass and center of gravity

Until now you have been mainly concerned with the motion of a single particle.
Centre of mass is of an object is a single point on the object where the whole mass of
the object is considered to concentrate.
Centre of gravity of an object is a single point on an object where the whole weight
of the object is considered to act.
If an object has regular shape with uniform mass distribution (homogeneous,
symmetric object), then the centre of mass and centre of gravity lie at their
geometrical centers.
It is observed that if the object is supported under this centre of gravity point, it can
be balanced, or it can be put in equilibrium by this single force. In the following two
ways:
1. The whole weight of an object will be balanced by the upward applied force
at the centre of gravity makes an object to attain translational equilibrium
2. Since the whole weight is considered to act at this pivot point, its moment arm
is zero and the net toque is also zero resulting into rotational equilibrium.
Consider an object of arbitrary shape lying in the xy-plane as in Figure 8.05. the
object has a large number of very small particles of weight 𝑚 1 𝑔, 𝑚 2 𝑔, 𝑚 3 𝑔, … having
coordinates (𝑥 1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥 2 , 𝑦2 ), (𝑥 3 , 𝑦3 , …If the object is free to rotate around the origin,
each particle contributes a toque about about the origin that is equal to its weight
multiplied by its lever arm. We want to locate a single point of application of a single
force of magnitude 𝑤 = 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑀𝑔 (𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡), where the effect
on the rotation of the object is the same as that of the individual particles. This point
is called center of gravity. Equating the toque exerted by w at the center of gravity to
the sum of the toques acting on the individual particles gives:
𝑀𝑔𝑥 𝑐𝑔 = 𝑚 1 𝑔𝑥 1 + 𝑚 2 𝑔𝑥 2 + 𝑚 3 𝑔𝑥 3 + ⋯

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𝑚1 𝑥 1 +𝑚2 𝑥 2 +𝑚3 𝑥 3 +⋯
𝑥 𝑐𝑔 = (9.12)
𝑀

𝑀 is the total mass of the object equal to 𝑚 1 + 𝑚 2 + 𝑚 3 + ⋯ substituting this into

(8.12) you get
𝑚1 𝑥 1 +𝑚2 𝑥 2 +𝑚3 𝑥 3 +⋯ ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥 𝑖
𝑥 𝑐𝑔 = = ∑ 𝑚𝑖
(9.13a)
𝑚1 +𝑚2 +𝑚3 +⋯

Where 𝑥 𝑐𝑔 is the x-coordinate of the centre of gravity. Similarly y-coordinate of centre

of gravity
𝑚1 𝑦1 +𝑚2 𝑦2 +𝑚3 𝑦3 +⋯ ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑦𝑐𝑔 = = ∑ 𝑚𝑖
(9.13b)
𝑚1 +𝑚2 +𝑚3 +⋯

Figure 8.05
Equations 9.13a and 9.13b are similar for the equations for finding centre of mass.
Example
Three particles are located in a coordinate system as shown in Figure 8.06. find the
centre of the gravity.

Figure 9.06
All particles lie on x-axis. The centre for gravity in y-coordinate is zero. Applying
Equation 9.9a
𝑚 1 𝑥1 + 𝑚 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑚 3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ∑ 𝑚 𝑖 𝑥 𝑖
𝑥 𝑐𝑔 = =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 + ⋯ ∑ 𝑚𝑖

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∑ 𝑚 𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 𝑚 1 𝑥1 + 𝑚 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑚 3 𝑥 3
𝑥 𝑐𝑔 = =
∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3
(5.0 𝑘𝑔)(−0.500 𝑚) + (2.00 𝑘𝑔)(0) + (4.00 𝑘𝑔)(1.00 𝑚)
𝑥 cg = = 0.136 𝑚
5.00 𝐾𝑔 + 2.00 𝑘𝑔 + 4.00 𝑘𝑔

9.3.5 Rotational kinetic Energy and moment of inertia

You know now that an object in motion possesses kinetic energy. Motion can either
be translational or rotational or a combination of both. In translational motion, the
kinetic energy, 𝐾, of an object is equal to 1
2
𝑚𝑣2 . In rotational motion this equation
cannot work because the speed V of individual particles varies with the radius of
every particle from the axis of rotation given by 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔. You can see that v is not the
same for every particle of the whole object. However, the angular speed, 𝜔, of an
object remains constant for all the particles in the object.
Lets now derive the equation that describe rotational kinetic energy.
You already know that kinetic energy for an object undergoing translational motion is
given by:
𝐾𝐸𝑡 = 12 𝑚𝑣2 (9.14)
But linear speed is given by 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔, and substituting this into 8.14 for 𝑣 you get:
1 1
𝐾𝐸𝑟 = 2 𝑚(𝑟𝜔)2 = 2 𝑚𝑟2 𝜔2 (9.15)

Equation 9.15 shows you that rotational kinetic energy depends on both the square of
radius and the square of angular speed. While translational kinetic energy depends
only on the square of linear speed. In other words, rotational kinetic energy depends
on the distribution of mass of an object.
Now recall that the quantity 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟2 in equation 9.15 is called moment of inertia.
Then Equation 9.15 then reduces to
1
𝐾𝐸𝑟 = 2 𝐼𝝎2 (9.16)

Equation 8.16 describes rotational kinetic energy (𝐾𝐸𝑟 ) as the product of moment of
inertia, 𝐼, and the square of angular acceleration of the rotating object.
Lets now concentrate on how moment of inertial for arbitrary shaped object can be
found. Consider a rotating object of arbitrary shaped having a large number of
particles of masses 𝑚 1 , 𝑚 2 , 𝑚 3 , … , 𝑚 𝑛 located at distances of 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 , … , 𝑟𝑛 respectively
from the axis of rotation as shown in Figure 9.07.

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Figure 9.07

The total moment of inertia can be given by:

𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚 𝑖 𝑟𝑖 2 = 𝑚 1 𝑟1 2 + 𝑚 1 𝑟1 2 + 𝑚 1 𝑟1 2 + ⋯ + 𝑚 𝑛 𝑟𝑛 2 (9.17)
The SI unit of moment of inertia is 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚2
Example
Figure 9.08 shows two objects having equal mass, 𝑚, connected either end of a rod
rotating about its center. Find the moment of inertia of the system assuming that the
mass of the rod is negligible.

Figure 9.08
Solution
From the definition of moment of inertia:

𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚 𝑖 𝑟𝑖 2

𝐼 = 𝑚𝑙 2 + 𝑚𝑙 2 = 2𝑚𝑙 2
The table 9.02 below shows the moment of inertia for some uniform rigid objects of
various shapes and having total mass of M.

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Table 9.02: Moments of Inertia for Various Rigid objects of Uniform Composition

Moment of inertia plays the same role in rotational motion that inertial mass plays in
the translational motion. Thus, moment of inertia measures the resistance/reluctance
of a body to start rotating when it is stationary or to stop rotating once it is in
rotational motion.

9.3.6 Conservation of Energy

A system such as a bowling ball rolling down a ramp is described by three types of
energy: gravitational potential energy 𝑷𝑬 𝒈 , translational kinetic energy 𝑲𝑬 𝒕, and
rotational kinetic energy 𝑲𝑬 𝒓 . All these forms of energy, plus the potential energies of
any other conservative forces, must be included in our equation for the conservation
of mechanical energy of an isolated system:
(𝐾𝐸𝑡 + 𝐾𝐸𝑟 + 𝑃𝐸 )𝑖 = (𝐾𝐸𝑡 + 𝐾𝐸𝑟 + 𝑃𝐸 )𝑓 (9.18)
where i and f refer to initial and final values, respectively, and PE includes the
potential energies of all conservative forces in a given problem. This relation is true
only if we ignore dissipative forces such as friction. In that case, it’s necessary to resort
to a generalization of the work–energy theorem:

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𝑊𝑛𝑐 = ∆𝐾𝐸𝑡 + ∆𝐾𝐸𝑟 + ∆𝑃𝐸 (9.19)

Example
A ball of mass M and radius R starts from rest at a height of 2.00 m and rolls down a
30.0° slope, as in Active Figure 8.25. What is the linear speed of the ball when it
leaves the incline? Assume that the ball rolls without slipping.

Solution
Applying conservation of energy with 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑃𝐸𝑔 :
(𝐾𝐸𝑡 + 𝐾𝐸𝑟 + 𝑃𝐸𝑔 )𝑖 = (𝐾𝐸𝑡 + 𝐾𝐸𝑟 + 𝑃𝐸𝑔 )𝑓
1 1 2
0 + 0 + 𝑀𝑔ℎ = 2 𝑀𝑣 2 + 2 (5 𝑀𝑅 2 ) 𝜔2 + 0

The ball rows without slipping, so 𝑅𝜔 = 𝑣

1 1 7
𝑀𝑔ℎ = 2 𝑀𝑣 2 + 5 𝑀𝑣 2 = 10 𝑀𝑣 2

10𝑔ℎ 10(9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(2.00 𝑚)

𝑣=√ =√ = 5.29𝑚/𝑠
7 7

9.3.7 Angular momentum

An object of mass, m, rotates in a circular path of radius r when acted on by a net
force, 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 . The resulting net toque on the object increases its angular speed from the
intitial value 𝜔𝑖 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝜔𝑓 in a time interval∆𝑡. Then, we can write:
∆𝜔 𝜔𝑓 − 𝜔𝑖
∑ 𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 = 𝐼 = 𝐼( )
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
We can now define the product:
𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔 (9.20)
as the angular momentum of the object. Then we can write:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 ∆𝐿
∑𝜏 = = (9.21)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 ∆𝑡

This is the rotational analog of Newton’s second law and states that the net toque
acting on an object is equal to the time rate of change of the object’s angular
momentum. This equation is similar to the impulse-momentum theorem.

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∆𝐿
When the net external toque acting on the system is zero, then = 0, then
∆𝑡

𝐿 𝑖 = 𝐿𝑓 (9.22)
and so angular momentum is said to be conserved. This is called the conservation of
angular momentum.
If the moment of inertia of an isolated rotating system changes, the system’s angular
speed will change. Therefore, conservation of angular momentum requires that
𝐼𝑖 𝜔𝑖 = 𝐼𝑓 𝜔𝑓 if ∑ 𝜏 = 0 (9.23)
The Law of Conservation of angular momentum: it states that the total angular
momentum of a rotating object remains constant if the net toque acting on it is zero.
Example

9.3.8 Summary
Toque:
Let F be force acting on an object, and let r be position vector from a chosen point O
to the point of application of the force. Then the magnitude of the toque 𝝉 of the
force F is given by:
𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Where r is the length of the position vector, F is the magnitude of the force and 𝜃 is
the angle between F and r.
The toque at O depends on the distance to the point of application of force F and the
force’s magnitude and direction.
Toque and the two conditions for equilibrium:
1. The net external force must be zero: ∑ 𝑭 = 0
2. The net external toque must be zero: ∑ 𝝉 = 0
The two conditions result into three equations when solving problems involving
rotation in a plane. Two equations are from the first equation corresponding to x-
and y-directions of force, and one equation is from the second condition, on toque.
The three equations then are solved simultaneously.
The moment of inertia of a group of particles is:

𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚𝑣 2

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For a rigid object which is free to rotate about a fixed axis, having a net external
toque ∑ 𝜏, acting on it, the object undergoes an angular acceleration 𝛼, so that the
rotational equivalent of the second law of motion becomes:

∑ 𝝉 = 𝐼𝛼

The relation 𝑎 = 𝑟𝛼 is the key in relating the translational equations to the rotational
equations.
If a rigid object rotates about a fixed axis with angular speed 𝜔, its rotational kinetic
energy is:
1
𝐾𝐸𝑟 = 2 𝐼𝜔2
I is the object’s moment of inertia.
The conservation of energy for isolated rotating object is given by:
(𝐾𝐸𝑡 + 𝐾𝐸𝑟 + 𝑃𝐸)𝑖 = (𝐾𝐸𝑡 + 𝐾𝐸𝑟 + 𝑃𝐸)𝑓
where I and f refer to initial and final values of respectively.
A ball rotating down inclined plane converts potential energy to translational and
rotational energy.
When non-conservative forces are present, we can write the generalization of work-
energy theorem as:
𝑊𝑛𝑐 = ∆𝐾𝐸𝑡 + ∆𝐾𝐸𝑟 + ∆𝑃𝐸
The angular momentum of a rotating object is given by:
𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔
Angular momentum is related to toque as:
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 ∆𝐿
∑𝜏 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 ∆𝑡
In an isolated rotating object where the net external toque acting on an object is zero,
the total angular momentum of the system is constant i.e
𝐿 𝑖 = 𝐿𝑓
and is said to be conserved. Conservation of angular momentum can also be written
as:
𝐼𝑖 𝜔𝑖 = 𝐼𝑓 𝜔𝑓

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9.3.9 End of unit 8 Exercise

1. What is the maximum exerted by a 55 kg person riding a bike if the rider puts
all her weight on each pedal when climbing a hill? The pedals rotate in a circle
of radius 17 cm.
2. A person exerts a force of 45 N on the end of a door 84 cm wide. What is the
magnitude of the toque if the force is exerted (a) perpendicular to the door (b)
at 60° angle to the face of the door?
3. A system consisting of two masses connected by a massless rod lies along the X-
axis. A 0.4 kg mass is at a distance x = 2 m while a 0.6 kg mass is at x = 7 m.
Find the x coordinate of the centre of mass.
4. Locate the centre of mass of a system of bodies of masses 𝑚 1 = 1 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚 2 =
2 𝑘𝑔 and 𝑚 3 = 3 𝑘𝑔 situated at the corners of an equilateral triangle of side 1
m.
5. A circular disc of mass 𝑚 and radius 𝑟 is set rolling on a table. If 𝜔 is its angular
3
velocity, show that its total energy 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑟2 𝜔2 .
4

6. A thin metal ring of diameter 0.6 m and mass 1 kg starts from rest and rolls
down on an inclined plane. Its linear velocity on reaching the foot of the plane
is 5 𝑚𝑠 −1 , calculate (i) the moment of inertia of the ring and (ii) the kinetic
energy of rotation at that instant.
7. A solid cylinder of mass 200 kg rotates about its axis with angular
speed 100 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 −1 . The radius of the cylinder is 0.25 m. What is the kinetic
energy associated with the rotation of the cylinder? What is the magnitude of
the angular momentum of the cylinder about its axis?
8. A person weighing 45 kg sits on one end of a seesaw while a boy of 15 kg sits
on the other end. If they are separated by 4 m, how far from the boy is the
centre of mass situated. Neglect weight of the seesaw.

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PART 2

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Outline.

2.0 Introduction.

2.1 Objectives.

2.2 Key terms.

Unit 1: Thermodynamics.

Unit 2: Ideal gases.

Unit 3: Heat and the first law of thermodynamics.

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1.0 Introduction

Thermal properties are the response of matter to applied heat or sources of different
temperature. In everyday language we use the terms heat and temperature loosely as
if they had the same meaning. In physics they have different meanings. Temperature is
the property of matter which reflects the quantity of energy of motion of the
component particles. On the other hand, Heat energy (or just heat) is a form of
energy which transfers among particles in a substance (or system) by means of kinetic
energy of those particle.

1.1 Objectives

By the end of this section, students must be able to:

 Understand the different scales used in measurement of temperature.

 Convert temperature from one scale to another.
 Explain the absolute temperature.
 Illustrate thermal expansion.
 Define the terms heat capacity and specific heat capacity.
 Deduce the formulae for heat capacity and specific heat capacity.
 Calculate specific heat capacities.
 Describe calorimeter.
 Identify latent heat capacities.
 Verify Newton’s law of cooling.

1.2 Key terms

Temperature, heat, and internal energy, thermal contact, heat transfer, Thermal
equilibrium, Heat capacity, specific heat capacity.

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Unit 1

THERMODYNAMICS

1.0 Introduction

Thermodynamics is the branch of Physics devoted to study of heat and temperature

and their relations to energy and work. It defines macroscopic variables such as
internal energy, entropy and pressure that partly describe a body of matter of
radiation. Most studies of thermodynamics are primarily concerned with two forms of
energy – heat and work. Thermodynamics study includes quantitative analysis of
machine and processes for transformation of energy and between work and heat. In
classical thermodynamics a macroscopic viewpoint is taken regarding such matters.
The term thermodynamics was first introduced by Lord Kelvin in 1849. The term
comes from the Greek words thermal (heat) and dynamics (power).

1.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, students must be able to:
 Distinguish between temperature scales.
 Describe the calibration of different thermometers.
 State the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics.

1.2 Key terms;

Heat, temperature, pressure and internal energy.

1.3 TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1.3.1 Temperature

 We often associate the concept of temperature with how hot or cold an object
feels when we touch it.
 To understand the concept of temperature, it is useful to define two often used
phrases: thermal contact and thermal equilibrium.

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 We are all familiar with the fact that two objects at different initial
temperatures eventually reach some intermediate temperature when placed in
contact with each other.
 For example, when an ice cube is dropped into a cup of hot coffee, it melts
and the coffee’s temperature decreases.
 Thermal contact; let us imagine that two objects are placed in an insulated
container such that they interact with each other but not with the rest of the
world. If the objects are at different temperatures, energy is exchanged
between them, even if they are initially not in physical contact with each other.
 Thermal equilibrium is a situation in which two objects in thermal contact with
each other cease to exchange energy by the process of heat.
 Heat is the transfer of energy from one object to another object as a result of a
difference in temperature between the two.

i. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The zeroth law of thermodynamics. (a) and (b) If the temperatures of A and B are measured to be
the same by placing them in thermal contact with a thermometer (object C), no energy will be
exchanged between them when they are placed in thermal contact with each other (c).

 Zeroth law states that; if objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium
with a third object C, then objects A and B are in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
 Two objects in thermal equilibrium with each other are at the same
temperature.
 Conversely, if two objects have different temperatures, then they are not in
thermal equilibrium with each other
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1.4 THERMOMETERS AND THE TEMPERATURE SCALES

 Thermometers are devices that are used to define and measure temperatures.
 All thermometers are based on the principle that some physical property of a
system changes as the system’s temperature changes.
 Some physical properties that change with temperature are:
1. The volume of a liquid.
2. The length of a solid.
3. The pressure of a gas at constant volume.
4. The volume of a gas at constant pressure.
5. The electric resistance of a conductor.
6. The colour of an object. For a given substance and a given temperature range,
 A temperature scale can be established on the basis of any one of these physical
properties.
 A common thermometer in everyday use consists of a mass of liquid—usually
mercury or alcohol—that expands into a glass capillary tube when heated.
 In this case the physical property that changes is the volume of a liquid.
 Any temperature change in the range of the thermometer can be defined as
being proportional to the change in length of the liquid column.
 We can calibrate a thermometer by placing it in thermal contact with some
natural systems that remain at constant temperature.
 One such system is a mixture of water and ice in thermal equilibrium at
atmospheric pressure.
 On the Celsius temperature scale , this mixture is defined to have a temperature
of zero degrees Celsius, which is written as 0°C; this temperature is called the
ice point of water.
 Another commonly used system is a mixture of water and steam in thermal
equilibrium at atmospheric pressure; its temperature is 100°C, which is the
steam point of water.
 Once the liquid levels in the thermometer have been established at these two
points, the length of the liquid column between the two points is divided into
100 equal segments to create the Celsius scale .

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 Thus, each segment denotes a change in temperature of one Celsius degree.

1.4.1.1 PROBLEMS WITH LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETERS.

1. No extreme accuracy when needed; because mercury and alcohol

have different thermal expansion properties,

2. The limited range of temperatures over which it can be used. E.g. A

mercury thermometer cannot be used below the freezing point of
mercury, which is -39°C, and an alcohol thermometer is not useful for
measuring temperatures above 85°C.

 To overcome this problem, we need a universal thermometer whose readings

are independent of the substance used in it. Hence the use of Gas
Thermometer.
1.4.2 THE CONSTANT-VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER AND THE ABSOLUTE
TEMPERATURE SCALE

 The Physical change exploited in the constant-volume gas thermometer is the

variation of pressure of a fixed volume of gas with temperature .
 We can calibrate a gas thermometer like the one shown in the figure 2.4.2
below by immersing the flask in an ice-water bath, and mercury reservoir B
raised or lowered until the top of the mercury in column A is at the zero point
on the scale.

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Figure 2.4.2

 The height h, the difference between the mercury levels in reservoir B and
column A, indicates the pressure in the flask at 0°C.
 The flask is then immersed in water at the steam point, and reservoir B
readjusted until the top of the mercury in column A is again at zero on the
scale; this is to ensure that the gas’s volume was the same as it was when the
flask was in the ice bath. Hence “constant volume.”
 This adjustment of reservoir B gives a value for the gas pressure at 100°C.
 These two pressure and temperature values can be plotted, as shown in Figure
2.4.3.
 The line connecting the two points serves as a calibration curve for unknown
temperatures.

Figure 2.4.3

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A graph of pressure versus temperature taken with a constant-volume gas

thermometer. The two dots represent known reference temperatures (the ice and
steam points of water).

 Now let us suppose that temperatures are measured with gas thermometers
containing different gases at different initial pressures.
 Experiments show that the thermometer readings are nearly independent of
the type of gas used, as long as the gas pressure is low and the temperature is
well above the point at which the gas liquefies (Fig. 2.4.4).
 The agreement among thermometers using various gases improves as the
pressure is reduced.

Figure 2.4.4

 If we extend the straight lines in Figure 2.4.4 toward negative temperatures,

we find that in every case, the pressure is zero when the temperature is -
273.15°C.
 This temperature is used as the basis for the absolute temperature scale/kelvin
scale, which sets -273.15°C as its zero point.
 This temperature is often referred to as absolute zero.
 The size of a degree on the absolute temperature scale is chosen to be identical
to the size of a degree on the Celsius scale.
 Because the size of a degree is the same on the two scales, a temperature
difference of 5°C is equal to a temperature difference of 5 K .
 Thus, the conversion between these temperatures is

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𝑇𝑐 = 𝑇 − 273.15
Where TC is the Celsius temperature and T is the absolute temperature.

 This new absolute temperature scale (also called the Kelvin scale) employs the
SI unit of absolute temperature, the kelvin, which is defined to be 1/273.16 of
the difference between absolute zero and the temperature of the triple point
of water.
 Triple point of water is the single combination of temperature and pressure at
which liquid water, gaseous water, and ice (solid water) coexist in equilibrium.
 This triple point occurs at a temperature of 0.01°C and a pressure of 4.58 mm
of mercury.

1.4.2.1. THE CELSIUS, FAHRENHEIT, AND KELVIN TEMPERATURE SCALES .

 A common temperature scale in everyday use in the United States is the

Fahrenheit scale.
 This scale sets the temperature of the ice point at 32°F and the temperature of
the steam point at 212°F.
 The relationship between the Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales is

𝑇𝐹 = 9⁄5 𝑇𝐶 + 320 𝐹

Example:

An object has the temperature of 50°F, what is its temperature in degrees

Celsius and in kelvins?

Solution:

From the equation above we get,

𝑇𝐶 = 5⁄9 (𝑇𝐹 − 32)

5
= (50 − 32)
9

= 10 0C

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𝑇𝑐 = 𝑇 − 273.15, hence 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑐 + 273.15

= 10 0C + 273.15

= 283.15 K
Activity 1.4
1. A pan of water is heated from 25°C to 80°C. What is the change in its temperature on
the Kelvin scale and on the Fahrenheit scale? (phy 4 sci & engine pg 586)
2. A spray can containing a propellant gas at twice atmospheric pressure (202 kPa) and
having a volume of 125 cm3 is at 22°C. It is then tossed into an open fire. When the
temperature of the gas in the can reaches 195°C, what is the pressure inside the can?
Assume any change in the volume of the can is negligible.

1.5 THERMAL EXPANSION

 Thermal expansion is a consequence of the change in the average separation

between the atoms in an object due to heat.
 Thermal expansion is as a result of increase in temperature, so when the
temperature increases; the molecules gain more kinetic energy and they move
faster than average speed and consequently things tend to expand.
 If thermal expansion is sufficiently small relative to an object’s initial
dimensions, the change in any dimension is, to a good approximation,
proportional to the first power of the temperature change.

 Suppose that an object has an initial length 𝐿𝑖 along some direction at some
temperature and that the length increases by an amount ∆L for a change in
temperature ∆T.
 Considering the fractional change in length per degree of temperature change,
we define the average coefficient of linear expansion as:

∆𝐿⁄
𝐿𝑖
𝛼≡
∆𝑇
 The equation above could be rewritten as:

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∆𝐿 = 𝛼𝐿𝑖 ∆𝑇 (Linear expansion)

This shows that “The change in length of an object is proportional to the change in
temperature”

or as 𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿𝑖 = 𝛼𝐿𝑖 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 )
Where 𝐿𝑓 is the final length, 𝑇𝑓 and 𝑇𝑖 are the final and the initial temperatures and the
proportionality constant 𝛼 is the average coefficient of linear expansion for a given material
and has units of °C -1 .

 Table 2.4 lists the average coefficient of linear and volume expansion for
various materials

Table 2.4

 Note that for these materials 𝛼 is positive, indicating an increase in length with
increasing temperature.
 This is not always the case. Some substances-calcite (CaCO3) is one example -
expand along one dimension (positive 𝛼) and contract along another
(negative 𝛼) as their temperatures are increased.
 Because the linear dimensions of an object change with temperature, it follows
that surface area and volume change as well.
 The change in volume at constant pressure is proportional to the initial volume
Vi and to the change in temperature according to the relationship
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∆𝑉 = 𝛽𝑉𝑖 ∆𝑇
 Where  is the average coefficient of volume expansion.
 For a solid, the average coefficient of volume expansion is approximately three
times the average linear expansion coefficient: 

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Proof

Consider a box of dimensions l, w and h. Its volume at some

temperature 𝑇𝑖 is 𝑉𝑖 = lwh.
If the temperature changes to 𝑇𝑖 + ∆𝑇 its volume changes to 𝑉𝑖 + ∆𝑉
where each dimension changes according to equation [∆𝐿 = 𝛼𝐿 𝑖 ∆𝑇]
Therefore,

𝑉𝑖 + ∆𝑉 = (l + ∆l) (w +∆w) (h + ∆h)

= (l + l ∆𝑇) (w +w∆𝑇) (h + h ∆𝑇)

= lwh (1 + 𝛼∆𝑇) 3

= 𝑉𝑖 [1 + 3𝛼∆𝑇 + 3(𝛼∆𝑇) 2 + (𝛼∆𝑇)3]

Now dividing both sides by 𝑉𝑖 and then isolate the term ∆𝑉/𝑉𝑖 ,we
obtain:

∆𝑉
= 3𝛼∆𝑇 + 3(𝛼∆𝑇) 2 + (𝛼∆𝑇)3
𝑉𝑖

Because 𝛼∆𝑇 ≪ 1 for typical values of ∆𝑇 (<~ 100°C), we can neglect

the terms 3(𝛼∆𝑇)2 and (𝛼∆𝑇)3. Upon making this approximation, we see
that

∆𝑉
= 3𝛼∆𝑇
𝑉𝑖

And making ∆𝑉 subject, the equation above becomes

∆𝑉 = 3𝛼𝑉𝑖 ∆𝑇.

Comparing with the equation ∆𝑉 = β𝑉𝑖 ∆𝑇, 3

Example:

A segment of steel railroad track has a length of 30.000 m when the

temperature is 0.0°C. What is its length when the temperature is 40.0°C?

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Solution

∆𝐿 = 𝛼𝐿 𝑖∆𝑇

From the table 2.4, for steel is 11 𝑥 10−6 0 𝐶 −1 

∆𝐿 = [11 𝑥 10−6 0 𝐶 −1 ](30.000 𝑚)(40.0 0𝐶 )

m
If the track is 30.000 m long at 0.0°C, its length at 40.0°C is 30.013 m

Activity 2.1

3. Show that the change in area of a rectangular plate is given by ∆𝐴 = 2𝛼𝐴 𝑖 ∆𝑇

1.5.1 BIMETALLIC STRIPS AND THERMOSTATS

 Bimetallic strip: When the temperatures of a brass rod and a steel rod of equal
length are raised by the same amount from some common initial value, the
brass rod expands more than the steel rod because brass has a larger coefficient
of expansion than steel.
 Such strips can be found in the thermostats of certain home heating systems.
 The strip is made by securely bonding two different metals together. As the
temperature of the strip increases, the two metals expand by different amounts
and the strip bends. As figure 1.5.1 shows

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Figure 1.5.1

1.5.2 THE UNUSUAL BEHAVIOUR OF WATER

 Liquids generally increase in volume with increasing temperature and have
average coefficients of volume expansion about ten times greater than those of
solids.
 Cold water is an exception to this rule, as we can see from its density-versus-
temperature curve, shown in Figure 1.5.2.

Figure 1.5.2

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 As the temperature increases from 0°C to 4°C, water contracts and thus its
density increases.
 Above 4°C, water expands with increasing temperature, and so its density
decreases.
 Thus, the density of water reaches a maximum value of 1.000 g/cm3 at 4°C.

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UNIT SUMMARY

 Two objects are in thermal equilibrium with each other if they do not
exchange energy when in thermal contact.
 The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if objects A and B are separately
in
thermal equilibrium with a third object C, then objects A and B are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
 Temperature is the property that determines whether an object is in thermal
equilibrium with other objects.
 Two objects in thermal equilibrium with each other are
at the same temperature.
 The SI unit of absolute temperature is the kelvin, which is defined to be the
fraction 1/273.16 of the temperature of the triple point of water
 When the temperature of an object is changed by an amount ∆𝑇, its length

changes by an amount ∆𝐿 that is proportional to ∆𝑇 and to its initial length 𝐿 𝑖:

∆𝐿 = 𝛼𝐿𝑖 ∆𝑇

where the constant  is the average coefficient of linear expansion. The average
coefficient of volume expansion ' for a solid is approximately equal to 3.

 Thermometers measure temperature and are based on physical properties, such

as the temperature-dependent expansion or contraction of a solid, liquid, or
gas.
 The Kelvin temperature scale takes its zero point as absolute zero
(0K=-273.15 0C), the point at which, by extrapolation, the pressure of all gases
falls to zero.

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UNIT TEST

1. A piece of copper is dropped into a beaker of water. If the water’s

temperature rises, what happens to the temperature of the copper? Under
what conditions are the water and copper in thermal equilibrium?
2. When the metal ring and metal sphere in Figure T1.2 are both at room
temperature, the sphere can just be passed through the ring. After the sphere is
heated, it cannot be passed through the ring. Explain. What If? What if the ring
is heated and the sphere is left at room temperature? Does the sphere pass
through the ring?

Figure T1.2

3. A copper telephone wire has essentially no sag between poles 35.0 m apart on
a winter day when the temperature is - 20.0°C. How much longer is the wire
on a summer day when T C = 35.0°C?
4. A constant-volume gas thermometer is calibrated in dry ice (that is, carbon
dioxide in the solid state, which has a temperature of -80.0°C) and in boiling
ethyl alcohol (78.0°C). The two pressures are 0.900 atm and 1.635 atm.
a. What Celsius value of absolute zero does the calibration yield?
b. What is the pressure at
i. The freezing point of water?
ii. The boiling point of water?

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5. A hollow aluminium cylinder 20.0 cm deep has an internal capacity of 2.000 L

at 20.0°C. It is completely filled with turpentine and then slowly warmed to
80.0°C.
a. How much turpentine overflows?
b. If the cylinder is then cooled back to 20.0°C, how far below the
cylinder’s rim does the turpentine’s surface recede?

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Unit 2

IDEAL GAS

2.0 Introduction

An ideal gas is defined as one in which all collisions between atoms or

molecules are perfectly elastic and in which there are no intermolecular
attractive forces. One can visualise it as a collection of perfectly hard spheres
which collide but which otherwise do not interact with each other. In such a
gas, internal energy is in the form of kinetic energy and any change in internal
energy is accompanied by a change in temperature. An ideal gas can be
characterized by three state variables; Absolute pressure (P), Volume (V) and
absolute temperature (T).

2.1 Objectives

By the end of this unit, students must be able to:

 Explain relationship between the ideal gas constant and Boltzmann’s
constant.
 Describe the proportional relationships between pressure, volume, amount
and temperature.
 Know how equations of state can be written in terms of the molar volume.

2.2 Keywords:

Ideal gas

2.3 MACROSCOPIC DESCRIPTION OF AN IDEAL GAS

 The volume expansion equation ∆𝑉 = 𝛽𝑉𝑖 ∆𝑇 is based on the

assumption that the material has an initial volume 𝑉𝑖 before the
temperature change occurs.
 This is the case for solids and liquids because they have a fixed volume
at a given temperature.

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 The case for gases is completely different because they don’t have
“standard” volume at a given temperature .
 As a result, we cannot express changes in volume ∆𝑉 in a process on a
gas with Equation ∆𝑉 = 𝛽𝑉𝑖 ∆𝑇
 For a gas, it is useful to know how the quantities volume V, pressure P,
and temperature T are related for a sample of gas of mass 𝑚.
 In general, the equation that interrelates these quantities, called the
equation of state, is very complicated, but is found experimentally to
be relatively simple if the gas is maintained at a low pressure (or a low
density)
 Most gases at room temperature and atmospheric pressure behave
approximately as ideal gases.
 An ideal gas is a collection of atoms or molecules that move randomly
and exert no long-range forces on each other. Each particle of the ideal
gas is individually point-like, occupying a negligible volume.
 A gas usually consists of a very large number of particles, so it’s
convenient to express the amount of gas in a given volume in terms of
the number of moles, 𝑛.
𝑚 𝑚
𝑛= 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
(𝑛 = 𝑀
)

Where 𝑛 the numbers of moles, 𝑚 is the mass of the substance and 𝑀 is the
mass of one mole

 One mole contains 𝑁𝐴 =6.022 X 1023 particles: Avogadro’s number

 One mole (mol) of any substance is that amount of the substance that
contains as many particles (atoms, molecules, or other particles) as there
are atoms in 12 g of the isotope carbon-12
 Because there are 6.02x1023 particles in one mole of any element, the
mass per atom for a given element is
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 =
𝑁𝐴

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 Now suppose an ideal gas is confined to a cylindrical container with

a volume that can be changed by moving a piston, as in figure 2.1

Figure 2.1

 Assume that the cylinder doesn’t leak, so the number of moles remains
constant. Experiments yield the following observations:
 First, when the gas is kept at a constant temperature, its pressure is
inversely proportional to its volume (Boyle’s law).
 Second, when the pressure of the gas is kept constant, the volume of the
gas is directly proportional to the temperature (Charles’s law.)
 Third, when the volume of the gas is held constant, the pressure is
directly proportional to the temperature (Gay-Lussac’s law).
 These observations can be summarized by the following equation of
state, known as the ideal gas law:

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑅 is a constant and 𝑛 is the number of moles of gas in the sample.
𝑅 = 8.314 𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾
(When the pressure is expressed in Pascal’s and volume in cubic centimetres )
or
𝑅 = 0.08214 𝐿. 𝑎𝑡𝑚/𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾

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(When the pressure is expressed in atmospheres and volume in litres)

The ideal gas law states that if the volume and temperature of a fixed amount
of gas do not change, then the pressure also remains constant.

 The ideal gas law can be derived from the kinetic theory of gases and
relies on the assumptions that:
1. The gas consists of a large number of molecules, which are in
random motion and obey Newton's laws of motion.
2. The volume of the molecules is negligibly small compared to
the volume occupied by the gas.
3. No forces act on the molecules except during elastic collisions
of negligible duration.
 It is common to call quantities such as P, V, and T the thermodynamic
variables of an ideal gas.

Example:

An ideal gas occupies a volume of 100 cm3 at 20°C and 100 Pa. Find the number of
moles of gas in the container.

Solution:

The quantities given are volume, pressure, and temperature: V = 100 cm3 =

1.00 x10-4 m-3, P = 100 Pa, T= 20°C = 293 K.

From the equation

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 we find that

𝑃𝑉
𝑛=
𝑅𝑇
(100 Pa)(1.00 x110 −4 m−3 )
=
(8.314 𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾 )(293 K)

= 4.11x10-6 mol

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Activity
1. A vertical cylinder of cross-sectional area A=0.001 m2 is fitted with a tight-fitting,
frictionless piston of mass m = 20.0 kg (see the Figure below)

If n = 0.200 moles of an ideal gas are in the cylinder at a temperature of T = 350 K, what is
the height h at which the piston is in equilibrium under its own weight?

 The number of molecules contained in one mole of any gas is

Avogadro’s number, NA = 6.02x1023 particles/mol, so.
𝑁
𝑛=
𝑁𝐴
where 𝑛 is the number of moles and N is the number of molecules in the gas.
With Equation above, we can rewrite the ideal gas law in terms of the total
number of molecules as:
𝑁
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑁𝐴
Or
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑅
Where 𝑘𝐵 = = 1.38𝑥10−23 𝐽/𝐾. Boltzmann’s constant.
𝑁𝐴

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UNIT SUMMARY

An ideal gas is one for which PV/nT is constant. An ideal gas is described by the
equation of state,

PV = nRT
where n equals the number of moles of the gas, V is its volume, R is the universal gas
constant (8.314 J/mol.K), and T is the absolute temperature. A real gas behaves
approximately as an ideal gas if it has a low density.

Avogadro’s number is NA = 6.02x1023 particles/mol.

A mole of anything, by definition, consists of an Avogadro’s number of particles.

The number is defined so that one mole of carbon-12 atoms has a mass of exactly 12g.

The mass of one mole of a pure substance in grams is the same, numerically, as that
substance’s atomic (or molecular) mass.

The quantity 𝑘𝐵 is Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x10-23 J/K).

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UNIT TEST

1. An auditorium has dimensions 10.0 m x 20.0 m x 30.0 m. How many

molecules of air fill the auditorium at 20.0°C and a pressure of 101 kPa?
2. The mass of a hot-air balloon and its cargo (not including the air inside) is 200
kg. The air outside is at 10.0°C and 101 kPa. The volume of the balloon is 400
m3. To what temperature must the air in the balloon be heated before the
balloon will lift off? (Air density at 10.0°C is 1.25 kg/m 3).
3. An ideal gas at 20.0C and a pressure of 1.50 x105 Pa is in a container having a
volume of 1.00 L.

a. Determine the number of moles of gas in the container.

b. The gas pushes against a piston, expanding to twice its original
volume, while the pressure falls to atmospheric pressure. Find the
final temperature.
4. Suppose the temperature of 4.50 L of ideal gas drops from 375 K to 275 K.

a. If the volume remains constant and the initial pressure is

atmospheric pressure, find the final pressure.

b. Find the number of moles of gas.

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Unit 3

HEAT AND FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

3.0 introduction

This unit will focus on the concept of internal energy, the processes by which
energy is transferred, the first law of thermodynamics, and some of the
important applications of the first law. The first law of thermodynamics is a
statement of conservation of energy. It describes systems in which the only
energy change is that of internal energy and the transfers of energy are by heat
and work.

3.1Objectives

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

 Define the terms heat, internal energy, latent heat and specific latent
heat.
 To be able to state the First Law of thermodynamics

3.2. Keywords;

Heat, internal energy, Heat capacity, calorimetry, latent heat

3.3 HEAT AND INTERNAL ENERGY

 There is a major difference between internal energy and heat.

 Heat involves a transfer of internal energy from one location to another.
 Internal energy (𝐸 𝑖𝑛𝑡 ) is the energy associated with the microscopic
components of a system—the atoms and molecules of the system. The internal
energy includes kinetic and potential energy associated with the random
translational, rotational, and vibrational motion of the particles that make up
the system, and any potential energy bonding the particles together.
 Heat is the transfer of energy between a system and its environment due to a
temperature difference between them .

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3.3.1 UNITS OF HEAT

 Heat was defined in terms of the temperature changes it produced in an

object, and a separate unit of energy, the calorie, was used for heat.
 The calorie (cal) is defined as the energy necessary to raise the temperature of 1
g of water from 14.5° to 15.5°C.
 The British thermal unit (Btu), was defined as the energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 lb of water from 63°F to 64°F.
 Heat (like work) is a measure of the transfer of energy, its SI unit should be the
joule. The calorie is now defined to be exactly 4.186 J

1 𝑐𝑎𝑙 ≡ 4.186 𝐽
This definition makes no reference to raising the temperature of water.

3.4 SPECIFIC HEAT

 The historical definition of the calorie is the amount of energy necessary to

raise the temperature of one gram of a specific substance (water) by one
degree. That amount is 4.186 J.
 Raising the temperature of one kilogram of water by 1° requires 4 186 J of
energy.
 The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of an
arbitrary substance by 1° varies with the substance.
 For example, the energy required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of
copper by 1.0°C is 387 J.
 Every substance requires a unique amount of energy per unit mass to change
the temperature of that substance by 1.0°C.

The heat capacity 𝐶 of a particular sample of a substance is defined as the amount of

energy needed to raise the temperature of that sample by 1°C

 From this definition, we see that if energy 𝑄 produces a change ∆𝑇 in the

temperature of a sample, then;

𝑄 = 𝐶∆𝑇
The specific heat 𝑐 of a substance is the heat capacity per unit mass

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 If a quantity of energy 𝑄 𝑖s transferred to a substance of mass 𝑚, changing its

temperature by ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 , the specific heat 𝑐 of the substance is defined

by
𝑄
𝑐≡
𝑚∆𝑇
 SI unit: Joule per kilogram-degree Celsius ( J/kg °C)

Table 2.3.4. Specific Heats of some Materials at 250C and Atmospheric Pressure

Example
Find the energy required to raise the temperature of 0.500 kg of water
by 3.00°C.

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Solution:
𝑄
From 𝑐 ≡ 𝑚∆𝑇 we get

𝑄 = 𝑐𝑚∆𝑇
= (4 186 J/kg∙°C)(0.500 kg)(3.00°C)
= 6.28 x103 J

Activity 3.4 a
1. The temperature of a silver bar rises by 10.0°C when it absorbs 1.23 kJ of energy by
heat. The mass of the bar is 525 g. Determine the specific heat of silver.
2. A 1.50-kg iron horseshoe initially at 600°C is dropped into a bucket containing 20.0 kg
of water at 25.0°C. What is the final temperature? (Ignore the heat capacity of the
container, and assume that a negligible amount of water boils away).
3. A steel strut near a ship’s furnace is 2.00 m long, with a mass of 1.57 kg and cross-
sectional area of 1.00𝑥 10 −4 𝑚2. During operation of the furnace, the strut absorbs
thermal energy in a net amount of 2.50 𝑥 105 𝐽.
i. Find the change in temperature of the strut
ii. Find the increase in length of the strut.

3.5 CALORIMETRY

 One technique for measuring the specific heat of a solid or liquid is to raise the
temperature of the substance to some value, place it into a vessel containing
cold water of known mass and temperature, and measure the temperature of
the combination after equilibrium is reached.
 Define the system as the substance and the water.
 If the vessel is assumed to be a good insulator, so that energy doesn’t leave the
system, then we can assume the system is isolated.
 Vessels having this property are called calorimeters, and analysis performed
using such vessels is called calorimetry.
Conservation of energy allows us to write the equation;

𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = −𝑄ℎ𝑜𝑡
 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 is positive because energy is flowing into cooler objects, and 𝑄ℎ𝑜𝑡 is
negative because energy is leaving the hot object.
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 The negative sign on the right-hand side of Equation ensures that the right-
hand side is a positive number, consistent with the left-hand side.
 The equation is valid only when the system it describes is isolated.

Example:

A 125-g block of an unknown substance with a temperature of 90.0°C is

placed in a Styrofoam cup containing 0.326 kg of water at 20.0°C. The system
reaches an equilibrium temperature of 22.4°C. What is the specific heat, 𝑐𝑥 of
the unknown substance if the heat capacity of the cup is neglected?

Solution:
Let 𝑇 be the final temperature, and let 𝑇𝑤 and 𝑇𝑥 be the initial temperatures of
the water and block, respectively

Using equations: 𝑄 = 𝑐𝑚∆𝑇 and 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = −𝑄ℎ𝑜𝑡

The water gains thermal energy 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 , while the block loses thermal
energy 𝑄ℎ𝑜𝑡

𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = −𝑄ℎ𝑜𝑡
∴ 𝑐𝑤 𝑚𝑤 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑤 ) = −𝑐𝑥 𝑚𝑥 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑥 )

Solving for 𝑐𝑥 and substitute numerical values:

cw mw (T − Tw )
cx =
mx (Tx − T)
(0.326 kg)(4190 J/kg∙0 C(22.40 C−20.0)
=
(0.125kg)(90.00 C−22.40 C)

cx = 388 J/kg ∙0 C

Activity 3.5
1. A 255-g block of gold at 85.0°C is immersed in 155 g of water at 25.0°C. Find the
equilibrium temperature, assuming the system is isolated and the heat capacity of the
cup can be neglected.

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2. A 0.050 0-kg ingot of metal is heated to 200.0°C and then dropped into a beaker
containing 0.400 kg of water initially at 20.0°C. If the final equilibrium temperature
of the mixed system is 22.4°C, find the specific heat of the metal.

3.6 LATENT HEAT

 A substance often undergoes a temperature change when energy is transferred

between it and its surroundings.
 There are situations, however, in which the transfer of energy does not result
in a change in temperature.
 This is the case whenever the physical characteristics of the substance change
from one form to another; such a change is commonly referred to as a phase
change.
 Two common phase changes are from solid to liquid (melting) and from liquid
to gas (boiling).
 Another is a change in the crystalline structure of a solid.
 All such phase changes involve a change in internal energy but no change in
temperature.
 The increase in internal energy in boiling, for example, is represented by the
breaking of bonds between molecules in the liquid state.
The energy 𝑄 needed to change the phase of a given pure substance is
𝑄 = ±𝑚𝐿
where L, called the latent heat of the substance, depends on the nature of the phase
change as well as on the substance. The unit of latent heat is the joule per kilogram (
J/kg)

 Latent heat of fusion 𝐿𝑓 is the term used when the phase change is from solid

to liquid ( to fuse means “to combine by melting”).

 Latent heat of vaporization 𝐿 𝑣 is the term used when the phase change is from
liquid to gas (the liquid “vaporizes”)

Table 2.3.5: Latent Heats of Fusion and Vaporization

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 Consider the energy required to convert a 1.00-g cube of ice at - 30.0°C to

steam at 120.0°C.
 Figure 2.3.6 indicates the experimental results obtained when energy is
gradually added to the ice. Let us examine each portion of the red curve.

Figure 2.3.6: A plot of temperature versus energy added when 1.00 g of ice initially at
- 30.0°C is converted to steam at 120.0°C .

 Part A. On this portion of the curve, the temperature of the ice changes from
-30.0°C to 0.0°C. Because the specific heat of ice is 2 090 J/kg∙°C, we can
calculate the amount of energy added by using;

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𝑄 = 𝑚𝑖 𝑐𝑖 ∆𝑇 = (1.00𝑥10−3 𝑘𝑔)(2090𝐽/𝑘𝑔.0 𝐶 )(30. 00 𝐶 ) = 62.7 𝐽

 Part B. When the temperature of the ice reaches 0.0°C, the ice–water mixture
remains at this temperature—even though energy is being added—until all the
ice melts. The energy required to melt 1.00 g of ice at 0.0°C is, from;
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑖 𝐿𝑓 = (1.00𝑥10−3 𝑘𝑔)(3.33𝑥105 𝐽/𝐾𝑔) = 333𝐽
Thus, we have moved to the 396 J (=62.7 J + 333 J) mark on the energy axis
in Figure 2.3.6

 Part C. Between 0.0°C and 100.0°C, nothing surprising happens. No phase

change occurs, and so all energy added to the water is used to increase its
temperature. The amount of energy necessary to increase the temperature
from 0.0°C to 100.0°C is
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 ∆𝑇 = (1.00𝑥10−3 𝑘𝑔)(4.19𝑥103𝐽𝑘𝑔 ∙0 𝐶 )(100. 00 𝐶 ) = 419𝐽

 Part D. At 100.0°C, another phase change occurs as the water changes from
water at 100.0°C to steam at 100.0°C. Similar to the ice–water mixture in part
B, the water–steam mixture remains at 100.0°C—even though energy is being
added—until all of the liquid has been converted to steam. The energy
required to convert 1.00 g of water to steam at 100.0°C is

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑤 𝐿𝑣 = (1.00𝑥10−3 𝑘𝑔)(2.26𝑥106𝐽/𝑘𝑔) = 2.26𝑥103 𝐽

 Part E. On this portion of the curve, as in parts A and C, no phase change
occurs; thus, all energy added is used to increase the temperature of the steam.
The energy that must be added to raise the temperature of the steam from
100.0°C to 120.0°C is
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑠 ∆𝑇 = (1.00𝑥 10 −3 𝑘𝑔)(2.01𝑥10 3 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙0 𝐶 )(20. 00 𝐶 ) = 40.2𝐽

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The total amount of energy that must be added to change 1 g of ice at -30.0°C to steam at
120.0°C is the sum of the results from all five parts of the curve, which is 3.11𝑥103 𝐽.
Conversely, to cool 1 g of steam at 120.0°C to ice at -30.0°C, we must remove 3.11𝑥103 𝐽 of
energy.

3.6.1. P R O B L E M - S O LV I N G H I N T S

CALORIMETRY PROBLEMS

If you have difficulty in solving calorimetry problems, be sure to consider the

following points:

 Units of measure must be consistent. For instance, if you are using specific
heats measured in 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙0 𝐶, be sure that masses are in kilograms and temperatures
are in Celsius degrees.

 Transfers of energy are given by the equation 𝑄 = 𝑐𝑚∆𝑇 only for those
processes in which no phase changes occur. Use the equations 𝑄 = ±𝑚𝐿𝑓 and
𝑄 = ±𝑚𝐿𝑣 only when phase changes are taking place; be sure to select the
proper sign for these equations depending on the direction of energy transfer.
 Often, errors in sign are made when the equation 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = −𝑄ℎ𝑜𝑡 is used.
Make sure that you use the negative sign in the equation, and remember that
∆𝑇 is always the final temperature minus the initial temperature.

Activity 3.6
1. What mass of steam initially at 130°C is needed to warm 200 g of water in a 100-g
glass container from 20.0°C to 50.0°C?
2. The temperature of a silver bar rises by 10.0°C when it absorbs 1.23 kJ of energy by
heat. The mass of the bar is 525 g. Determine the specific heat of silver.

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3.7. THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

 The first law of thermodynamics is another energy conservation law

that relates changes in internal energy
 Suppose that a system undergoes a change from an initial state to a final

state. During this change, energy transfer by heat 𝑄 to the system

occurs, and work W is done on the system.
 Suppose that the system is a gas in which the pressure and volume

change from 𝑃𝑖 and 𝑉𝑖 to 𝑃𝑓 and 𝑉𝑓.

 If the quantity 𝑄 + 𝑊 is measured for various paths connecting the

initial and final equilibrium states, we find that it is the same for all
paths connecting the two states.
 We conclude that the quantity 𝑄 + 𝑊 is determined completely by the
initial and final states of the system, and we call this quantity the change
in the internal energy of the system.

 Although 𝑄 and 𝑊 both depend on the path, the quantity 𝑄 + 𝑊 is

independent of the path.
 If we use the symbol 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 . to represent the internal energy, then the

change in internal energy ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 can be expressed as:

∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑄 + 𝑊 The first law of thermodynamics

The first law of Thermodynamics states that energy can be converted from one
form to another with the interaction of heat, work and internal energy, but it
cannot be created nor destroyed under any circumstances

3.7.1. WORK IN THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES

 Energy can be transferred to a system by heat and by work done on the

system.
 In most cases of interest treated here, the system is a volume of gas,
which is important in understanding engines.

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 All such systems of gas will be assumed to be in thermodynamic

equilibrium, so that every part of the gas is at the same temperature and
pressure.
 Consider a gas contained by a cylinder fitted with a movable piston as
in figure 3.7.1a and in equilibrium.
 The gas occupies a volume 𝑉 and exerts a uniform pressure 𝑃 on the
cylinder walls and the piston.
 The gas is compressed slowly enough so the system remains essentially
in thermodynamic equilibrium at all times.
 As the piston is pushed downward by an external force 𝐹 through a
distance 𝑦, the work done on the gas is;
𝑊 = −𝐹∆𝑦 = −𝑃𝐴∆𝑦
Where the magnitude 𝐹 of the external force equal to 𝑃𝐴 , possible because the
pressure is the same everywhere in the system (by the assumption of equilibrium).
The work 𝑾 done on a gas at constant pressure is given by

𝑊 = −𝑃∆𝑉
where 𝑃 is the pressure throughout the gas and ∆𝑉 is the change in
volume of the gas during the process.

Figure 3.7.1

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Example:

An ideal gas absorbs 5.00 x 103 J of energy while doing 2.00 x 103 J of
work on the environment during a constant pressure process.

(a) Compute the change in the internal energy of the gas.

(b) If the internal energy now drops by 4.50 x103 J and 2.00 x
103 J is expelled from the system, find the change in volume,
assuming a constant pressure process at 1.01 x 105 Pa.

Solution:

(a) Substitute values into the first law, noting that the work done on
the gas is negative
∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑄 + 𝑊

= 5.00 x 103 J - 2.00 x 103 J

= 3.00 x 103 J.

(b) Substitute the equation for work done at constant pressure into
the first law: then Solve for the change in volume, ∆𝑉,

∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑄 + 𝑊 = 𝑄 − 𝑃∆𝑉
−4.5𝑥103 𝐽 = −2.00𝑥103𝐽 − (1.01𝑥105𝑝𝑎)∆𝑉

∆𝑉 = 2.48𝑥10−2 𝑚3
Activity 3.7

1. A thermodynamic system undergoes a process in which its internal energy decreases

by 500 J. At the same time, 220 J of work is done on the system. Find the energy
transferred to or from it by heat.
2. An ideal gas initially at 300 K undergoes an isobaric expansion at 2.50 kPa. If the
volume increases from 1.00 m3 to 3.00 m3 and 12.5 kJ is transferred to the gas by
heat, what are:
a. The change in its internal energy
b. Its final temperature?

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3.8. MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT OF AN IDEAL GAS

 Molar specific heat capacity is the amount of heat energy required to raise
the temperature of 1 mole of a substance by 10C.

 The energy required to raise the temperature of 𝑛 moles of gas from 𝑇𝑖 to 𝑇𝑓

depends on the path taken between the initial and final states.
 If you supply heat to a gas that is allowed to expand at constant pressure ,
some of the heat that you supply goes to doing external work, and only a part
of it goes towards raising the temperature of the gas.
 On the other hand, if you keep the volume of the gas constant, all of the heat
you supply goes towards raising the temperature.
 Consequently, more heat is required to raise the temperature of the gas by one
degree if the gas is allowed to expand at constant pressure than if the gas is
held at constant volume and not allowed to expand.
 Thus the heat capacity of a gas (or any substance) is greater if the heat is
supplied at constant pressure than if it is supplied at constant volume.

 Thus distinguishing between the heat capacity at constant volume 𝑐𝑣 and the
heat capacity at constant pressure 𝑐𝑝, and, as we have seen 𝑐𝑝 > 𝑐𝑣 .

3.8.1 CONSTANT VOLUME SPECIFIC HEAT

 The molar specific heat at constant volume is defined by:

𝑄 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣∆𝑇
 Using the First Law of Thermodynamics, this can be put in the form:

∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇 where 𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉

but since ∆𝑉 = 0, the expression becomes ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇
1 ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡
 The expression for 𝐶𝑣 then becomes, 𝐶𝑣 =
𝑛 ∆𝑇
 If the molar specific heat is constant, we can express the internal energy of a
gas as;

𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣 𝑇
3
 For a monatomic ideal gas, 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇, so
2
3
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅 = 12.5𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾
2

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3.8.2 CONSTANT PRESSURE SPECIFIC HEAT

 The molar specific heat at constant pressure is defined by:

𝑄 = 𝑛𝐶𝑃 ∆𝑇 (1)

 Using the First Law of Thermodynamics, for a constant pressure process this
can be put in the form:

∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝑛𝐶𝑃 ∆𝑇 (2)

 From the ideal gas law, ( 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇) under constant pressure condition, it can
be seen that;
𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇 (3)

 Substituting 𝑃∆𝑉 in equation (2) we get,

∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇 = 𝑛𝐶𝑃 ∆𝑇 (4)

∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡
∴ 𝑛𝐶𝑝 = + 𝑛𝑅 (5)
∆𝑇

 Dividing equation (5) by 𝑛 on both sides we get,

1 ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝐶𝑝 = +𝑅 (6)
𝑛 ∆𝑇

1 ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡
 Since the constant volume specific heat is 𝐶𝑣 =
𝑛 ∆𝑇
1 ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡
 Substituting 𝐶𝑣 = in equation (6) we get
𝑛 ∆𝑇

𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶𝑣 + 𝑅 (7)

 For an ideal monatomic gas

5
𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶𝑣 + 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 20.8𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾
2
 From the equation (7) we see that 𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅, this expression applies to any
ideal gas.
 It predicts that the molar specific heat of an ideal gas at constant pressure is
greater than the molar specific heat at constant volume by an amount 𝑅, the
universal gas constant (which has the value 8.31 J/mol K).
 The ratio of these heat capacities is a dimensionless quantity
𝐶𝑝 (5/2)𝑅 5 Ratio of molar specific heats
𝛾= = = = 1.67 for a monatomic ideal gas
𝐶𝑣 (3/2)𝑅 3

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Malawi University of Science and Technology PHYSICS 1 MODULE

Table 3.8: Molar Specific Heats of Various Gases

Example:

A cylinder contains 3.00 mol of helium gas at a temperature of 300 K.

a. If the gas is heated at constant volume, how much energy must be

transferred by heat to the gas for its temperature to increase to 500 K?
b. How much energy must be transferred by heat to the gas at constant
pressure to raise the temperature to 500 K?

Solution

a. For the constant-volume process, we have

𝑄1 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇
Because 𝐶𝑣 =12.5J/mol∙K for helium and ∆𝑇 =200 K, we obtain;

𝑄1 = (3.00 𝑚𝑜𝑙)(12.5 𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾)(200 𝐾)

= 7.50𝑥103 𝐽

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b. For constant-Pressure process

𝑄2 = 𝑛𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇

𝐽
= (3.00 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ) (20.8 ∙ 𝐾) (200 𝐾 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 12.50𝑥103 𝐽

Activity 3.8
1. A system of monatomic ideal gas at 2.00x105 Pa and an initial temperature of 293 K
slowly expands at constant pressure from a volume of 1.00 L to 2.50 L.
a. Find the work done on the environment.
b. Find the change in internal energy of the gas.
c. Use the first law of thermodynamics to obtain the thermal energy absorbed by
the gas during the process.
d. Use the molar heat capacity at constant pressure to find the thermal energy
absorbed.
2. Ideal monatomic gas at an initial temperature of 475 K is compressed from 3.00 L to
2.00 L while its pressure remains constant at 1.00 x10 5 Pa.
Find
a. The work done on the gas,
b. The change in internal energy,
c. The energy lost by heat, 𝑄

3.9 NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

 Newton's law of cooling states, "For a body cooling in a draught (i.e.,

by forced convection), the rate of heat loss is proportional to the difference
in temperatures between the body and its surroundings." Since the temperature
change is proportional to the heat change.
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
( ) ∝ (𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)
𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
We can write
𝑑𝑇
= −𝑘(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇
Where =The rate of loss of heat to surrounding ,
𝑑𝑡
Unit 3: THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER Page 164
Malawi University of Science and Technology PHYSICS 1 MODULE

𝑇𝑠 = The temperature of the surroundings,

𝑇 = The temperature of the body
𝑘 = Proportionality constant whose value depend on both the nature and
the area of the body’s surface.

3.9.1 THE FIVE-FOURTHS POWER LAW

 This applies when a body is cooling under conditions of natural convection. It

can be stated as:
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 5/4
( ) = −𝑘(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 )
𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

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Unit summary
 Internal energy is all of a system’s energy that is associated with the system’s
microscopic components. Internal energy includes kinetic energy of random
translation, rotation, and vibration of molecules, potential energy within
molecules, and potential energy between molecules.
 Heat is the transfer of energy across the boundary of a system resulting from a
temperature difference between the system and its surroundings. We use the
symbol 𝑄 for the amount of energy transferred by this process.
 The heat capacity 𝐶 of any sample is the amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of the sample by 1°C. The energy 𝑄 required to change the
temperature of a mass 𝑚 of a substance by an amount ∆𝑇 is

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇

where 𝑐 is the specific heat of the substance

 The energy required to change the phase of a pure substance of mass m is:
𝑄 = ±𝑚𝐿

where 𝐿 is the latent heat of the substance and depends on the nature of the
phase change and the properties of the substance. The positive sign is used if
energy is entering the system, and the negative sign is used if energy is leaving.

 The first law of thermodynamics states that when a system undergoes a change
from one state to another, the change in its internal energy is
∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑄 − 𝑊

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Unit Test.
1. Using the first law of thermodynamics, explain why the total energy of an
isolated system is always constant.
2. A 3.00-g lead bullet at 30.0°C is fired at a speed of 240 m/s into a large block
of ice at 0°C, in which it becomes embedded. What quantity of ice melts?
3. In an insulated vessel, 250 g of ice at 0°C is added to 600 g of water at 18.0°C.

a. What is the final temperature of the system?

b. How much ice remains when the system reaches equilibrium?

4. An ideal gas is enclosed in a cylinder with a movable piston on top of it. The
piston has a mass of 8 000 g and an area of 5.00 cm2 and is free to slide up
and down, keeping the pressure of the gas constant. How much work is done
on the gas as the temperature of 0.200 mol of the gas is raised from 20.0°C to
300°C?
5. A combination of 0.250 kg of water at 20.0°C, 0.400 kg of Aluminium at
26.0°C, and 0.100 kg of copper at 100°C is mixed in an insulated container and
allowed to come to thermal equilibrium. Ignore any energy transfer to or from
the container and determine the final temperature of the mixture.

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References
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Pomona: Thomson Learning, Inc.
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Southbank: Thomson Learning, Inc.
Halliday, D., Walker, J., & Resnick, R. (2000). Fundamentals of Physics 7th ed. USA:
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http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Thermodynamics/Laws_of_Th
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Thermodynamics. Retrieved from the website:

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/thermodynamics
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Constant Pressure Specific Heat. Retrieved from the website:

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/kinetic/shegas.html#c3

Thermal Properties of matter. Retrieved from the website:

http://ibphysicsstuff.wikidot.com/thermal-properties-of-matter

Page | 168
References
Malawi University of Science and Technology PHYSICS 1 MODULE

Mechanical Engineering. Retrieved from the website:

http://mechanicalinventions.blogspot.com/2012/06/what-is-thermodynamics-
and-what-are.html

Thermodynamics: Course Introduction. Retrieved from the website:

http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/16/16.unified/thermoF03/chapter_1.htm

Thermal Properties of Matter. Retrieved from the website:

http://physicscatalyst.com/heat/thermal_prop.php

Newton’s Laws of Cooling. Retrieved from the website:

http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/NewtonsLawofCooling.html

Thermal Properties of Matter. Retrieved from the website:

http://www.askmrtan.com/physics/11thermalpropertiesofmatter/11thermalprop
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Chemical Reactions. Retrieved from the website:
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Environmental & Life Sciences Structure and Properties of Materials. Retrieved from
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http://www.unomaha.edu/tiskochem/Chem3350/Objectives.pdf

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CrlNo4pgC5Y

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