HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION

Genetics
It is a branch of biology which deals with heredity and variation.
Heredity
It is the process of transfer of characters from one generation to the next generation. It is
also called as inheritance of characters.
Variation
It is the differences seen among the offspring of the same parent.

• Variation will be less in asexual reproduction because only one parent is involved.
The offspring are almost similar to their parents and are called clones.
• Variations are higher in sexual reproduction because of mixing of genetic materials
as two parents involved.
Importance of variations

• Variation helps the organism to adopt in the environment.

• The characters which are inherited from one generation to another are called
inherited characters or trait.
• It is controlled by genes.
• Genes are made of DNA and protein.
• Due to the differences in genetic make up human population show a great deal of
variations in expression of various trait.
Example – height, skin colour, eye colour, shape of the nose, lips, ears etc
• Attached ear lobes and free ear lobes are two variants found in human population.
In free ear lobes, the ear lobes is not attached to the side of the head were as in
attached ear lobes the ear lobes is closely attached to the side of the head this trait
is heredity.
Mendel contribution towards the inheritance of trait’

• The rules for inheritance of trait in human beings are related to the fact that both
father and mother contributes equal number of genetic material to the child. This
means that each trait can be influenced by both paternal and maternal DNA. Thus
for each trait there will be two versions in each child.
• The study of inheritance of characters was done by GREGOR JOHANN MENDEL
(1822-1884). He is considered as the father of genetics. He did his experiments in
pea plants (Pisum sativum).
Life history of Mendel refer from the text page no.144
Q Why did Mendel selected the pea plants?
 • It was easy to grow.
• It had a short life span so it is possible to study number of generations.
• It had distinct and easily detectable contrasting characters.
• The structure and shape of the flower is suitable for cross pollination and self
pollination.
• Lot of seeds are produced.
Contrasting characters

• The characters which always appear in opposing condition are called contrasting
characters.
• Mendel selected seven distinct contrasting characters from 34 varieties of pea
plants.
CHARACTER DOMINANT RECESSIVE
Plant size or height tall dwarf
Position of flower on axial terminal
stem
Colour of unripe pod green yellow
Shape of pod inflated constriction
Colour of seed yellow green
Shape of seed round wrinkled
Colour of flower violet white

TERMS RELATED TO GENETICS

• Character
Character is a feature of the individual. eg: Stem Height
• Trait
Trait is an inherited character and its detectable variant
eg: Tall or Dwarf
• Genes
Genes are the units of inheritance which contain the information that is required
to express a particular trait.
• Alleles
Alleles are the different forms of the same gene.
eg: Tt
• Homozygous
Homozygous is the condition when two alleles of a gene are similar. eg: TT, tt
• Heterozygous
Heterozygous is the condition when two alleles of a gene are dissimilar. eg: Tt
• Dominant Allele
Dominant allele is the allele of a gene which is expressed in a hybrid. eg: T
• Recessive Allele
 Recessive allele is the allele of a gene which remains hidden in a hybrid (eg: t ) and
expressed only in homozygous condition (eg: tt).
• Genotype
Genotype is the genetic constitution of an organism.
eg: Tt, TT, tt
• Phenotype
Phenotype is the visible expression of a genotype.
Eg: Tall
• Hybrid
It is a product of a cross between two parents which differ from each other in one
or more characters.
• Monohybrid Cross
Monohybrid cross is the cross between two parents differing in one pair of
contrasting trait of a character.
• Dihybrid Cross
Dihybrid cross is the cross between two parents differing in two characters.
• Punnett square (checker board)
Punnett square is a graphical representation to calculate the probability of all
possible genotype of offspring in a genetic cross.
Punnett square was developed by Reginald Punnett.
MENDELS EXPERIMENT
• Mendel’s experiment is called as hybridization experiments that is mixing of
character by cross pollination.
• Mendel crossed two different plants with two different characters and produced a
new offspring called hybrid.
Monohybrid cross- here Mendel studied the inheritance of one pair of contrasting
character. Eg-height of the tree
- Two plants were taken (male-tall) and (female -dwarf).
- Self pollination is prevented by removing the anther (emasculation).
- Pollen grains from the tall plant is taken and dusted over the stigma of
emasculated flower.
- Fertilization takes place and seeds are formed. These seeds are first generation
known as F1 that is first filial generation.
- When F1 hybrid were grown all plants were tall and dwarf character was
missing.
- F1 hybrid were allowed to have self pollination. The seeds thus formed are
called F2 generation. In F2 generation some plants were dwarf in the ratio 3:1
that is 3tall and 1dwarf.
- In F1 generation dwarf character was hidden so it is called Recessive. Tall was
expressed so it is called as dominant character which was hidden in F1 was
expressed in F2.
(MONOHYBRID AND DIHYBRID CROSS EXERCISES)
HEREDITY NOTES PART -2
Based on the monohybrid and dihybrid cross Mendel proposed the laws of inheritance.
LAW OF DOMINANCE
This law states that in f1 generation the factor that expresses itself is called dominant and
the other factor that does not show its effect is called recessive.
Eg Tt in F1 generation T- will be dominant
t- will be recessive
phenotype – tall
LAW OF SEGREGATION
When a pair of contrasting characters or genes come together in a hybrid it is found that
these factors do not mix together. They remain as such. They separate out and enter into
separate gametes during gamete formation. A recessive factor is not altered by a
dominant factor.
LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
The law is based on dihybrid cross this law states that’’ when two pairs of trait are
combined in a hybrid , segregation of one pair of character is independent of the other
pair of characters”
SEX DETERMINATION
In human there are 23 pair of chromosomes out of which 22 pair are autosomes and 1 pair
the sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes varies in males and females. A male has one
X and one Y that is, half of the sperm will have X chromosomes and the other half will
have Y chromosomes . A female has two X chromosomes that is, all ova will have only X
chromosomes.
Y chromosomes control the male character and it is very smaller than the X chromosomes.
X chromosomes controls the female character.
DIPLOID(2n) 44A+ XX/XY
HAPLOID(n) 22A+ X/Y
In some organism the environment factors play an important role in sex determination in
reptiles temperature which fertilized egg are kept determines whether the animal
developing in the egg will be male or female.
In snails individual can change sex according to their need this indicates that sex is not
genetically determined in these animals.
But in human beings sex is genetically determined .
BLOOD GROUPING

• In human beings the blood grouping system is called ABO blood grouping.
• The type of blood group is controlled by genes and inherited.
• The presence of surface protein on RBC is controlled by genes called ‘I’. The genes
that control the blood group are IAand IB
• As humans are diploid , each person posses any two of the three ‘I’ genes. IA and IB
are completely dominant over ‘I’
• Blood group A - IAIA/IAi
Blood group B - IBIB/IBi
Blood group AB -IAIB
Blood group O -ii
• Genotypes in ABO blood grouping = 6
• Phenotypes in ABO blood grouping = 4