INDIAN INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY
HYDERABAD

T
AF
DR

VIGHNESH EE24BTECH11205
MAHENDAR EE24BTECH11213

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING

Under the guidance of Gajendranath Sir

EXPERIMENT-3

February 19, 2025

Contents

1 Introduction To Bode Plots 2

2 EXPERIMENT 10

3 Results 20

4 Conclusion 21
T
AF
DR

1
Chapter 1

Introduction To Bode Plots

[1]
Bode plots are a useful way to visualize how a system responds to different
frequencies. Developed by Hendrik Bode, these plots consist of two graphs—
one showing the magnitude (or gain) and the other showing the phase shift,
both plotted against frequency on a logarithmic scale. They help engineers
and researchers understand how signals behave when they pass through a
T

system, making them an essential tool in electronics, control systems, and

AF

signal processing.
One of the main reasons Bode plots are so important is that they
DR

make it easier to analyze and design systems that work with different fre-
quencies. Instead of dealing with complex mathematical equations, engineers
can simply look at these plots to understand how a system amplifies or at-
tenuates signals at various frequencies. Bode plots also help in determining
stability by providing insights into phase and gain margins, which are key
factors in designing reliable systems. Since they use logarithmic scaling, they
can represent a wide range of frequencies in a clear and manageable way.
Bode plots are especially useful when working with filters, such as
low-pass and high-pass filters. In a low-pass filter, for example, the magni-
tude plot remains steady at lower frequencies but starts to drop sharply after
a certain point, indicating that higher frequencies are being blocked. On the
other hand, a high-pass filter does the opposite, allowing higher frequencies
to pass while reducing the strength of lower-frequency signals. By analyzing
these plots, engineers can fine-tune filters for applications like audio process-
ing, communication systems, and noise reduction.

2
 LOW PASS FILTERS
A low pass filter is a type of electronic filter that allows signals with lower
frequencies to pass through while blocking or reducing higher-frequency sig-
nals. It plays a crucial role in various applications such as audio processing,
signal conditioning, and communication systems.
The basic working principle of a low pass filter is simple: it permits sig-
nals below a certain frequency threshold, known as the cutoff frequency, to
pass unaffected while attenuating frequencies above this limit. This can be
achieved using different configurations, including passive and active compo-
nents. Passive low pass filters rely on resistors and capacitors to achieve the
desired effect, whereas active low pass filters use operational amplifiers for
better performance and signal control. In modern digital systems, low pass
filtering is also implemented through software-based algorithms.
Mathematically, a simple RC (resistor-capacitor) low pass filter is de-
scribed by the transfer function
1
H(s) =
1 + sRC
where R is the resistance, C is the capacitance, and s is the complex
T

frequency variable in the Laplace domain. Low-pass filters have numerous

AF

real-life applications across various fields, including audio processing, com-

DR

munication systems, and medical devices. In audio engineering, they are used
to eliminate high-frequency noise, ensuring clear and smooth sound output in
speakers and recording systems. In communication systems, low-pass filters
help in demodulating signals by removing high-frequency interference, en-
hancing signal quality in radios, televisions, and mobile networks. They are
also crucial in medical imaging, such as electrocardiograms (ECGs), where
they filter out unwanted noise to provide accurate heart rate monitoring. s
represents the complex frequency variable. This equation helps determine
how the filter responds to different input frequencies.
Low pass filters are widely used in practical applications. In audio sys-
tems, they help eliminate high-frequency noise, resulting in clearer sound
quality. In image processing, they are used for blurring effects by removing
sharp transitions in pixel intensity. In control systems, they smooth out sig-
nal fluctuations to ensure stable operation. Additionally, in communication
systems, they help remove unwanted high-frequency interference, improving
the clarity of transmitted signals.
Overall, the low pass filter is an essential component in both analog and
digital systems, playing a key role in enhancing signal quality and ensuring
smooth system performance.

3
 10Ω
Vin Vout

10µF

GND

A low-pass filter allows low-frequency signals to pass while attenuating higher

frequencies. The simplest form is a first-order RC low-pass filter, consisting
of a resistor (R) and a capacitor (C) in series, with the output taken across
the capacitor.
The circuit’s transfer function is derived from voltage division:
Vout (s) 1
H(s) = =
Vin (s) 1 + sRC
where:
• s = jω (Laplace transform variable)

• ω is the angular frequency in radians per second

T
AF

• j is the imaginary unit

DR

The magnitude of the transfer function is:

1
|H(jω)| = q
1 + (ωRC)2

Expressed in decibels (dB):

 
1
20 log10 |H(jω)| = 20 log10  q 
1 + (ωRC)2
1
At the cutoff frequency ωc = RC
, the gain is:
!
1
20 log10 √ = −3 dB
2
The phase angle θ(ω) of the transfer function is given by:

θ(ω) = tan−1 (−ωRC)

• At very low frequencies (ω → 0), θ(ω) ≈ 0◦

4
 • At ω = ωc , θ(ω) = −45◦

• At very high frequencies (ω → ∞), θ(ω) → −90◦

Magnitude Plot:

• At low frequencies (ω ≪ ωc ), the gain is approximately 0 dB.

• After ωc , the gain decreases at -20 dB/decade (one-tenth increase in

frequency reduces gain by 20 dB).

Phase Plot:

• The phase starts at 0° at low frequencies.

• It decreases gradually, reaching -45° at ωc , and approaches -90° at high

frequencies.

The Bode plot of a first-order RC low-pass filter consists of a magnitude

plot that rolls off at -20 dB/decade beyond the cutoff frequency and a phase
plot that transitions from 0° to -90°. This analysis helps in designing and
T

understanding filtering effects in various electronic applications.

AF
DR

Bode Plot of Low-Pass Filter

−10
Magnitude (dB)

−20

−30

−40

100 101 102 103 104 105 106

Frequency (Hz)

5
 Bode Phase Plot of Low-Pass Filter

−1,000
Phase (Degrees)

−2,000

−3,000

−4,000

−5,000

100 101 102 103 104 105 106

Frequency (Hz)
T
AF
DR

6
 SINGLE CASCADE FILTER

R1 R2 Vout

C1 C2

• ⇒ Increased Gain
A single-stage amplifier may not provide sufficient gain, whereas cas-
cading multiple stages amplifies the signal significantly, improving over-
all performance.
• ⇒ Better Filtering Performance
In filters, cascading multiple stages sharpens the cutoff response and
improves attenuation of unwanted frequencies compared to a single-
stage design.
T

• ⇒ Improved Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

AF

By carefully designing cascaded stages, noise can be minimized, leading

DR

to a clearer and stronger output signal.

• ⇒ Higher Bandwidth
In communication systems, cascading helps extend the bandwidth of
amplifiers and filters, allowing efficient signal transmission.
• ⇒ Greater Stability and Control
Cascading enables better control over the circuit parameters, reducing
distortion and ensuring a more stable system operation.
• ⇒ Enhanced Selectivity in Filters
In filters, cascading results in a steeper roll-off, improving the ability
to distinguish between desired and undesired frequencies.

A cascaded filter consists of multiple filtering stages connected in series. Each

stage contributes to the overall attenuation and phase shift. The total trans-
fer function of an n-stage cascaded filter is obtained by multiplying the in-
dividual transfer functions.
For a single-stage low-pass RC filter, the transfer function is given by:
1
H1 (s) =
1 + sRC

7
 When multiple such stages are cascaded, the overall transfer function
becomes:
n
1

H(s) =
1 + sRC
where n represents the number of cascaded stages.
The magnitude response is given by:
n
1
|H(jω)| =
1 + jωRC

Converting this into decibels (dB):

 
1
Magnitude (dB) = 20n log10  q 
1 + (ωRC)2

The phase response is:

̸ H(jω) = −n tan−1 (ωRC)

T
AF

The cutoff frequency fc of a single-stage RC filter is given by:

DR

1
fc =
2πRC
For an n-stage cascaded filter, the effective cutoff frequency is adjusted
as:
1 1
fc′ = fc · (2 n − 1)− 2

which lowers the cutoff frequency as the number of stages increases.

The overall magnitude roll-off beyond the cutoff frequency follows:

Roll-off rate = −20n dB/decade

which means that each additional stage increases the attenuation rate,
improving signal suppression at higher frequencies.
The phase shift also increases with more stages, leading to a total phase
shift of:

Total Phase Shift = −90n◦ (for high frequencies)

This means that for a two-stage cascaded filter, the total phase shift
approaches −180◦ , and for three stages, it approaches −270◦ .

8
 By increasing the number of cascaded stages, the filter achieves a steeper
roll-off, better suppression of unwanted signals, and an improved transition
band. However, the increased phase shift and potential signal distortion must
be considered in practical applications.

Note
This calculations are for Cascading of low pass filter with the same low
pass filter multiple times.

T
AF
DR

9
Chapter 2

EXPERIMENT

[2] hello T
AF
DR

10
hello

T
AF
DR

11
hello

T
AF
DR

12
 Frequency (Hz) Output Voltage (V) 20 log |H(jω)| (dB)
0.1f 4.97 -0.04
f 3.5 -3.1
10f 049 -20.03
100f 0.050 -40.2
1000f 0.005 -59.6

Table 2.1: Frequency Response of Low-Pass Filter

SINGLE CASCADING
HELLO

T
AF
DR

13
HELLO

T
AF
DR

14
HELLO

T
AF
DR

15
 Frequency (Hz) Output Voltage (V) 20 log |H(jω)| (dB)
0.1f 4.99 -0.01
f 2.79 -5.04
10f 0.009 -54.19
100f 0.0001 -114.4
1000f 0 -1

Table 2.2: Frequency Response of Low-Pass Filter

DOUBLE CASCADING
HELLO

T
AF
DR

16
HELLO

T
AF
DR

17
HELLO

T
AF
DR

18
Frequency (Hz) Output Voltage (V) 20 log |H(jω)| (dB)
0.1f 4.92 -0.13
f 1.77 -9.1
10f 0.004 -60.8
100f 0.00 -120.2
1000f 0.00 -178.22

Table 2.3: Frequency Response of Low-Pass Filter

T
AF
DR

19
Chapter 3

Results

[3] T
AF
DR

20
Chapter 4

Conclusion

[4] T
AF
DR

21