Digital Logic and Computer Organization and Architecture

INDEX
Sr. Pg.
Contents Topics
No. No.
1. Digital Circuits
Number System 1
Codes 8
Boolean Algebra 11
Notes Logic Gates 11
Karnaugh Map (K−MAP) 21
List of Formulae 27
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 29
 Topic 1 : Digital Circuits

NUMBER SYSTEM
I. Binary Numbers
The binary number system with two digits is a base two system. The two binary digits
are 0 and 1. The position of 1 or 0 in a binary number indicates its weight or value
within the number. The weight of each successive higher position in the binary
number is an increasing power of two.
Using n bits we can count upto a decimal number (2 n − 1).
• Binary Arithmetic
(a) Additions Rules of addition
0 + 0 = 0
0 + 1 = 1
1 + 0 = 1
1 + 1 = 10

Carry Sum

(b) Subtraction Rules of Subtraction

0 − 0 = 0
1 − 0 = 1
1 − 1 = 0
0 − 1 = 11

Borrow Sub.

(c) Multiplication Rules of Multiplication

0  0 = 0
0  1 = 0
1  1 = 1
• 1’s Complement of a Binary Number
The 1’s complement of a binary number is found by simply changing all 1’s to 0’s
and all 0’s to 1’s.
Binary No. 1’s Complement
10101 01010
e.g.: (a) 1011 → 1’s complement is 0100
(b) 0101 → 1’s complement is 1010
1’s Complement Subtraction
Using 1’s complement we can subtract two binary number by means of addition.
To subtract a smaller number from a larger number the 1’s complement method
is as follows:
(i) Determine 1’s complement of the smaller number
(ii) Add 1’s complement to the larger number
 (iii) Remove the carry and add it to the result. This is called end around carry.
e.g. Subtract (10011)2 from (11001)2
(a) Direct Subtraction : 11001
− 10011
Ans. : (00110)2
(b) Using 1’s Complement: 11001
+ 01100 → is complement of 10011
1 00101
Carry 1
Ans. : (00110)2
To subtract a larger number from smaller number 1’s complement method is as
follows:
(i) Determine the 1s complement of the larger number.
(ii) Add the 1s complement to the small number
(iii) The answer has an opposite sign and is the 1s complement of the result.
There is no carry.
e.g.: Subtract (1101)2 from (1001)2. Using 1’s complement.

Direct Subtraction: 1001

− 1101
Ans.: − 0100

Using 1’s complement: 1001

+ 0010
1011→This is 1s complement from and opposite in sign.
Ans.: −0100. Take the 1s complement.

• 2s Complement of a Binary Number

The 2’s complement can be obtained by adding 1 to the 1’s complement of the
binary number.
e.g.: (1010)2 . Find 2’s complement

1’s complement = 0101

Add1 + 1
Ans. : 0110

• To find 2’s complement of a number

Start from the right and write the bits as they are upto and including the first 1.
Then take the 1’s complement of the remaining bits.

e.g. : (1001101100)2 Find 2s complement

0110010 100 → same upto first 1, going right to left
 
1’s complement of remaining bits.
 Notes on Digital Circuits

2’s Complement Subtraction

To subtract a smaller number from a larger one, the 2’s complement method is
as follows:
(i) Determine the 2’s complement of smaller number
(ii) Add the 2’s complement to the larger number
(iii) Discard the carry. (Always there is a carry)
e.g.: Find 1100 − 1011
1100 1100
− 1011 + 0101 2’s complement
(0001) 1 0001
Direct method Discard the carry
Ans.: 0001.
To subtract a larger number from a smaller number we use the following 2’s
complement method:
(i) Determine 2’s complement of larger number
(ii) Add the 2’s complement to the smaller number
(iii) To get the answer take the 2’s complement and change the sign of the above
result.
e.g.: Find 10011 − 11100
Direct Method : 10011
− 11100
− 01001

Using 2’s complement : 10011

+ 00100
sign is -ve 10111 No carry, hence 2’s complement of answer.
 Answer = (− 01001). 1s complent +1 to get 2s complement answer

Note:
Both the 1’s and 2’s complement are complex compared to direct subtraction. But
they have distinct advantage when implemented using logic circuits because they
allow subtraction to be done by using only addition. Both 1’s and 2’s complement can
be realized using logic circuits and 2’s complement has an advantage over the 1’s
complement in that an end around carry operation does not have to be performed.

Binary to Decimal Conversion

A binary number is a weighted number. The value of a given binary number in terms
of its decimal equivalent can be determined by adding the products of each bit and its
weight. The right most bit is the Least Significant Bit (LSB) in the binary number and
has a weight of 2 = 1. The weight increases by a power of 2 for each bit from right to
left
 Binary weight 24 23 22 21 20
Weighted value 16 8 4 2 1
Binary No. (1 0 1 1 1)2
1  16 + 0  8 + 1  4 + 1  2 + 1  1 = (23)10
Fractional number can also be represented in binary by placing bits to the right of the
binary point.
The column weights of a binary number are:
2n … 23 22 21 20 . 2−1 2−2 2−3 … 2−n

binary point
e.g.: (a) (1011)2 = 1  23 + 0  22 + 1  21 + 1  20 = 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = (11)10
1
(b) 11.01 = 1  21 + 1  20 + 0  2−1 + 1  2−1 + 1  2−2 = 2 + 1 + = (3.25)10
4
Binary to Decimal Conversion : (Dibble Dabble Method)
(i) Start with the MSB and multiply by 2. (ii) Add the next bit to the product.
(iii) Multiply the sum by 2. (iv) Add the next bit to the sum.
(v) Multiply by 2 and repeat the steps until all the bits are exhausted.
e.g.: (a) (1011)2
Answer: 12=2
2+0=2
22=4
4+1=5
5  2 = 10
10 + 1 = 11
Answer: (11)10

(b) (1111)2
Answer: 12=2
2+1=3
32=6
6+1=7
7  2 = 14
14 + 1 = 15
Answer: (15)10
Decimal to Binary Conversion :
(i) Sum of weight method − by placing 1 in the appropriate weight position and 0 in
other position.
Remember: … 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20
… 32 16 8 4 2 1 Binary weights.
(ii) By repeated division method (Double Dabble Method)
We begin by dividing the given decimal number by 2 and then dividing each
resulting quotient by 2 until there is 0 quotient. The remainder generated by each
division form the binary number. The 1st remainder is the LSB of the binary
number.
 Notes on Digital Circuits

e.g. (28)10 = (11100)2

2 28
2 14 0
2 7 0
2 3 1
2 1 1
0 1
To convert the decimal fractions to binary we use repeated multiplications by 2. We
begin multiplying the given fractional number by 2 and then multiplying each resulting
fractional part by 2 until the fractional part is zero. The carry generated by each
multiplication form the binary number. The 1st carry produced is the MSB.
e.g.: (0.3125)10 → (0.0101)2
II. Octal Number System (Base of 8)
Older computer systems use octal numbers to represent binary information. There
are eight combinations of 3 bit binary number. Therefore, sets of 3 bit binary numbers
can be represented by octal numbers and this can be conveniently be used for
entering data in the computer. Octal number system uses eight symbols 0 to 7. Octal
numbers are also referred to as base 8 numbers. The advantage of the octal system
is its usefulness in converting directly from a 3 bit binary number.
Octal to Decimal Conversion
Weight 83 82 81 80
Decimal value 512 64 8 1
Octal No. 2 3 7 4
(2374)8 = (1276)10
2  512 + 3  64 + 7  8 + 4  1 = 1276
Since the octal number system has base of 8 each successive digit position is an
increasing power of 8, beginning with the eight most column with 8. The decimal
number can be obtained by multiplying each digit by its weight and summing the
products.
Decimal to Octal Conversion
To get octal equivalent of a decimal number we use repeated division by 8. The
decimal number is divided by right, the quotient is divided by 8 and the remainders
obtained will give the octal number. The first remainder is the LSB.
Octal to Binary Conversion
The primary application of octal number is in the representation of binary number
since it takes only one octal digit to represent three bits octal number are much
easier to read, than binary number.
Octal digit Binary number
0 000
1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
 To convert octal to binary, simply replace the octal digit by its binary number using 3
bits.
e.g.: (47)8 → Octal No.

(100)2 (111)2
 (47)8 = (100111)2

Binary to Octal Conversion

Break the binary number into groups of 3 bits and convert each group into an
appropriate octal digit.
e.g.: (100 111)2 → Binary
4 7
 (100111)2 = (47)8.

III. Hexadecimal No. System (Base of 16)

Computers require binary data, but people working with computers have trouble
remembering long binary words. One solution to the problem is to use hexadecimal
or base – 16 number system. Hex is more compact than decimal, two hexadecimal
digits can represent a decimal number upto 255 Each hex digit is equal to 4 binary
digits.
The hexadecimal system has a base of 16 i.e. it is composed of 16 digits and
characters. Ten digits and six alphabetic characters make up this system 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F.

Decimal Binary Hexadecimal

0 0000 0
1 0001 1
2 0010 2
3 0011 3
remember tables
4 0100 4
5 0101 5
6 0110 6
7 0111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
10 1010 A
11 1011 B
12 1100 C
13 1101 D
14 1110 E
15 1111 F
 Notes on Digital Circuits

Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

Break the binary number in four bit groups starting at the binary point and replace each
group with the equivalent hexadecimal symbol.
e.g. (11011001)2
D 9
 (1101 1001)2 = (D9)16.

Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

Replace each hexadecimal digit by the four bit binary number.
e.g. (4CA)16 = (0100 1100 1010)
4 C A
With 2 hexadecimal digits, we can count upto (FF)16 = (256)2, with four hexadecimal
digits, we get (FFFF)16 = (65536)10.

Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion

To get the decimal equivalent, multiply each hexadecimal digit by its weight and sum all
the products.
Hexadecimal weight 163 162 161 160
Weight value 4096 256 16 1
Hexadecimal No. B 2 F 8
(B2F8)16 = B  4096 + 2  256 + F  16 + 8 + 1 = (45816)10
OR
We can convert the hexadecimal number to the binary number and then convert to
decimal number.
Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion
Repeated division of a decimal number by 16 gives the hexadecimal number, formed by
the remainders of each division. The 1st remainder is the LSB of the hexadecimal
number.
Hexadecimal Addition
The following rules are applied :
1. In any given column of an addition problem, think of the two hexadecimal digits in
terms of their decimal value.
e.g. (5)16 = (5)10
(C)16 = (12)10
2. If the sum of these two digits is (15)10 or less, bring down the corresponding
hexadecimal digit.
3. If the sum of these two digits is greater than (15)10, bring down the amount of the sum
that exceeds (16)10 and carry a 1 to the next column.
e.g. (DF)16 + (AC)16
D F
+ A C
18 B
 Procedure : F + C = 15 + 12 = 27
 27 – 16 = B with carry 1
D + A + 1 = 13 + 10 + 1 = 24
24 – 16 = 8 with a carry 1.

CODES
Almost all digital circuits (Computers, calculators) understand only binary numbers. But
most people understand only decimal numbers. Thus, we must have electronic devices
that can translate from decimal to binary and from binary to decimal numbers.

Input Key board

1 2 3 Output Display

4 5 6 Processing
Unit Decoder
7 8 9 0

Binary Decimal
Decimal 1001
9

Fig. A typical system that can be used to translate from decimal to binary numbers
and back to decimals.

The device that translates from keyboard decimal numbers to binary is called an encoder.
The device converting from binary numbers to decimal numbers is called a decoder.
Binary Codes
In this, the decimal numbers are converted, to their binary equivalent.
e.g. 13 is represented as 1101.
8–4–2–1 (BCD) Code
Decimal digits 0 through 9 are represented by their binary equivalents using four bits.
Remaining numbers are considered forbidden numbers.
In applications such as frequency counters, digital voltmeters or calculators where the
output is decimal display, BCD code is usually used.
e.g. 5 2 9
0101 0010 1001
Excess −3
The term BCD is a general term usually referring to an 8421 code. Another code that is
really a BCD code, is the excess 3 code. The code can be derived from the BCD by
adding 3 to each coded number.
e.g., 3 8
+3 + 3
6 11
0110 1011
 Notes on Digital Circuits

The excess – 3 code is used in many arithmetic circuits because it is self complementing.
It is useful when it is desired to obtain nine’s complement of a decimal digit represented
by this code. The nine’s complement is obtained by simply complementing each bit.
e.g. 9’s complement of 4 (0111 is X–3 code) is 1000 in X–3. This helps considerably in
performing subtraction operation in digital computers.

Alphanumeric Codes
When communicating with or between computers, data may consist of numerals, letters
and special symbols. We require a binary–base code which can represent letters of the
alphabet as well as numbers. If we use n bit binary code, we can represent 2 n elements
using this code. Therefore to represent 10 digits 0 through 9 and 26 alphabets A to Z, we
need minimum 6 bit alphanumeric code. (26 = 64). 6 bit alphanumeric code is used in
many computers to represent alphanumeric characters and symbols internally and
therefore can be called internal code. Frequently there is a need to represent more than
64 characters including the lower case letters and special control characters for the
transmission of digital information. For this reason the following two codes are normally
used.
1. Extended BCD Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
2. ASCII

EBCDIC
This is an 8 bit code without parity. A ninth bit can be added for parity. It is used in IBM
equipments.

ASCII
This code is widely used to send information to and from microcomputers. It is a 7 bit
code used in transferring coded information from keyboards and to computer displays
and printers. ASCII stands for the American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
The ASCII Code is used to represent numbers, letters, punctuation marks as well as
control characters. e.g. The 7 bit ASCII Code 111 1111 stands for DEL, i.e., Delete. With
7 bits we can code upto 128 characters which is enough for the full upper–and lower
case alphabet, numbers, punctuation marks, and control characters. The code is
arranged so that if only uppercase letters, numbers, and a few control characters are
needed, only the lower 6 bits are all that are required. If a parity check is wanted, a parity
bit is added to the basic 7 bit code in the MSB position. The binary word 1100 0100 is the
ASCII Code for uppercase D with odd parity.

Hollerith Code
Many large computers use punched cards and card readers, which read data from the
cards. When a hole is punched into a card, a beam of light can pass through the hole and
is read as 1. A card consists of 80 columns and 12 rows. Each column represents an
alphanumeric character with holes in the appropriate rows. A hole is sensed as 1 and
absence of a hole is sensed as O by the circuits in the Card Reader.
The Rows are marked starting from the top as 12, 11, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. The first
three are called zone punch and the last 9 are called the numeric punch rows. The code
used in this is known as Hollerith Code.
Error Detecting and Error Correcting Codes
When the digital information in the binary form is transmitted from one circuit or system to
another circuit or system an error may occur. This means a signal corresponding to O
may change to 1 and vice–versa.

Parity
Parity is error detecting technique. To detect errors a constant check of transmitted data
is done. To check accuracy an extra parity bit is generated and transmitted. By parity we
mean number of 1’s in a digital data which may be even (even parity) or odd parity. The
data along with parity bit is transmitted. The parity of the received data is checked. If the
odd number of data bit changes, the parity check gives an error. The even numbers of
change in data bit won’t affect the parity, hence error cannot be detected.

Hamming Code
The hamming code is an error detecting and correcting code. Along with data bits a
number of parity bits are sent. The bit positions are reserved for the parity bits and data
bits.
e.g., consider a 4 bit data transmitted with 3 parity bits, then entire transmitted word
appears as,
Position value 23 22 21 20 P1 Gives even parity over
Bit position 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 bits 1, 3, 5 and 7
Bit value D7 D6 D5 P4 D3 P2 P1 P2 → 2, 3, 6 and 7
P4 → 4, 5, 6 and 7

suppose that a data word 1010 is transmitted. The Hamming code would be
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 0 1 P4 0 P2 P1
even parity for P1 gives (1, 3, 5, 7) = P1 + 0 + 1 + 1 = P1 + 2
 P1 = 0
P2 gives (2, 3, 6, 7) = P2 + 0 + 0 + 1 = P2 + 1
 P2 = 1
P3 gives (4, 5, 6, 7) = P4 + 1 + 0 + 1 = P4 + 2
 P4 = 0
Hence transmitted word could be
D7 D6 D5 P4 D3 P2 P1
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1101 Ans : →1 1 0 0 1 1 0
Error Correction
Parity bits are checked for even parity suppose D6 is lost i.e., D6 changes to 0 instead of 1.
 even parity for P4, P4 + D5 + D6 + D7 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 1
 C1 = 1 (error present) C2 = 1
for P2, P2 + D3 + D6 + D7 = 1 + 1 + 0 + 1 = 1 error present
C3 = 0
for P1, P1 + D3 + D5 + D7 = 0 + 1 + 0 + 1 = 0 No error
 C1, C2, C3 = 110 = D6 has error.
 Notes on Digital Circuits

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Boolean Algebra is the mathematics of digital system. The objective of the use of the
Boolean algebra are :
i. To simplify the procedure necessary to solve logical problems.
ii. To simplify any circuit, by using fewer components to perform a function.
Boolean algebra is a system of mathematical logical which differs from both ordinary
algebra and the binary number system.
There are two constants within the Boolean system : 0 and 1. There are no fractional or
negative numbers in boolean algebra. Boolean algebra uses two binary operations ‘+’
(plus) and ‘.’ (dot) and one unary operation ‘/’ (complement). Variable, Complement and
Literal are the terms used in boolean algebra.
Variable : A variable is a symbol used to represent a logical quantity that can have
a value 1 or 0.
Complement : It is the inverse of a variable.
Literal : It is a variable or the complement of a variable

LOGIC GATES
There are three types of logic functions, AND, OR, NOT.
The NOT Gate
The NOT gate (inverter) performs the operation called inversion or complementation. The
inverter changes one logic level into other logic level i.e. it changes 0 to 1 and 1 to 0.
X X X X

Standard Logic symbols of Inverter

For Inverter, when the input is LOW, the output is HIGH; when the input is
 HIGH, the output is LOW. The bubble always indicates inversion in digital
circuit.

Truth Table
I/P O/P
0 1
1 0
Complementation laws
0=1
1=0
A=A
The AND Gate
The AND function is mathematically represented by placing a dot between the two
variables as A B

A A
X = A B X = A B  C
B
B C
Standard Logic symbols for 2−input and 3−input AND gate

AND function is same as Boolean multiplication.

For a 2−input AND gate, the output X is HIGH only if both the inputs are

 HIGH.
The AND gate can have two or more inputs and performs logical multiplication.

Truth Table
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 1
The AND gate as an Enable/Inhibit Device : The AND gate is used to enable the passage
of signal from one point to another at certain times and to inhibit the passage at other
times.
Laws of AND function
A0 = 0 Null
A 1= A Identity
AA = A Idempotent
AA = 0 Complement
A B = B  A Commutative
ABC = A(BC) = (AB)C Associative
A  (B + C) = A B + A  C Distributive
The OR Gate
The OR function is mathematically represented as
Y = A OR B OR C ……OR N
= A + B + C + .............. + N

A
B
X
N
Standard Logic symbol for N input OR Gate

X = A + B is read as “Y equals A OR B”
 Notes on Digital Circuits

An OR gate produces a HIGH on the output when any of the inputs is HIGH.
 Boolean addition is the same as the OR function.

Truth table
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Boolean addition differs from binary addition in the case where two 1’s are added. There
is no carry in Boolean addition.
Laws of OR function
A+0=0 Null
A + 1= A Identity
A+A = A Idempotent
A+A =1 Complement
A+B=B+A Commutative law
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C Associative law
(A + B)(A + C) = A + B  C Distributive law
The OR gate is also called ‘any or all’ gate.
The representation of OR, AND gate using switches
A
OR
Y=A+B
B

AND
Y = A B A B

Operator Precedence
When solving Boolean expressions, the precedence in descending order is
1. Parenthesis 2. NOT
3. AND 4. OR
Absorption Laws
A(A + B) = A
Proof :
A(A + B) = AA + AB
= A + AB
= A(1 + B)
=A
Similarly, A + AB = A
Some rules of Boolean Algebra

1. A=A
The double complement of a variable is always equal to the variable.
2. A + AB = A + B
Proof :
A + AB = A + AB + AB
= AA + AB + AB
= AA + AB + AA + AB
= (A + A)(A + B)
= 1 (A + B)
=A+B
3. A + AB = A + B
4. (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC
Proof :
(A + B)(A + C) = AA + AC + AB + BC
= A(1 + C) + AB + BC
= A + AB + BC
= A(1 + B) + BC
= A + BC
De Morgan’s Theorem
It states that the complement of a function is obtained by interchanging AND and OR
operators and complementing each literal.
De−Morgan’s Laws
1. A + B = A B
NOR = bubbled AND

2. AB = A + B
NAND = bubbled OR
The NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates as any basic gate

 (AND, OR and NOT) can be implemented using these gates.

The NAND Gate

NAND operation is mathematically represented as
X = AB
A X
B
AND NOT

A X
B
Standard Logic symbol for 2 input NAND Gate
 Notes on Digital Circuits

By De−Morgan’s law
AB = A + B
i.e. NAND gate is equivalent to bubbled OR gate.

A X = AB A X = A +B
B B

Truth table
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

The output of NAND gate is HIGH, when at least one input to the NAND gate
 is LOW. All the basic gates can be represented using only NAND gate.

Basic Gates using NAND Gates only

NOT A X X =AA = A + A = A

AND A AB
X = AB = AB
B

OR A
A
X = A B
=A +B
B =A +B
B
The NOR Gate
A NOT and OR gate combinely makes NOR gate.

A X = A+B
B

A X = A+B
B

Standard Logical symbol of 2−inputs NOR gate

NOR gate is mathematically represented by

X=A+B
By De Morgan’s law
A + B = A B
i.e. NOR gate is equivalent to bubbled AND gate.

A X = A+B A X = A B = A + B
B B

Truth Table
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

 The output of NOR gate is HIGH only when all the inputs are LOW.
 Notes on Digital Circuits

Basic Gates using NOR Gates only

NOT A Y = A + A = AA = A

OR A+B
A Y = A +B = A +B
B

A A
AND
Y = A + B = A B

B
B

The NAND and NOR functions are commutative but not associative.
i.e. X + Y + Z  X + Z + Y
Non associativity of NOR gate.
Demorganization
Procedure
Step 1 : Complement the entire function
Step 2 : Change all the ANDs to ORs and all the ORs to ANDs.
Step 3 : Complement each of the individual variables
Demorganizations can be stated in one line as
“just break the line, change the sign”.
For example, demorganization of the function y = AB + C is
1. complement function y = AB + C
2. change operators y = (A + B)C
3. complement variables y = (A + B)C
Converting Circuits to Universal Logic
Procedure
Step 1: Draw the circuit in AND/OR/invert logic
Step 2 : If NAND realization is chosen, add a circle to the outputs of each AND gate on
the logic diagram, and add circles to the inputs of all OR gates.
Step 3 : In NOR realization, add circle to the output of gates and add circle to the inputs
of AND gates.
Step 4 : Add or subtract an inverter on each line that received a circle in step 2 or 3.
The Exclusive−OR Gate (EX−OR)
The EX−OR is a modified form of OR gate. It is also called ‘any but not all’ gate.

A
X= A B
B
Standard Logical Symbol for 2−input EX−OR Gate

EX−OR function is represented by the symbol .

EX−OR is mathematically represented as
X = AB + AB
Truth Table
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

 For even inputs output is LOW and for odd inputs output is HIGH.

A
B
Y = AB + AB

It is also noted that EX−OR is inequality comparator.

The EX−OR operation is mathematically represented by following ways :
1. X = A  B
2. X = AB + AB ….SOP form
3. X = (A + B)(A + B) ….POS form
4. X = (A + B)(A + B) ….POS form
5. X = AB + AB ….SOP form
6. X = (A + B)(A B) ….POS form
Let more than 2 inputs be EX−ORed,
A  B  C = (AB + AB)C + (AB + AB)C

= ABC + ABC + (AB  AB)C

= ABC + ABC + ((A + B)(A + B))C
 Notes on Digital Circuits

= ABC + ABC + (AA + AB + AB + BB)C

= ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
= B(AC + AC) + B(AC + AC)
= BC(A⊙C) +B ( A  C)
Note: There are only 2−input EX−OR gates available in the market.
To implement EX−OR function of more than 2−inputs following methods are used.
1. X = A  B  C

A
B X
C

2. X = A BCD

A
B
X
C
D

Useful formulae for EX−OR function

• A  A = AA + AA = 0
• A  0 = A0 + A0 = A
• A  1= A  1 + A 1= 0 + A = A
• AA = AA + AA = A + A =1
• A  A  A.........  A = 0 if no. of terms is even
= A if no. of terms is odd
• A  0  0..........  0 = A
• A  1 1. ..........  1 = A if no. of terms is even
= A if no. of terms is odd
• A  A  A.........  A = 0 if no. of terms is even
=A if no. of terms is odd

• A  B = AB + AB
= AB + AB
= A⊙ B
i.e. one of the inputs of EX−OR is inverted then the EX−OR gate works as EX−NOR.
• A  B  AB = A + B
• A  B  1 = A  B = A⊙B
The Exclusive–NOR Gate (EX−NOR)
The EX−NOR is modified form of NOR gate.

A
B

Standard Logical Symbol for 2−input EX−NOR Gate

EX−NOR function is represented by the symbol 

EX−NOR is mathematically represented as
X = A⊙B
= AB + AB opposite of xor
Truth Table

INPUTS OUTPUT
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

For EX−NOR Gate, for even inputs output is HIGH and for odd inputs output

 is LOW.

A AB
B
X = A B
= AB + AB

AB

EX−NOR is called as equality comparator as output of EX−NOR is logic 1 only when the
even no. of inputs are equal.
Useful formulae for EX−NOR Gate
• A⊙0 = A
• A⊙1 = A
• A⊙A = 1
• A⊙ A = 0
• A⊙B = A  B
• A⊙B = A  B
 Notes on Digital Circuits

• A⊙B = A  B
• A⊙B⊙AB = A + B
• A⊙AB = AB
• A⊙(A + B) = AB
• A⊙AB = A + B
• A⊙(A + B) = AB = AB

KARNAUGH MAP (K−MAP)

Karnaugh Map (K-map) is used to determine minimal expression. Each n variable map
consists of 2n cells or squares.

A Three variable map A Four variable K−map

AB
AB
C 00 01 11 10 CD 00 01 11 10

0 0 2 6 4 00 0 4 12 8

1 1 3 7 5 01 1 5 13 9

11 3 7 15 11

10 2 6 14 10

A K−map provides a systematic method for simplifying the Boolean expressions and, if
properly used, will produce the simplest SOP or POS expression possible, known as the
minimum expression.
Cell Adjacency
The cells in a K−map are arranged so that there is only a single−variable change
between adjacent cells. Adjacency is defined by a single variable change.

The K−map is an array of cells in which each cell represents a binary value

 of the given input variables.

K−Map for SOP Function

Canonical form
The switching function expressed as the sum of all the minterms is called the canonical
Sum Of Products (SOP) or disjunctive normal expression.

Minterm
‘Minterm’ is a product term which has each of all the variables as factors in either
complemented or uncomplemented form.
To obtain minimum SOP expression using K−map
Procedure
Step 1 : Grouping the 1s : A group must contain either 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16 cells, which are all
power of two. In the case of 3−variable map, 23 = 8 cells in the maximum group.
Step 2 : Each cell in a group must be adjacent to one or more cells in that same group,
but all cells in the group do not have to be adjacent to each other.
Step 3 : Always include the largest possible number of 1s in a group accordance with rule 1.
Step 4 : Each 1 on the map must be included in at least one group.
Step 5 : The 1s already in a group can be included in another group as long as
overlapping groups include noncommon 1s.
Grouping of K−map
a) Two−one’s grouping

• On 3−variable K−map AB AB AB AB
00 01 11 10
C0 1 1 1 1

C1 1 1 1 1

• On 4− variable K−map AB AB AB AB

CD 1 1 1

CD 1 1

CD

CD 1 1

b) Four−one’s grouping

• On 3− variable K−map AB
C 00 01 11 10
0 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

AB
• On 4− variable K−map CD
00 01 11 10

00 1 1 1 1

01 1

11 1 1 1
10 1 1 1 1
 Notes on Digital Circuits

c) 8−one’s grouping

AB
• On 3− variable K−map
C 00 01 11 10
0 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

AB
• On 4− variable K−map 00 01 11 10
CD
00 1 1 1 1

01 1 1 1 1

11 1 1 1

10 1 1 1

SOP form of switching function from Truth table

Truth Table
INPUTS OUTPUT
A B C X
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
From truth table it is seen that X(A, B, C) is ‘1’ for 1, 2, 3, 5, 7 decimal values of inputs.
X(A, B, C) = (1, 2, 3, 5 7)
= 001+ 010 + 011+ 101+ 111
= ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
which is a SOP form of function.

K−Map for POS Function

The process for minimizing a POS expression is same as for an SOP

 expression except that 0s are to be grouped to produce minimum sum term
instead of grouping 1s to produce minimum product term.
 • 3 − variable K−map
A+B 0+0 0+1 1+1 1+0
C A+B A +B A+B A+B

0 C 4
0 2 6

1 C
1 3 7 5

• 4 − variable K−map
A+B 0+0 0+1 1+1 1+0
C+D A+B A +B A+B A+B

0+0 C+D
0 4 12 8

0+1 C + D
1 5 13 9

1+1 C + D 3 7 15 11

1+0 C + D 2 6 14 10

Canonical form
The switching function expressed as the product of all the maxterms is called the
canonical Product Of Sum (POS) or disjunctive normal expression.
Maxterm
‘Maxterm’ is a sum term which has each of all the variables as factors in either
complemented or uncomplemented form.
The POS form is the products of those sum combinations for which the function has the
value ‘0’.
The canonical SOP form for the expression given below :
X(A, B, C) = AB + AB + BC + BC
= AB(C + C) + AB(C + C) + BC(A + A) + BC(A + A)
= ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
= ABC + ABC+ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
= (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7)
For above expression in POS form is found out by complementing minterm equation.
i.e. POS form = Complement of ∑(4)
= Complement of ∑(100)
= A+B+C
 Notes on Digital Circuits

Similarly, if any particular variable does not occur in any sum term, then say for X(A, B,
C) add AA, BB or CC as the case may be. Then convert the sum terms into product of
sums and eliminate the repeated terms.

Diagonal and Offset Grouping

If we have to construct the equation using EX−OR or EX−NOR gates then use the
Diagonal and Offset grouping.

Diagonal Grouping

AB
00 01 11 10

0 C 1 1 2

1 C 1 1

Example :

1. ABC + ABC = A(BC + BC) = A(B⊙C)

2. ABC + ABC = A(B⊙C)

Offset Grouping

AB
C 00 01 11 10
0 1 1

1 1 1 1
offset
1→ ABC + ABC = C(A  B)

Avoid the mixing of grouping (i.e.) horizontal, vertical with diagonal and offset.

Don’t Care Conditions [X]

Sometimes, the function can assume either a ‘0’ or ‘1’ value for a number of
combinations, under the situation when the variables are not mutually independent.

The combinations for which the value of the function is not specified with
 certainty are called don’t care conditions.
Conversion of Standard SOP to Standard POS
Procedure
Step 1: Evaluate each product term in the SOP expression i.e. determine the binary
numbers that represent the product terms.
Step 2 : Determine all of the binary numbers not included in the evaluation is step 1.
Step 3 : Write the equivalent sum term for each binary number from step 2 and express in
POS form.
Using a similar procedure POS form is converted into SOP form.

Example
y = M(1, 3, 4, 6, 9,11,13,15)
Minimize the above equation using K−map and realize the reduced expression using
(i) Basic gates only
(ii) NOR gates only
(iii) NAND gates only

Solution
AB
00 01 11 10
CD
00 1 0 0 1

01 0 1 1 0

11 0 1 1 0

10 1 0 0 1

yPOS = (B + D)(B + D) = B⊙D

(i) Using basic gates

B D

y
 Notes on Digital Circuits

(ii) Using NAND Gates

B D

(iii) Using NOR Gates

y = (B + D)(B + D)
= BB + BD+BD+DD = B⊙D

B D

LIST OF FORMULAE
Boolean Laws
• The complementation laws
0=1
1=0
A=A
• Laws of Boolean Algebra for AND Function
A0 = 0 Null
A 1= A Identity
AA = A Idempotent
AA = 0 Complement
A B = B  A Commutative
ABC = A(BC) = (AB)C Associative
A  (B + C) = A B + A  C Distributive
• Laws of Boolean Algebra for OR Function
A+0=0 Null
A + 1= A Identity
A+A = A Idempotent
A+A =1 Complement
A+B = B+ A Commutative law
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C Associative law
(A + B)(A + C) = A + B  C Distributive law

• De−Morgan’s Laws
A + B = A B
NOR = bubbled AND
AB = A + B
NAND = bubbled OR
• Absorption Laws
A(A + B) = A
Similarly A + AB = A

Some Rules of Boolean Algebra

A = A (i.e. the double complement of a variable is always equal to the variable.)
A + AB = A + B
A + AB = A + B
(A + B)(A + C) = A + BC

Exclusive−OR Gate (EX−OR)

X = A B

X = AB + AB ….SOP form
X = (A + B)(A + B) ….POS form

X = (A + B)(A + B) ….POS form

X = AB + AB ….SOP form
X = (A + B)(A B) ….POS form

Useful formulae for EX−OR function

A  A = AA + AA = 0
A  0 = A0 + A0 = A
A  1 = A  1 + A 1= 0 + A = A

AA = AA + AA = A + A =1

 Notes on Digital Circuits

A  A  A.........  A = 0 if no. of terms is even

= A if no. of terms is odd
A  0  0..........  0 = A

A  1 1...........  1 = A if no. of terms is even

= A if no. of terms is odd

A  A  A.........  A = 0 if no. of terms is even

=A if no. of terms is odd

A  B = AB + AB
= AB + AB = A⊙ B
i.e. one of the inputs of EX−OR is inverted then the EX−OR gate works as EX−NOR.
A  B  AB = A + B

A  B  1 = A  B = A⊙B

Exclusive–NOR Gate (EX−NOR)

EX−NOR is mathematically represented as
X = AB + AB
Useful formulae using EX−NOR Gate
A⊙0 = A
A⊙1 = A
A⊙A = 1
A⊙A = 0
A⊙ B = A  B
A⊙ B = A  B
A⊙B = A  B
A⊙B⊙AB = A + B
A⊙AB = AB
A⊙(A + B) = AB
A⊙AB = A + B
A⊙(A + B) = AB = AB

LMR (LAST MINUTE REVISION)

• Number system
To subtract a smaller number from a larger number the 1’s complement method is as
follows:
(i) Determine 1’s complement of smaller number
(ii) Add 1’s complement to the larger number
(iii) Remove the carry and add it to the result. This is called end around carry.
 To subtract a smaller number from larger one the 2’s complement method is as
follows:
(i) Determine the 2’s complement of smaller number
(ii) Add the 2’s complement to the larger number
(iii) Discard the carry. (Always there is a carry)

• Conversions
Binary to Decimal Conversion
− A binary number is a weighted number. The value of a given binary number in
terms of its decimal equivalent can be determined by adding the products of each
bit and its weight.
− (Dibble Dabble Method)
(i) Start with the MSB and multiply by 2.
(ii) Add the next bit to the product.
(iii) Multiply the sum by 2.
(iv) Add the next bit to the sum.
(v) Multiply by 2 and repeat the steps until all the bits are exhausted.
Decimal to Binary Conversion
Sum of weight method − by placing 1 in the appropriate weight position and 0 in other
position.
Remember: … 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20
… 32 16 8 4 2 1 Binary weights.
Octal to Decimal Conversion
Weight 83 82 81 80
Decimal value 512 64 8 1
Octal No. 2 3 7 4
Decimal to Octal Conversion
To get octal equivalent of a decimal number we use repeated division by 8. The
decimal number is divided by right, the quotient is divided by 8 and the remainders
obtained will give the octal number. The first remainder is the LSB.
Octal to Binary Conversion
To convert octal to binary, simply replace the octal digit by its binary number using 3
bits.
The hexadecimal system has a base of 16 i.e. it is composed of 16 digits and
characters. Ten digits and six alphabetic characters make up this system 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F.
Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion
Replace each hexadecimal digit by the four bit binary number.
Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion
Repeated division of decimal number by 16 gives the hexadecimal number, formed
by the remainders of each division. The 1st remainder is the LSB of the hexadecimal
number.

• 8–4–2–1 (BCD) Code

Decimal digits 0 through 9 are represented by their binary equivalents using four bits.
 Notes on Digital Circuits

• Excess-3 Code
The code can be derived from the BCD by adding 3 to each coded number.
• Boolean algebra uses two binary operations ‘+’ (plus) and ‘.’(dot) and one unary
operations ‘/’(complement) operation.
• Variable : A variable is a symbol used to represent a logical quantity, can have
a value 1 or 0.
Complement : It is the inverse of a variable.
Literal : It is a variable or the complement of a variable
• There are three types of basic logic Gates : AND, OR, NOT.
• In inverter, when the input is LOW, the output is HIGH; when the input is HIGH, the
output is LOW. The bubble always indicate inversion in digital circuit.
• In AND gate, the output is HIGH only if both the inputs are HIGH.
• An OR gate produces a HIGH on the output when any of the inputs is HIGH.
• Boolean addition is the same as the OR function.
• Boolean addition differs from binary addition in the case where two 1’s are added.
There is no carry in Boolean addition.
• When solving Boolean expressions, the precedence in descending order is
a. Parenthesis b. NOT
c AND d. OR
• De−Morgan’s Theorem : It states that the complement of a function is obtained by
interchanging AND and OR operators and complementing each literal.
• The NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates as any basic gate (AND, OR
and NOT) can be implemented using these gates.
• NAND gate is equivalent to bubbled OR gate.
• The output of NAND gate is HIGH, when at least one input to the NAND gate is LOW.
• NOR gate is equivalent to bubbled AND gate.
• The output of NOR gate is HIGH only when all the inputs are LOW.
• The NAND and NOR functions are commutative but not associative.
• De−Morganization : “just break the line, change the sign”.
• Converting circuits to Universal Logic :
a. Draw the circuit in AND/OR/invert logic
b. If NAND realization is chosen, add a circle to the outputs of each AND gate on
the logic diagram, and add circles to the inputs of all OR gates.
c. In NOR realization, add circle to the output of gates and add circle to the inputs
of AND gates.
d. Add or subtract an inverter on each line that received a circle in step 2 or 3.
• In EX−OR, for even inputs output is LOW and for odd inputs output is HIGH.
• It is also noted that EX−OR is inequality comparator.
• EX−NOR is called as equality comparator as output of EX−NOR is logic 1 only when
the even no. of inputs are equal.
• K−map is used to determine minimal expression. Each n variable map consists of 2 n
cells or squares.
• Canonical form : The switching function expressed as the sum of all the minterms is
called the canonical Sum Of Products (SOP) or disjunctive normal expression.
• Minterm : ‘Minterm’ is a product term which has each of all the variables as factors in
either complemented or uncomplemented form.
• Maxterm : ‘Maxterm’ is a sum term which has each of all the variables as factors in
either complemented or uncomplemented form.
• The switching function expressed as a product of all the Maxterms is called the
canonical Product Of Sum (POS) form.
• POS form is found out by complementing minterm equation.

❑❑❑❑❑
 Test on Digital Circuits

GATE/CS/DL&COA/SLP/Ch.1_Test/Pg.33