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Introduction to Simulink
with Engineering Applications
Second Edition
Steven T. Karris

Orchard Publications
www.orchardpublications.com
Introduction to Simulink®
with Engineering Applications
Second Edition
Steven T. Karris

Orchard Publications
www.orchardpublications.com
Introduction to Simulink ® with Engineering Applications, Second Edition

Copyright ©2008 Orchard Publications. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this
publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Direct all inquiries to Orchard Publications, [email protected]

Product and corporate names are trademarks or registered trademarks of The MathWorks™, Inc. They are used only
for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Library of Congress Control Number 2008923972

ISBN-10: 1-934404-10-1
ISBN-13: 978-1-934404-10-2

TXu 1−303-668

Disclaimer
The author has made every effort to make this text as complete and accurate as possible, but no warranty is implied.
The author and publisher shall have neither liability nor responsibility to any person or entity with respect to any loss
or damages arising from the information contained in this text.
 Preface
This text is an introduction to Simulink ®, a companion application to MATLAB ®. It is written
for students at the undergraduate and graduate programs, as well as for the working professional.

The author claims no originality of the content, and the description of the Simulink blocks is
extracted from The MathWorks™ documentation without intent to infringe. The intent is to
provide a complete reference text, and whenever necessary, the author refers the reader to The
MathWorks™ documentation. Whenever there is a conflict between this text and The
MathWorks™ documentation, the latter takes precedence.

Although some previous knowledge of MATLAB would be helpful, it is not absolutely necessary;
Appendix A of this text is an introduction to MATLAB to enable the reader to begin learning
both MATLAB and Simulink simultaneously, and to perform graphical computations and
programming.

Chapters 2 through 19 describe the blocks in all Simulink Version 7.1 libraries. Their application
is illustrated with Simulink models that contain the pertinent blocks, and some are supplemented
with MATLAB functions, commands, and statements. Some background information is provided
for lesser known definitions and topics. Chapters 1 and 20 contain several Simulink models to
illustrate various applied math and engineering applications. Appendix B is an introduction to
masked subsystems, and Appendix C introduces the reader to random generation procedures.
Appendix D is an introduction to Weighted Moving Averages.

This text supplements our Numerical Analysis Using MATLAB and Excel, ISBN 978−1−934404−
03−4. It is self-contained; the blocks of each library are described in an orderly fashion that is
consistent with Simulink’s documentation. This arrangement provides insight into how a model is
used and how its parts interact with each another.

Like MATLAB, Simulink can be used with both linear and nonlinear systems, which can be
modeled in continuous time, sample time, or a hybrid of these. Examples are provided in this text.

Most of the examples presented in this book can be implemented with the Student Versions of
MATLAB and Simulink. A few may require the full versions of these outstanding packages, and
these examples may be skipped. Some add−ons, known as Toolboxes and Blocksets can be
obtained from The MathWorks,™ Inc., 3 Apple Hill Drive, Natick, MA, 01760-2098, USA,
www.mathworks.com.

To get the most out of this outstanding application, it is highly recommended that this text is used
in conjunction with the MATLAB and Simulink User’s Guides. Other references are provided in
the reference section of this text.
This is the second edition of this title, and although every effort was made to correct possible
typographical errors and erroneous references to figures and tables, some may have been
overlooked. Accordingly, the author will appreciate it very much if any such errors are brought to
his attention so that corrections can be made for the next edition.

The author wishes to express his gratitude to the staff of The MathWorks™, the developers of
MATLAB® and Simulink® for the encouragement and unlimited support they have provided me
with during the production of this text.

Our heartfelt thanks also to Mr. Howard R. Hansen, and Dr. Niel Ransom, former CTO of
Alcatel, for bringing some errors on the first print to our attention.

Orchard Publications
www.orchardpublications.com
[email protected]
Table of Contents
1 Introduction to Simulink 1−1
1.1 Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB ....................................................................1−1
1.2 Simulink Demos ......................................................................................................1−20
1.3 Summary ..................................................................................................................1−28
1.4 Exercises ..................................................................................................................1−29
1.5 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ..................................................................1−30

2 The Commonly Used Blocks Library 2−1

2.1 Inport, Outport, and Subsystem Blocks................................................................ 2−2
2.2 Ground Block ........................................................................................................ 2−4
2.3 Terminator Block .................................................................................................. 2−5
2.4 Constant and Product Blocks ............................................................................... 2−6
2.5 Scope Block ........................................................................................................... 2−8
2.6 Bus Creator and Bus Selector Blocks ................................................................... 2−8
2.7 Mux and Demux Blocks ..................................................................................... 2−12
2.8 Switch Block ....................................................................................................... 2−15
2.9 Sum Block ........................................................................................................... 2−17
2.10 Gain Block .......................................................................................................... 2−18
2.11 Relational Operator Block .................................................................................. 2−19
2.12 Logical Operator Block ....................................................................................... 2−20
2.13 Saturation Block ................................................................................................. 2−21
2.14 Integrator Block .................................................................................................. 2−22
2.15 Unit Delay Block ................................................................................................ 2−27
2.16 Discrete-Time Integrator Block .......................................................................... 2−29
2.17 Data Types and The Data Type Conversion Block ........................................... 2−32
2.18 Summary ............................................................................................................. 2−42
2.19 Exercises .............................................................................................................. 2−46
2.20 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ............................................................. 2−48

3 The Continuous Blocks Library 3−1

3.1 Continuous−Time Linear Systems Sub−Library ....................................................... 3−2
3.1.1 Integrator Block .............................................................................................. 3−2
3.1.2 Derivative Block.............................................................................................. 3−2
3.1.3 State−Space Block ........................................................................................... 3−7
3.1.4 Transfer Fcn Block .......................................................................................... 3−7
3.1.5 Zero−Pole Block............................................................................................... 3−9
3.2 Continuous−Time Delays Sub−Library .................................................................. 3−10

Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition i

Copyright © Orchard Publications
 3.2.1 Transport Delay Block................................................................................. 3−11
3.2.2 Variable Time Delay Block ......................................................................... 3−12
3.2.3 Variable Transport Delay Block.................................................................. 3−13
3.3 Summary ............................................................................................................... 3−15
3.4 Exercises ............................................................................................................... 3−17
3.5 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ............................................................... 3−18

4 The Discontinuities Blocks Library 4−1

4.1 Saturation Block ..................................................................................................... 4−2
4.2 Saturation Dynamic Block ..................................................................................... 4−3
4.3 Dead Zone Block .................................................................................................... 4−4
4.4 Dead Zone Dynamic Block..................................................................................... 4−5
4.5 Rate Limiter Block.................................................................................................. 4−6
4.6 Rate Limiter Dynamic Block .................................................................................. 4−8
4.7 Backlash Block........................................................................................................ 4−9
4.8 Relay Block ........................................................................................................... 4−11
4.9 Quantizer Block.................................................................................................... 4−12
4.10 Hit Crossing Block................................................................................................ 4−13
4.11 Coulomb and Viscous Friction Block................................................................... 4−14
4.12 Wrap to Zero Block .............................................................................................. 4−16
4.13 Summary ............................................................................................................... 4−17
4.14 Exercises ............................................................................................................... 4−19
4.15 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ............................................................... 4−20

5 The Discrete Blocks Library 5−1

5.1 Discrete−Time Linear Systems Sub−Library............................................................ 5−2
5.1.1 Unit Delay Block.......................................................................................... 5−2
5.1.2 Integer Delay Block...................................................................................... 5−2
5.1.3 Tapped Delay Block..................................................................................... 5−3
5.1.4 Discrete−Time Integrator Block .................................................................. 5−4
5.1.5 Discrete Transfer Fcn Block ........................................................................ 5−4
5.1.6 Discrete Filter Block .................................................................................... 5−5
5.1.7 Discrete Zero−Pole Block............................................................................. 5−8
5.1.8 Difference Block........................................................................................... 5−9
5.1.9 Discrete Derivative Block .......................................................................... 5−10
5.1.10 Discrete State−Space Block ....................................................................... 5−11
5.1.11 Transfer Fcn First Order Block.................................................................. 5−14
5.1.12 Transfer Fcn Lead or Lag Block................................................................. 5−15
5.1.13 Transfer Fcn Real Zero Block .................................................................... 5−18
5.1.14 Discrete FIR Filter Block ........................................................................... 5−19

ii Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition

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 5.2 Sample & Hold Delays Sub−Library..................................................................... 5−21
5.2.1 Memory Block ............................................................................................ 5−21
5.2.2 First−Order Hold Block.............................................................................. 5−22
5.2.3 Zero−Order Hold Block.............................................................................. 5−23
5.3 Summary ............................................................................................................... 5−25
5.4 Exercises................................................................................................................ 5−27
5.5 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ............................................................... 5−29

6 The Logic and Bit Operations Library 6−1

6.1 Logic Operations Group Sub−Library ..................................................................... 6−2
6.1.1 Logical Operator Block ................................................................................ 6−2
6.1.2 Relational Operator Block............................................................................ 6−2
6.1.3 Interval Test Block ....................................................................................... 6−2
6.1.4 Interval Test Dynamic Block ....................................................................... 6−3
6.1.5 Combinatorial Logic Block........................................................................... 6−4
6.1.6 Compare to Zero Block ................................................................................ 6−9
6.1.7 Compare to Constant Block....................................................................... 6−10
6.2 Bit Operations Group Sub−Library ...................................................................... 6−11
6.2.1 Bit Set Block ............................................................................................... 6−12
6.2.2 Bit Clear Block ........................................................................................... 6−13
6.2.3 Bitwise Operator Block............................................................................... 6−14
6.2.4 Shift Arithmetic Block ............................................................................... 6−16
6.2.5 Extract Bits Block ....................................................................................... 6−17
6.3 Edge Detection Group Sub−Library ..................................................................... 6−18
6.3.1 Detect Increase Block................................................................................. 6−18
6.3.2 Detect Decrease Block ............................................................................... 6−20
6.3.3 Detect Change Block ................................................................................. 6−21
6.3.4 Detect Rise Positive Block ......................................................................... 6−22
6.3.5 Detect Rise Nonnegative Block ................................................................. 6−23
6.3.6 Detect Fall Negative Block ........................................................................ 6−24
6.3.7 Detect Fall Nonpositive Block ................................................................... 6−25
6.4 Summary............................................................................................................... 6−27
6.5 Exercises ............................................................................................................... 6−31
6.6 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ............................................................... 6−32

7 The Lookup Tables Library 7−1

7.1 Lookup Table Block ................................................................................................7−2
7.2 Lookup Table (2−D) Block .....................................................................................7−3
7.3 Lookup Table (n−D) Block .....................................................................................7−6
7.4 PreLookup Index Search Block...............................................................................7−7

Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition iii

Copyright © Orchard Publications
 7.5 Interpolation (n−D) Using PreLookup Block......................................................... 7−8
7.6 Direct Lookup Table (n−D) Block ....................................................................... 7−10
7.7 Lookup Table Dynamic Block .............................................................................. 7−16
7.8 Sine and Cosine Blocks ........................................................................................ 7−17
7.9 Summary ............................................................................................................... 7−21
7.10 Exercises................................................................................................................ 7−23
7.11 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises ............................................................... 7−24

8 The Math Operations Library 8−1

8.1 Math Operations Group Sub−Library ..................................................................... 8−2
8.1.1 Sum Block .................................................................................................... 8−2
8.1.2 Add Block .................................................................................................... 8−2
8.1.3 Subtract Block.............................................................................................. 8−3
8.1.4 Sum of Elements Block ................................................................................ 8−4
8.1.5 Bias Block..................................................................................................... 8−4
8.1.6 Weighted Sample Time Math Block ........................................................... 8−5
8.1.7 Gain Block ................................................................................................... 8−6
8.1.8 Slider Gain Block ......................................................................................... 8−6
8.1.9 Product Block............................................................................................... 8−7
8.1.10 Divide Block................................................................................................. 8−7
8.1.11 Product of Elements Block........................................................................... 8−7
8.1.12 Dot Product Block ....................................................................................... 8−8
8.1.13 Sign Block .................................................................................................... 8−9
8.1.14 Abs Block ................................................................................................... 8−10
8.1.15 Unary Minus Block .................................................................................... 8−11
8.1.16 Math Function Block................................................................................. 8−11
8.1.17 Rounding Function Block.......................................................................... 8−13
8.1.18 Polynomial Block ....................................................................................... 8−14
8.1.19 MinMax Block ........................................................................................... 8−14
8.1.20 MinMax Running Resettable Block .......................................................... 8−15
8.1.21 Trigonometric Function Block .................................................................. 8−16
8.1.22 Sine Wave Function Block ........................................................................ 8−17
8.1.23 Algebraic Constraint Block........................................................................ 8−18
8.2 Vector / Matrix Operations Group Sub−Library ................................................... 8−19
8.2.1 The Assignment Block............................................................................... 8−19
8.2.2 The Reshape Block .................................................................................... 8−21
8.2.3 The Squeze Block....................................................................................... 8−21
8.2.4 The Matrix Concatenate Block ................................................................. 8−23
8.2.5 The Vector Concatenate Block ................................................................. 8−24
8.2.6 The Permute Block .................................................................................... 8−25
8.3 The Complex Vector Conversions Group Sub−Library ........................................ 8−26

iv Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition

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 8.3.1 Complex to Magnitude−Angle Block........................................................ 8−26
8.3.2 Magnitude−Angle to Complex Block....................................................... 8−27
8.3.3 Complex to Real−Imag Block.................................................................... 8−28
8.3.4 Real−Imag to Complex Block.................................................................... 8−29
8.4 Summary................................................................................................................ 8−30
8.5 Exercises ................................................................................................................ 8−34
8.6 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises................................................................ 8−36

9 The Model Verification Library 9−1

9.1 Check Static Lower Bound Block.......................................................................... 9−2
9.2 Check Static Upper Bound Block.......................................................................... 9−3
9.3 Check Static Range Block ..................................................................................... 9−4
9.4 Check Static Gap Block......................................................................................... 9−5
9.5 Check Dynamic Lower Bound Block .................................................................... 9−6
9.6 Check Dynamic Upper Bound Block .................................................................... 9−8
9.7 Check Dynamic Range Block ................................................................................ 9−9
9.8 Check Dynamic Gap Block ................................................................................. 9−10
9.9 Assertion Block.................................................................................................... 9−12
9.10 Check Discrete Gradient Block........................................................................... 9−13
9.11 Check Input Resolution Block ............................................................................ 9−14
9.12 Summary .............................................................................................................. 9−16
9.13 Exercises............................................................................................................... 9−18
9.14 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises .............................................................. 9−19

10 The Model−Wide Utilities Library 10−1

10.1 Linearization of Running Models Sub−Library..................................................10−2
10.1.1 Trigger−Based Linearization Block........................................................10−2
10.1.2 Time−Based Linearization Block...........................................................10−4
10.2 Documentation Sub−Library ............................................................................10−7
10.2.1 Model Info Block...................................................................................10−7
10.2.2 Doc Text Block .....................................................................................10−9
10.3 Modeling Guides Sub−Library ..........................................................................10−9
Block Support Table Block...............................................................................10−9
10.4 Summary .........................................................................................................10−11

11 The Ports & Subsystems Library 11−1

11.1 Inport, Outport, and Subsystem Blocks ........................................................ 11−2
11.2 Trigger Block ................................................................................................. 11−2
11.3 Enable Block.................................................................................................. 11−2
11.4 Function−Call Generator Block .................................................................... 11−3

Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition v

Copyright © Orchard Publications
 11.5 Atomic Subsystem Block ............................................................................... 11−4
11.6 Code Reuse Subsystem Block ........................................................................ 11−9
11.7 Model Block ................................................................................................. 11−17
11.8 Configurable Subsystem Block..................................................................... 11−19
11.9 Triggered Subsystem Block.......................................................................... 11−25
11.10 Enabled Subsystem Block............................................................................ 11−27
11.11 Enabled and Triggered Subsystem Block.................................................... 11−30
11.12 Function−Call Subsystem Block ................................................................. 11−34
11.13 For Iterator Subsystem Block ...................................................................... 11−37
11.14 While Iterator Subsystem Block.................................................................. 11−39
11.15 If and If Action Subsystem Blocks .............................................................. 11−41
11.16 Switch Case and The Switch Case Action Subsystem Blocks.................... 11−43
11.17 Subsystem Examples Block ......................................................................... 11−46
11.18 S−Functions in Simulink............................................................................. 11−49
11.19 Summary...................................................................................................... 11−55

12 The Signal Attributes Library 12−1

12.1 Signal Attribute Manipulation Sub−Library .................................................... 12−2
12.1.1 Data Type Conversion Block ............................................................. 12−2
12.1.2 Data Type Duplicate Block ................................................................ 12−2
12.1.3 Data Type Propagation Block ............................................................ 12−4
12.1.4 Data Type Scaling Strip Block ........................................................... 12−5
12.1.5 Data Conversion Inherited Block ...................................................... 12−5
12.1.6 IC (Initial Condition) Block............................................................... 12−6
12.1.7 Signal Conversion Block .................................................................... 12−7
12.1.8 Rate Transition Block ........................................................................ 12−8
12.1.9 Signal Specification Block ................................................................ 12−11
12.1.10 Bus to Vector Block.......................................................................... 12−12
12.1.11 Data Type Propagation Examples Block .......................................... 12−14
12.2 Signal Attribute Detection Sub−Library ........................................................ 12−16
12.2.1 Probe Block....................................................................................... 12−17
12.2.2 Weighted Sample Time Block.......................................................... 12−18
12.2.3 Width Block ..................................................................................... 12−19
12.3 Summary ........................................................................................................ 12−20

13 The Signal Routing Library 13−1

13.1 Signal Routing Group Sub−Library ................................................................. 13−2
13.1.1 Bus Creator Block .............................................................................. 13−2
13.1.2 Bus Selector Block ............................................................................. 13−2
13.1.3 Bus Assignment Block ....................................................................... 13−2

vi Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition

Copyright © Orchard Publications
 13.1.4 Mux Block ..........................................................................................13−6
13.1.5 Demux Block ......................................................................................13−6
13.1.6 Selector Block.....................................................................................13−6
13.1.7 Index Vector Block.............................................................................13−8
13.1.8 Merge Block........................................................................................13−8
13.1.9 Environmental Controller Block......................................................13−10
13.1.10 Manual Switch Block .......................................................................13−12
13.1.11 Multiport Switch Block ....................................................................13−13
13.1.12 Switch Block.....................................................................................13−14
13.1.13 From Block .......................................................................................13−14
13.1.14 Goto Tag Visibility Block .................................................................13−15
13.1.15 Goto Block........................................................................................13−16
13.2 Signal Storage and Access Group Sub−Library .............................................13−18
13.2.1 Data Store Read Block .....................................................................13−18
13.2.2 Data Store Memory Block................................................................13−18
13.2.3 Data Store Write Block....................................................................13−19
13.3 Summary ........................................................................................................13−22

14 The Sinks Library 14−1

14.1 Models and Subsystems Outputs Sub−Library................................................14−2
14.1.1 Outport Block.......................................................................................14−2
14.1.2 Terminator Block .................................................................................14−2
14.1.3 To File Block........................................................................................14−2
14.1.4 To Workspace Block ...........................................................................14−4
14.2 Data Viewers Sub−Library...............................................................................14−6
14.2.1 Scope Block .........................................................................................14−6
14.2.2 Floating Scope Block ...........................................................................14−8
14.2.3 XY Graph Block.................................................................................14−12
14.2.4 Display Block .....................................................................................14−16
14.3 Simulation Control Sub−Library ...................................................................14−17
Stop Simulation Block...................................................................................14−17
14.4 Summary........................................................................................................14−18

15 The Sources Library 15−1

15.1 Models and Subsystems Inputs Sub−Library .................................................. 15−2
15.1.1 Inport Block .......................................................................................15−2
15.1.2 Ground Block.................................................................................... 15−2
15.1.3 From File Block................................................................................. 15−2
15.1.4 From Workspace Block .................................................................... 15−2
15.2 Signal Generators Sub−Library ...................................................................... 15−3

Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition vii

Copyright © Orchard Publications
 15.2.1 Constant Block ................................................................................. 15−3
15.2.2 Signal Generator Block ..................................................................... 15−4
15.2.3 Pulse Generator Block ...................................................................... 15−5
15.2.4 Signal Builder Block.......................................................................... 15−6
15.2.5 Ramp Block ....................................................................................... 15−9
15.2.6 Sine Wave Block............................................................................... 15−9
15.2.7 Step Block....................................................................................... 15−12
15.2.8 Repeating Sequence Block ............................................................. 15−13
15.2.9 Chirp Signal Block.......................................................................... 15−14
15.2.10 Random Number Block .................................................................. 15−15
15.2.11 Uniform Random Number Block ................................................... 15−16
15.2.12 Band Limited White Noise Block................................................... 15−17
15.2.13 Repeating Sequence Stair Block..................................................... 15−22
15.2.14 Repeating Sequence Interpolated Block ........................................ 15−22
15.2.15 Counter Free−Running Block ........................................................ 15−24
15.2.16 Counter Limited Block ................................................................... 15−25
15.2.17 Clock Block..................................................................................... 15−26
15.2.18 Digital Clock Block......................................................................... 15−27
15.3 Summary....................................................................................................... 15−29

16 The User−Defined Functions Library 16−1

16.1 Fcn Block....................................................................................................... 16−2

16.2 MATLAB Fcn Block ..................................................................................... 16−3
16.3 Embedded MATLAB Function Block .......................................................... 16−3
16.4 S−Function Block .......................................................................................... 16−7
16.5 Level−2 M−file S−Function Block................................................................. 16−7
16.6 S−Function Builder Block ........................................................................... 16−11
16.7 S−Function Examples Block........................................................................ 16−11
16.8 Summary...................................................................................................... 16−12

17 The Additional Discrete Library 17−1

17.1 Transfer Fcn Direct Form II Block............................................................... 17−2
17.2 Transfer Fcn Direct Form II Time Varying Block........................................ 17−3
17.3 Fixed-Point State-Space Block..................................................................... 17−4
17.4 Unit Delay External IC Block ...................................................................... 17−6
17.5 Unit Delay Resettable Block ........................................................................ 17−7
17.6 Unit Delay Resettable External IC Block..................................................... 17−8
17.7 Unit Delay Enabled Block ............................................................................ 17−9
17.8 Unit Delay Enabled Resettable Block ........................................................ 17−11
17.9 Unit Delay Enabled External IC Block ...................................................... 17−12

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 17.10 Unit Delay Enabled Resettable External IC Block .................................... 17−13
17.11 Unit Delay With Preview Resettable Block............................................... 17−15
17.12 Unit Delay With Preview Resettable External RV Block ......................... 17−16
17.13 Unit Delay With Preview Enabled Block .................................................. 17−17
17.14 Unit Delay With Preview Enabled Resettable Block................................. 17−19
17.15 Unit Delay With Preview Enabled Resettable External RV Block ........... 17−20
17.16 Summary .................................................................................................... 17−22

18 The Additional Math Increment / Decrement Library 18−1

18.1 Increment Real World Block........................................................................... 18−2
18.2 Decrement Real World Block ......................................................................... 18−3
18.3 Increment Stored Integer Block ...................................................................... 18−4
18.4 Decrement Stored Integer Block ..................................................................... 18−5
18.5 Decrement to Zero Block ................................................................................ 18−6
18.6 Decrement Time To Zero Block...................................................................... 18−7
18.7 Summary .......................................................................................................... 18−8

19 The Simulink Extras Library 19−1

19.1 Additional Discrete Group blocks ...................................................................19−2

19.1.1 Discrete Transfer Fcn (with initial states) block.................................19−2
19.1.2 Discrete Transfer Fcn (with initial outputs) block..............................19−5
19.1.3 Discrete Zero−Pole (with initial states) block .....................................19−8
19.1.4 Discrete Zero−Pole (with initial outputs) block ................................19−12
19.1.5 Idealized ADC Quantizer block ........................................................19−15
19.2 Additional Linear Group blocks ....................................................................19−18
19.2.1 Transfer Fcn (with initial states) block .............................................19−18
19.2.2 Transfer Fcn (with initial outputs) block ..........................................19−21
19.2.3 Zero−Pole (with initial states) block..................................................19−23
19.2.4 Zero−Pole (with initial outputs) block ..............................................19−26
19.2.5 State−Space (with initial outputs) block...........................................19−27
19.2.6 PID Controller block .........................................................................19−29
19.2.7 PID Controller (with Approximate Derivative) block......................19−31
19.3 Additional Sinks Group blocks......................................................................19−33
19.3.1 Power Spectral Density block ............................................................19−33
19.3.2 Averaging Power Spectral Density block ..........................................19−37
19.3.3 Spectrum Analyzer block...................................................................19−38
19.3.4 Averaging Spectrum Analyzer block .................................................19−41
19.3.5 Cross Correlator block .......................................................................19−43
19.3.6 Auto Correlator block........................................................................19−45
19.3.7 Floating Bar Plot block ......................................................................19−46

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 19.4 Flip Flops Group blocks................................................................................. 19−48
19.4.1 Clock block ....................................................................................... 19−48
19.4.2 D Latch block.................................................................................... 19−49
19.4.3 S−R Flip Flop block........................................................................... 19−50
19.4.4 D Flip Flop block............................................................................... 19−51
19.4.5 J−K Flip Flop block............................................................................ 19−52
19.5 Linearization Group blocks ........................................................................... 19−53
19.5.1 Switched Derivative for Linearization block ..................................... 19−53
19.5.2 Switched Transport Delay for Linearization block............................ 19−56
19.6 Transformations Group blocks...................................................................... 19−59
19.6.1 Polar to Cartesian block .................................................................... 19−59
19.6.2 Cartesian to Polar block .................................................................... 19−60
19.6.3 Spherical to Cartesian block.............................................................. 19−61
19.6.4 Cartesian to Spherical block.............................................................. 19−62
19.6.5 Fahrenheit to Celsius block ............................................................... 19−63
19.6.6 Celsius to Fahrenheit block ............................................................... 19−64
19.6.7 Degrees to Radians block .................................................................. 19−65
19.6.8 Radians to Degrees block .................................................................. 19−65
19.7 Summary........................................................................................................ 19−67

20 Engineering Applications 20−1

20.1 Applications to Differential Equations ........................................................... 20−1

20.1.1 Math Example .................................................................................. 20−1
20.1.2 Dynamics Example ........................................................................... 20−3
20.1.3 Chemical Solutions Example ........................................................... 20−6
20.1.4 Heat Flow Example .......................................................................... 20−8
20.1.5 Cantilever Beam Deflection Example ............................................ 20−10
20.1.6 Tractrix Curve Example ................................................................. 20−13
20.1.7 Bessel Differential Equation Example ............................................ 20−15
20.1.8 Van der Pol Differential Equation Example .................................. 20−18
20.1.9 The Simple Pendulum Example ..................................................... 20−22
20.1.10 Simple Oscillator Example ............................................................. 20−26
20.2 Zero−Order Hold and First−Order Hold Circuits as Reconstructors .......... 20−28
20.3 Digital Filter Realization Forms ................................................................... 20−30
20.3.1 Direct Form I Realization of a Digital Filter .................................. 20−30
20.3.2 Direct Form II Realization of a Digital Filter ................................. 20−31
20.3.3 Series Form Realization of a Digital Filter ..................................... 20−34
20.3.4 Parallel Form Realization of a Digital Filter ................................... 20−36
20.4 Models for Binary Counters ......................................................................... 20−39
20.4.1 Model for a 3−bit Up / Down Counter .......................................... 20−39

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 20.4.2 Model for a 4−bit Ring Counter .....................................................20−40
20.5 Models for Mechanical Systems .................................................................20−41
20.5.1 Model for a Mass−Spring−Dashpot .................................................20−41
20.5.2 Model for a Cascaded Mass−Spring System ....................................20−43
20.5.3 Model for a Mechanical Accelerometer ..........................................20−45
20.6 Feedback Control Systems ..........................................................................20−46
20.7 Models for Electrical Systems .....................................................................20−49
20.7.1 Model for an Electric Circuit in Phasor Form .................................20−49
20.7.2 Model for the Application of the Superposition Principle ..............20−51
20.8 Transformations ..........................................................................................20−53
20.9 Discrete Time Integration with Variable Amplitude Input .......................20−54
20.10 The Digital Filter Design Block ..................................................................20−57
20.11 S-Function Examples ..................................................................................20−65
20.11.1 Temperature Coefficients for Semiconductor Diodes ...................20−65
20.11.2 Simple Pendulum ..........................................................................20−67
20.12 Concluding Remarks ...................................................................................20−70
20.13 Summary ......................................................................................................20−71

A Introduction to MATLAB A−1

A.1 MATLAB® and Simulink®............................................................................A−1
A.2 Command Window ..........................................................................................A−1
A.3 Roots of Polynomials ........................................................................................A−3
A.4 Polynomial Construction from Known Roots..................................................A−4
A.5 Evaluation of a Polynomial at Specified Values...............................................A−6
A.6 Rational Polynomials........................................................................................A−8
A.7 Using MATLAB to Make Plots .....................................................................A−10
A.8 Subplots..........................................................................................................A−18
A.9 Multiplication, Division, and Exponentiation ...............................................A−18
A.10 Script and Function Files ...............................................................................A−26
A.11 Display Formats..............................................................................................A−31

B Masked Subsystems B−1

B.1 Masks Defined.................................................................................................... B−1
B.2 Advantages Using Masked Subsystems ............................................................. B−1
B.3 Mask Features .................................................................................................... B−1
B.4 Creating a Masked Subsystem ........................................................................... B−2

C Random Number Generation C−1

C.1 Random Numbers .............................................................................................. C−1
C.2 An Example ....................................................................................................... C−1

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D Weighted Moving Average ....................................................................................... D−1

References R−1

Index IN−1

xii Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition

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Chapter 1
Introduction to Simulink

T
his chapter is an introduction to Simulink. This author feels that it is best to introduce Sim-
ulink in this chapter with a few examples. Tools for simulation and model−based designs are
presented in the subsequent chapters. Some familiarity with MATLAB is essential in
understanding Simulink, and for this purpose, Appendix A is included as an introduction to
MATLAB.

1.1 Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB

The MATLAB® and Simulink® environments are integrated into one entity, and thus we can
analyze, simulate, and revise our models in either environment at any point. We invoke Simulink
from within MATLAB. We begin with a few examples and we will discuss generalities in subse-
quent chapters. Throughout this text, a left justified horizontal bar will denote the beginning of
an example, and a right justified horizontal bar will denote the end of the example. These bars
will not be shown whenever an example begins at the top of a page or at the bottom of a page.
Also, when one example follows immediately after a previous example, the right justified bar will
be omitted.

Example 1.1
For the electric circuit of Figure 1.1, u 0 ( t ) *is the input and the initial conditions are i L ( 0 − ) = 0 ,
and v c ( 0 − ) = 0.5 V . We will compute v C ( t ) .
R L
+
1Ω 1⁄4 H C
+ vC ( t )
−
i(t) 4⁄3 F
−
vs ( t ) = u0 ( t )
Figure 1.1. Circuit for Example 1.1
For this example,
dv
i = i L = i C = C --------C- (1.1)
dt

* Throughout this text, the designation u 0 ( t ) will be used to denote the unit step function. We will use u ( t ) to
denote any other input to be consistent with the MATLAB and Simulink designations.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Simulink

and by Kirchoff’s voltage law (KVL),

di
Ri L + L ------L- + v C = u 0 ( t ) (1.2)
dt
Substitution of (1.1) into (1.2) yields
2
dv d vC
- + vC = u0 ( t )
RC --------C- + LC ---------- (1.3)
dt 2
dt
Substituting the values of the circuit constants and rearranging we obtain:
2
1 d v dv
--- ----------C- + 4
--- --------C- + v C = u 0 ( t )
3 dt 2 3 dt

2
d vC dv
----------- + 4 --------C- + 3v C = 3u 0 ( t ) (1.4)
dt
2 dt

2
d v dv
----------C- + 4 --------C- + 3v C = 3 t>0 (1.5)
dt
2 dt

To appreciate Simulink’s capabilities, for comparison, three different methods of obtaining the
solution are presented, and the solution using Simulink follows.
First Method − Assumed Solution
Equation (1.5) is a second−order, non−homogeneous differential equation with constant coeffi-
cients, and thus the complete solution will consist of the sum of the forced response and the natu-
ral response. It is obvious that the solution of this equation cannot be a constant since the deriva-
tives of a constant are zero and thus the equation is not satisfied. Also, the solution cannot
contain sinusoidal functions (sine and cosine) since the derivatives of these are also sinusoids.
– at
However, decaying exponentials of the form ke where k and a are constants, are possible can-
didates since their derivatives have the same form but alternate in sign.
–s t –s t
It can be shown* that if k 1 e 1 and k 2 e 2 where k 1 and k 2 are constants and s 1 and s 2 are the
roots of the characteristic equation of the homogeneous part of the given differential equation,
–s1 t –s2 t
the natural response is the sum of the terms k 1 e and k 2 e . Therefore, the total solution will
be

* For a thorough discussion, please refer to Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB Applications, ISBN 0−
9709511−5−9, Appendix B.

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 Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB
–s1 t –s2 t
v c ( t ) = natural response + forced response = v cn ( t ) + v cf ( t ) = k 1 e + k2 e + v cf ( t ) (1.6)

The values of s 1 and s 2 are the roots of the characteristic equation

2
s + 4s + 3 = 0 (1.7)
Solution of (1.7) yields of s 1 = – 1 and s 2 = – 3 and with these values (1.6) is written as

–t –3 t
vc ( t ) = k1 e + k2 e + v cf ( t ) (1.8)

The forced component v cf ( t ) is found from (1.5), i.e.,

2
d v dv
----------C- + 4 --------C- + 3v C = 3 t>0 (1.9)
dt
2 dt

Since the right side of (1.9) is a constant, the forced response will also be a constant and we
denote it as v Cf = k 3 . By substitution into (1.9) we obtain

0 + 0 + 3k 3 = 3
or
v Cf = k 3 = 1 (1.10)

Substitution of this value into (1.8), yields the total solution as

–t –3 t
v C ( t ) = v Cn ( t ) + v Cf = k 1 e + k 2 e +1 (1.11)

The constants k 1 and k 2 will be evaluated from the initial conditions. First, using v C ( 0 ) = 0.5 V
and evaluating (1.11) at t = 0 , we obtain
0 0
v C ( 0 ) = k 1 e + k 2 e + 1 = 0.5

k 1 + k 2 = – 0.5 (1.12)

Also,
dv C dv C i
i L = i C = C ---------, --------- = ---L-
dt dt C
and
dv iL ( 0 ) 0
--------C- = -----------
- = ---- = 0 (1.13)
dt t=0
C C

Next, we differentiate (1.11), we evaluate it at t = 0 , and equate it with (1.13). Thus,

dv C
--------- = – k 1 – 3k 2 (1.14)
dt t=0

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Simulink

Equating the right sides of (1.13) and (1.14) we obtain

– k 1 – 3k 2 = 0 (1.15)

Simultaneous solution of (1.12) and (1.15), gives k 1 = – 0.75 and k 2 = 0.25 . By substitution into
(1.8), we obtain the total solution as
–t –3 t
v C ( t ) = ( – 0.75 e + 0.25e + 1 )u 0 ( t ) (1.16)

Check with MATLAB:

syms t % Define symbolic variable t
y0=−0.75*exp(−t)+0.25*exp(−3*t)+1; % The total solution y(t), for our example, vc(t)
y1=diff(y0) % The first derivative of y(t)
y1 =
3/4*exp(-t)-3/4*exp(-3*t)
y2=diff(y0,2) % The second derivative of y(t)
y2 =
-3/4*exp(-t)+9/4*exp(-3*t)
y=y2+4*y1+3*y0 % Summation of y and its derivatives
y =
3
Thus, the solution has been verified by MATLAB. Using the expression for v C ( t ) in (1.16), we
find the expression for the current as
dv C 4
i = i L = i C = C ---------- = --- ⎛
3 –t 3 –3t ⎞ – t – 3t
--- e – --- e = e –e A (1.17)
dt 3⎝ 4 4 ⎠

Second Method − Using the Laplace Transformation

The transformed circuit is shown in Figure 1.2.
R L
+
1 0.25s C
+ 3 ⁄ 4s VC ( s )
− +
VS ( s ) = 1 ⁄ s I( s) VC ( 0 )
−
0.5 ⁄ s
−
Figure 1.2. Transformed Circuit for Example 1.1

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 Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB
By the voltage division* expression,

3 ⁄ 4s 2
0.5s + 2s + 3-
V C ( s ) = ---------------------------------------------- ⋅ ⎛ 1 -------⎞ + 0.5
--- – 0.5 1.5 - + 0.5
------- = -------------------------------- ------- = -----------------------------------
( 1 + 0.25s + 3 ⁄ 4s ) ⎝ s s ⎠ s 2
s ( s + 4s + 3 ) s s(s + 1)(s + 3)

Using partial fraction expansion,† we let

2
0.5s + 2s + 3- = r---1- + ---------------
-----------------------------------
r2 r3
- + ---------------
- (1.18)
s( s + 1 )( s + 3) s (s + 1) (s + 3)
2
0.5s + 2s + 3
r 1 = ---------------------------------- = 1
(s + 1)(s + 3) s=0

2
0.5s + 2s + 3-
r 2 = --------------------------------- = – 0.75
s(s + 3) s = –1

2
0.5s + 2s + 3-
r 3 = --------------------------------- = 0.25
s(s + 1) s = –3

and by substitution into (1.18)

2
0.5s + 2s + 3- = 1
V C ( s ) = ----------------------------------- – 0.75- + ---------------
--- + --------------- 0.25 -
s(s + 1)(s + 3) s (s + 1) (s + 3)

Taking the Inverse Laplace transform‡ we find that

–t – 3t
v C ( t ) = 1 – 0.75e + 0.25e

Third Method − Using State Variables

di
Ri L + L ------L- + v C = u 0 ( t ) **
dt
By substitution of given values and rearranging, we obtain

* For derivation of the voltage division and current division expressions, please refer to Circuit Analysis I with
MATLAB Applications, ISBN 0−9709511−2−4.
† A thorough discussion of partial fraction expansion with MATLAB Applications is presented in Numerical
Analysis Using MATLAB and Excel, ISBN 978−1−934404−03−4.
‡ For an introduction to Laplace Transform and Inverse Laplace Transform, please refer to Circuit Analysis II
with MATLAB Applications, ISBN 0−9709511−5−9.
** Usually, in State−Space and State Variables Analysis, u ( t ) denotes any input. For distinction, we will denote
the Unit Step Function as u0 ( t ) . For a detailed discussion on State−Space and State Variables Analysis, please
refer to Signals and Systems with MATLAB Computing and Simulink Modeling , ISBN 0−9744239−9−8.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Simulink

1--- di
------L- = ( – 1 )i L – v C + 1
4 dt
or
di L
------- = – 4i L – 4v C + 4 (1.19)
dt

Next, we define the state variables x 1 = i L and x 2 = v C . Then,

di
x· 1 = ------L- * (1.20)
dt
and
dv
x· 2 = --------C- (1.21)
dt
Also,
dv
i L = C --------C-
dt
and thus,
dv 4
x 1 = i L = C --------C- = Cx· 2 = --- x· 2
dt 3
or
3
x· 2 = --- x 1 (1.22)
4
Therefore, from (1.19), (1.20), and (1.22), we obtain the state equations
x· 1 = – 4x 1 – 4x 2 + 4
3
x· 2 = --- x 1
4
and in matrix form,
x· 1
= –4 –4 1 + 4 u0 ( t )
x
(1.23)
x· 2 3 ⁄ 4 0 x2 0

Solution† of (1.23) yields

–t – 3t
x1
= e –e
x2 –t – 3t
1 – 0.75 e + 0.25e
Then,
–t – 3t
x1 = iL = e –e (1.24)

* The notation x· (x dot) is often used to denote the first derivative of the function x , that is, x· = dx ⁄ dt .
† The detailed solution of (1.23) is given in Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, ISBN 0−
9744239−9−8, Chapter 5.

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 Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB
and –t – 3t
x 2 = v C = 1 – 0.75e + 0.25e (1.25)

Modeling the Differential Equation of Example 1.1 with Simulink

To run Simulink, we must first invoke MATLAB. Make sure that Simulink is installed in your sys-
tem. At the MATLAB command prompt (>>), we type:
simulink
Alternately, we can click the Simulink icon shown in Figure 1.3. It appears on the top bar on the
MATLAB Command Window.

Figure 1.3. The Simulink icon

Upon execution of the Simulink command, the Commonly Used Blocks are shown in Figure
1.4.
In Figure 1.4, the left side is referred to as the Tree Pane and displays all Simulink libraries
installed. The right side is referred to as the Contents Pane and displays the blocks that reside in
the library currently selected in the Tree Pane.

Let us express the differential equation of Example 1.1 as

2
d vC dv
----------- = – 4 --------C- – 3v C + 3u 0 ( t ) (1.26)
dt
2 dt

A block diagram representing (1.26) is shown in Figure 1.5. Now, we will use Simulink to draw a
similar block diagram.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Simulink

Figure 1.4. The Simulink Library Browser

2
d vC
----------- dv C
2 ---------
dt
u0 ( t ) 3 Σ ∫ dt
dt
∫ dt vC

−4

−3

Figure 1.5. Block diagram for equation (1.26)

To model the differential equation (1.26) using Simulink, we perform the following steps:

1. On the Simulink Library Browser, we click the leftmost icon shown as a blank page on
the top title bar. A new model window named untitled will appear as shown in Figure 1.6.

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 Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB

Figure 1.6. The Untitled model window in Simulink.

The window of Figure 1.6 is the model window where we enter our blocks to form a block dia-
gram. We save this as model file name Equation_1_26. This is done from the File drop menu of
Figure 1.6 where we choose Save as and name the file as Equation_1_26. Simulink will add the
extension .mdl. The new model window will now be shown as Equation_1_26, and all saved
files will have this appearance. See Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7. Model window for Equation_1_26.mdl file

2. With the Equation_1_26 model window and the Simulink Library Browser both visible, we
click the Sources appearing on the left side list, and on the right side we scroll down until we
see the unit step function block shown as Step block. See Figure 1.8. We select it, and we drag
it into the Equation_1_26 model window which now appears as shown in Figure 1.8. We save
file Equation_1_26 using the File drop menu on the Equation_1_26 model window (right side
of Figure 1.8).
3. With reference to block diagram of Figure 1.5, we observe that we need to connect an ampli-
fier with Gain 3 to the unit step function block. The Gain block in Simulink is under Com-
monly Used Blocks (first item under Simulink on the Simulink Library Browser). See Figure
1.8. If the Equation_1_26 model window is no longer visible, it can be recalled by clicking on
the white page icon on the top bar of the Simulink Library Browser.
4. We choose the Gain block and we drag it to the right of the Step block (unit step function) as
shown in Figure 1.9. The triangle on the right side of the unit step function block and the >
symbols on the left and right sides of the gain block are connection points. We point the
mouse close to the connection point of the unit step function until is shows as a cross hair, and
draw a straight line to connect the two blocks. We double−click the Gain block and on the
Function Block Parameters, we change the gain from unity to 3. See Figure 1.10.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Simulink

Figure 1.8. Dragging the unit step function into File Equation_1_26

Figure 1.9. File Equation_1_26 with added Step and Gain blocks
5. Next, we need to add a thee−input adder. The adder block appears on the right side of the
Simulink Library Browser under Math Operations. We select it, and we drag it into the
Equation_1_26 model window. We double click it, and on the Function Block Parameters
window which appears, we specify 3 inputs. We then connect the output of the Step block to
the input of the Gain block, and the output of the of the Gain block to the first input of the
Add block as shown in Figure 1.10.

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 Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB

Figure 1.10. File Equation_1_26 with added Add block and connections between the blocks
6. From the Commonly Used Blocks of the Simulink Library Browser, we choose the Integra-
tor block, we drag it into the Equation_1_26 model window, and we connect it to the output
of the Add block. We repeat this step and to add a second Integrator block. We click the text
“Integrator” under the first integrator block, and we change it to Integrator 1. Then, we
change the text “Integrator 1” under the second Integrator to “Integrator 2” as shown in Fig-
ure 1.11.

Figure 1.11. File Equation_1_26 with the addition of two integrators

7. To complete the model to represent the block diagram in Figure 1.5, we add the Scope block
which is found in the Commonly Used Blocks on the Simulink Library Browser, we click
the Gain block, and we copy and paste it twice. We flip the pasted Gain blocks by using the
Flip Block command from the Format drop menu, and we label these as Gain 2 and Gain 3.
Finally, we double−click these gain blocks and in the Function Block Parameters dialog box,
we change the gains in Gain 2 and Gain 3 blocks from unity to −4 and −3 as shown in Figure
1.12.

Figure 1.12. File Equation_1_26 complete block diagram

dv
8. The initial conditions i L ( 0 − ) = C --------C- −
= 0 , and v c ( 0 ) = 0.5 V are entered by double−
dt t=0
clicking the Integrator blocks and entering the values 0 for the first integrator, and 0.5 for the
second integrator. To obtain a true picture of the output (voltage across the capacitor), we

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Simulink

double−click the Unit block and in the Source Block Parameters window we change the
Step time value from 1 to 0. We leave all other parameters in their default state. We also need
to specify the simulation time. This is done by specifying the simulation time to be 10 seconds
on the Configuration Parameters from the Simulation drop menu. We can start the simula-

tion on Start from the Simulation drop menu or by clicking the icon.
9. To see the output waveform, we double click the Scope block, and then clicking on the

Autoscale icon. Then we right−click near the vertical axis, we click on Axes properties,
we specify Y−min =0, Y−max = 1.5, we click OK, and we obtain the waveform shown in Fig-
ure 1.13. Henceforth, we will use this procedure to scale the vertical axis in our subsequent
Scope block displays.

Figure 1.13. The waveform for the function v C ( t ) in Example 1.1

Another easier method to obtain and display the output v C ( t ) for Example 1.1, is to use State−
Space block from Continuous in the Simulink Library Browser, as shown in Figure 1.14.

Figure 1.14. Obtaining the function v C ( t ) for Example 1.1 with the State−Space block.

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 Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB
The simout To Workspace block shown in Figure 1.14 writes its input to the workspace. In this
example, we have assigned the name Example_1_1 to it, and Simulink appends it with the .mat
extension. As we know from our MATLAB studies, the data and variables created in the MAT-
LAB Command window, reside in the MATLAB Workspace. This block writes its output to an
array or structure that has the name specified by the block's Variable name parameter. It is highly
recommended that this block is included in the saved model. This gives us the ability to delete or
modify selected variables at a later time. To see what variables reside in the MATLAB Work-
space, we issue the command who or whos.*
From Equation 1.23,
x· 1
= –4 –4 1 + 4 u0 ( t )
x
x· 2 3 ⁄ 4 0 x2 0
The output equation is
y = Cx + du
or
x1
y = [0 1] + [ 0 ]u
x2

We double−click the State−Space block, and in the Functions Block Parameters window we
enter the constants shown in Figure 1.15.

Figure 1.15. The Function block parameters for the State−Space block.

* who displays only the variables names, not the function to which each variable belongs. whos lists
more information about each variable.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Simulink

The initials conditions [ x1 x2 ]' are specified at the MATLAB command prompt as
x1=0; x2=0.5;

As before, to start the simulation we click the icon, and to see the output waveform, we dou-

ble click the Scope block. Then we click on the Autoscale icon, and we scale the vertical
axis as we did with the waveform of Figure 1.13. The waveform shown in Figure 1.16.

Figure 1.16. The waveform for the function v C ( t ) for Example 1.1 with the State−Space block.

The state−space block is the best choice when we need to display the output waveform of three or
more variables as illustrated by the following example.

Example 1.2
A fourth−order network is described by the differential equation
4 3 2
d y d y d y dy
--------- + a 3 --------3- + a 2 -------2- + a 1 ------ + a 0 y ( t ) = u ( t ) (1.27)
dt
4
dt dt dt

where y ( t ) is the output representing the voltage or current of the network, and u ( t ) is any input,
and the initial conditions are y ( 0 ) = y' ( 0 ) = y'' ( 0 ) = y''' ( 0 ) = 0 .
a. We will express (1.27) as a set of state equations

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 Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB
b. It is known that the solution of the differential equation
4 2
d y d y
-------- + 2 -------2- + y ( t ) = sin t (1.28)
4
dt dt

subject to the initial conditions y ( 0 ) = y' ( 0 ) = y'' ( 0 ) = y''' ( 0 ) = 0 , has the solution
2
y ( t ) = 0.125 [ ( 3 – t ) – 3t cos t ] (1.29)
In our set of state equations, we will select appropriate values for the coefficients
a 3, a 2, a 1, and a 0 so that the new set of the state equations will represent the differential equa-
tion of (1.28) and using Simulink, we will display the waveform of the output y ( t ) .
1. The differential equation of (1.28) is of fourth−order; therefore, we must define four state vari-
ables that will be used with the four first−order state equations.
We denote the state variables as x 1, x 2, x 3 , and x 4 , and we relate them to the terms of the
given differential equation as
2 3
dy d y d y
x1 = y ( t ) x 2 = ------ x 3 = --------- x 4 = --------- (1.30)
dt 2 3
dt dt
We observe that
x· 1 = x 2
x· 2 = x 3
x· 3 = x 4 (1.31)
4
d y
--------- = x· 4 = – a 0 x 1 – a 1 x 2 – a 2 x 3 – a 3 x 4 + u ( t )
4
dt
and in matrix form
x· 1 0 1 0 0 x1 0
x· 2 0 0 1 0 x2
= + 0 u(t) (1.32)
x· 3 0 0 0 1 x3 0
x· 4 –a0 –a1 –a2 –a3 x4 1

In compact form, (1.32) is written as

x· = Ax + bu (1.33)
Also, the output is
y = Cx + du (1.34)
where

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Simulink

x· 1 0 1 0 0 x1 0
x· 2 0 0 1 0 x2
x· = , A= , x= , b= 0, and u = u ( t ) (1.35)
x· 3 0 0 0 1 x3 0
x· 4 –a0 –a1 –a2 –a3 x4 1

and since the output is defined as

y ( t ) = x1
relation (1.34) is expressed as

x1
x2
y = [1 0 0 0] ⋅ + [ 0 ]u ( t ) (1.36)
x3
x4

2. By inspection the differential equation of (1.27) will be reduced to the differential equation of
(1.28) if we let
a3 = 0 a2 = 2 a1 = 0 a0 = 1 u ( t ) = sin t

and thus the differential equation of (1.28) can be expressed in state−space form as

x· 1 0 1 0 0 x1 0
x· 2 0 0 1 0 x2
= + 0 sin t (1.37)
x· 3 0 0 0 1 x3 0
x· 4 –a0 0 –2 0 x4 1

where
x· 1 0 1 0 0 x1 0
x· 2 0 0 1 0 x2
x· = , A= , x= , b= 0, and u = sin t (1.38)
x· 3 0 0 0 1 x3 0
x· 4 –a0 0 –2 0 x4 1

Since the output is defined as

y ( t ) = x1
in matrix form it is expressed as

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 Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB

x1
x2
y = [1 0 0 0] ⋅ + [ 0 ] sin t (1.39)
x3
x4

We invoke MATLAB, we start Simulink by clicking on the Simulink icon, on the Simulink
Library Browser, we click the Create a new model (blank page icon on the left of the top
bar), and we save this model as Example_1_2. On the Simulink Library Browser we select
Sources, we drag the Signal Generator block on the Example_1_2 model window, we click
and drag the State−Space block from the Continuous on Simulink Library Browser, and we
click and drag the Scope block from the Commonly Used Blocks on the Simulink Library
Browser. We also add the Display block found under Sinks on the Simulink Library
Browser. We connect these four blocks and the complete block diagram is as shown in Figure
1.17.

Figure 1.17. Model for Example 1.2 with the entries specified below
We now double−click the Signal Generator block and we enter the following in the Function
Block Parameters dialog box the following:
Wave form: sine
Time (t): Use simulation time
Amplitude: 1
Frequency: 2
Units: Hertz
Next, we double−click the State−Space block and we enter the following parameter values in
the Function Block Parameters:
A: [0 1 0 0; 0 0 1 0; 0 0 0 1; −a0 −a1 −a2 −a3]
B: [0 0 0 1]’
C: [1 0 0 0]
D: [0]
Initial conditions: x0
Absolute tolerance: auto

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Simulink

Now, we switch to the MATLAB Command window and at the command prompt we type the
following values:
a0=1; a1=0; a2=2; a3=0; x0=[0 0 0 0]’;

We change the Simulation Stop time to 25 , and we start the simulation by clicking on the
icon. To see the output waveform, we double− click the Scope block, then we click the

Autoscale icon, and we obtain the waveform shown in Figure 1.18.

Figure 1.18. Waveform for Example 1.2

The Display block in Figure 1.17 shows the value at the end of the simulation stop time.

Examples 1.1 and 1.2 have clearly illustrated that the State−Space is indeed a powerful block. We
could have also obtained the solution of Example 1.2 using four Integrator blocks.

Example 1.3
We will create a model that will produce the simultaneous solution of three equations with three
unknowns using Algebraic Constraint blocks found in the Math Operations library, Display
blocks found in the Sinks library, and Gain blocks found in the Commonly Used Blocks library.
The model will display the values for the unknowns z 1 , z 2 , and z 3 for the system of the equations

a1 z1 + a2 z2 + a3 z3 + k1 = 0
a4 z1 + a5 z2 + a6 z3 + k2 = 0 (1.40)
a7 z1 + a8 z2 + a9 z3 + k3 = 0

The model is shown in Figure 1.19.

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 Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB

Figure 1.19. Model for Example 1.3 with the entries specified below
Next, at the MATLAB command prompt we enter the following values:
a1=2; a2=−3; a3=−1; a4=1; a5=5; a6=4; a7=−6; a8=1; a9=2;...
k1=−8; k2=−7; k3=5;
After clicking on the simulation icon, we obtain the values of the unknowns as z 1 = 2 , z 2 = – 3 ,
and z 3 = 5 as shown in the Display blocks in Figure 1.19.

An Algebraic Constraint block constrains the input signal f ( z ) to zero, outputs a value for z ,
and this value eventually produces a zero at the input. Thus, output is fed back to the input via a
feedback path. We can improve the efficiency of the algebraic loop solver by providing an initial
guess for the algebraic state z that is close to the final solution value. By default, the initial guess
value is zero.

An outstanding feature in Simulink is the representation of a large model consisting of many

blocks and lines, to be shown as a single Subsystem block.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Simulink

For instance, to group all blocks and lines in the model of Figure 1.19 except the display blocks,
from the Edit drop menu we choose Create Subsystem and this model will be shown as in Figure
1.20* where at the MATLAB command prompt we have entered the following values:
a1=5; a2=−1; a3=4; a4=11; a5=6; a6=9; a7=−8; a8=4; a9=15;...
k1=14; k2=−6; k3=9;

Figure 1.20. The model in Figure 1.19 represented as a subsystem

The Display blocks in Figure 1.20 show the values of z 1 , z 2 , and z 3 for the values that we speci-
fied at the MATLAB command prompt above.
The Subsystem block is described in detail in Chapter 2, Section 2.1, Page 2−2.
1.2 Simulink Demos
At this time, the reader with no prior knowledge of Simulink, should be ready to learn Simulink’s
additional capabilities. We will explore other features in the subsequent chapters. However, it is
highly recommended that the reader becomes familiar with the block libraries found in the Sim-
ulink Library Browser. Then, the reader can follow the steps delineated in The MathWorks Sim-
ulink User’s Manual to run the Demo Models beginning with the thermo model. This model can
invoked by typing thermo at the MATLAB command prompt.
In the subsequent chapters, we will study each of the blocks under each of libraries in the Tree
Pane. They are listed in Table 1.1 below in alphabetical order, the library where they appear, the
chapter where they are described in this text, section/subsection, and page number in which they
are described.

* The contents of the Subsystem block are not lost. We can double−click on the Subsystem block to see its con-
tents. The Subsystem block replaces the inputs and outputs of the model with Inport and Outport blocks. These
blocks along with the Subsystem block are described in Section 2.1, Chapter 2, Page 2−2.

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 Simulink Demos

TABLE 1.1 Simulink blocks

Block Name Library Chapter Section/Subsection Page
Abs Math Operations Group 8 8.1.14 8−10
Add Math Operations Group 8 8.1.2 8−2
Algebraic Constraint Math Operations Group 8 8.1.23 8−18
Assertion Model Verification 9 9.9 9−12
Assignment Vector / Matrix Operations 8 8.2.1 8−19
Atomic Subsystem Ports & Subsystems 11 11.5 11−4
Averaging Power Spectral Simulink Extras 19 19.3.2 19−37
Density
Averaging Spectrum Analyzer Simulink Extras 19 19.3.2 19−41
Auto Correlator Simulink Extras 19 19.3.6 19−45
Backlash Discontinuities 4 4.7 4−9
Band−Limited White Noise Signal Generators 15 15.2.12 15−17
Bias Math Operations Group 8 8.1.5 8−4
Bit Clear Bit Operations Group 6 6.2.2 6−13
Bit Set Bit Operations Group 6 6.2.1 6−12
Bitwise Operator Bit Operations Group 6 6.2.3 6−14
Block Support Table Modeling Guides 10 10.3 10−9
Bus Assignment Signal Routing Group 13 13.1.3 13−2
Bus Creator Commonly Used blocks 2 2.6 2−8
Bus Selector Commonly Used blocks 2 2.6 2−8
Bus-to-Vector Signal Attrinutes 12 12.1.10 12−12
Cartesian to Polar Simulink Extras 19 19.6.2 19−60
Cartesian to Spherical Simulink Extras 19 19.6.4 19−62
Celsius to Fahrenheit Simulink Extras 19 19.6.6 19−64
Check Discrete Gradient Model Verification 9 9.10 9−13
Check Dynamic Gap Model Verification 9 9.8 9−10
Check Dynamic Lower Bound Model Verification 9 9.5 9−6
Check Dynamic Range Model Verification 9 9.7 9−9
Check Dynamic Upper Bound Model Verification 9 9.6 9−8
Check Input Resolution Model Verification 9 9.11 9−14
Check Static Gap Model Verification 9 9.4 9−5
Check Static Lower Bound Model Verification 9 9.1 9−2
Check Static Range Model Verification 9 9.3 9−4
Check Static Upper Bound Model Verification 9 9.2 9−3
Chirp Signal Signal Generators 15 15.2.9 15−14
Clock Signal Generators 15 15.2.17 15−26
Simulink Extras 19 19.4.1 19−48
CodeReuse Subsystem Ports & Subsystems 11 11.6 11−9
Combinational Logic Logic Operations Group 6 6.1.5 6−4
Compare To Constant Logic Operations Group 6 6.1.7 6−10

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Simulink

TABLE 1.1 Simulink blocks

(con’t)
Block Name Library Chapter Section/Subsection Page
Compare To Zero Logic Operations Group 6 6.1.6 6−9
Complex to Magnitude−Angle Complex Vector Conversions Group 8 8.3.1 8−26
Complex to Real−Imag Complex Vector Conversions Group 8 8.3.3 8−28
Configurable Subsystem Ports & Subsystems 11 11.8 11−19
Constant Commonly Used blocks 2 2.4 2−6
Cosine Lookup Tables 7 7.8 7−17
Coulomb and Viscous Friction Discontinuities 4 4.11 4−14
Cross Correlator Simulink Extras 19 19.3.5 19−43
Counter Free−Running Signal Generators 15 15.2.16 15−24
Counter Limited Signal Generators 15 15.2.15 15−25
D Flip Flop Simulink Extras 19 19.4.4 19−51
D Latch Simulink Extras 19 19.4.2 19−49
Data Store Memory Signal Storage and Access Group 13 13.2.2 13−19
Data Store Read Signal Storage and Access Group 13 13.2.1 13−18
Data Store Write Signal Storage and Access Group 13 13.2.3 13−19
Data Type Conversion Commonly Used blocks 2 2.17 2−32
Data Type Conversion Signal Attribute Manipulation 12 12.1.5 12−5
Inherited
Data Type Duplicate Signal Attribute Manipulation 12 12.1.2 12−2
Data Type Propagation Signal Attribute Manipulation 12 12.1.3 12−4
Data Type Propagation Signal Attribute Manipulation 12 12.1.10 12−14
Examples
Data Type Scaling Strip Signal Attribute Manipulation 12 12.1.4 12−5
Dead Zone Discontinuities 4 4.3 4−4
Dead Zone Dynamic Discontinuities 4 4.4 4−5
Decrement Real World Increment / Decrement 18 18.2 18−3
Decrement Stored Integer Increment / Decrement 18 18.4 18−5
Decrement Time To Zero Increment / Decrement 18 18.6 18−7
Decrement To Zero Increment / Decrement 18 18.5 18−6
Degrees to Radians Simulink Extras 19 19.6.7 19−65
Demux Commonly Used blocks 2 2.7 2−12
Derivative Continuous−Time Linear Systems 3 3.1.2 3−2
Detect Change Edge Detection Group 6 6.3.3 6−21
Detect Decrease Edge Detection Group 6 6.3.2 6−20
Detect Fall Negative Edge Detection Group 6 6.3.6 6−24
Detect Fall Nonpositive Edge Detection Group 6 6.3.7 6−25
Detect Increase Edge Detection Group 6 6.3.1 6−18
Detect Rise Nonnegative Edge Detection Group 6 6.3.5 6−23

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 Simulink Demos
TABLE 1.1 Simulink blocks
(con’t)
Block Name Library Chapter Section/Subsection Page
Detect Rise Positive Edge Detection Group 6 6.3.4 6−22
Difference Discrete−Time Linear Systems 5 5.1.8 5−9
Digital Clock Signal Generators 15 15.2.18 15−27
Direct Lookup Table (n−D) Lookup Tables 7 7.6 7−10
Discrete Derivative Discrete−Time Linear Systems 5 5.1.9 5−10
Discrete Filter Discrete−Time Linear Systems 5 5.1.6 5−5
Discrete FIR Filter Discrete−Time Linear Systems 5 5.1.14 5-19
Discrete State−Space Discrete−Time Linear Systems 5 5.1.10 5−11
Discrete Time Integrator Commonly Used blocks 2 2.16 2−29
Discrete Transfer Fcn Discrete−Time Linear Systems 5 5.1.5 5−4
Discrete Transfer Fcn Simulink Extras 19 19.1.2 19-5
(with initial outputs)
Discrete Transfer Fcn Simulink Extras 19 19.1.1 19-2
(with initial states)
Discrete Zero−Pole Discrete−Time Linear Systems 5 5.1.7 5−8
Discrete Zero−Pole Simulink Extras 19 19.1.4 19-12
(with initial outputs)
Discrete Zero−Pole Simulink Extras 19 19.1.3 19-8
(with initial states)
Display Data Viewers 14 14.2.4 14−16
Divide Math Operations Group 8 8.1.10 8−7
Doc Text (DocBlock) Documentation 10 10.2.2 10−9
Dot Product Math Operations Group 8 8.1.12 8−8
Embedded MATLAB User−Defined Functions 16 16.3 16−3
Function
Enable Ports & Subsystems 11 11.3 11−2
Enabled and Triggered Ports & Subsystems 11 11.11 11−30
Subsystem
Enabled Subsystem Ports & Subsystems 11 11.10 11−27
Environment Controller Signal Routing Group 13 13.1.9 13−10
Extract Bits Bit Operations Group 6 6.2.5 6−17
Fahrenheit to Celsius Simulink Extras 19 19.6.5 19−63
Fcn User−Defined Functions 16 16.1 16−2
First−Order Hold Sample & Hold Delays 5 5.2.2 5−22
Fixed−Point State−Space Additional Discrete 17 17.3 17−4
Floating Bar Plot Simulink Extras 19 19.3.7 19−46
Floating Scope Data Viewers 14 14.2.2 14−8
For Iterator Subsystem Ports & Subsystems 11 11.13 11−37
From Signal Routing Group 13 13.1.13 13−14
From File Models and Subsystems Inputs 15 15.1.3 15−2

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Simulink

TABLE 1.1 Simulink blocks

(con’t)
Block Name Library Chapter Section/Subsection Page
From Workspace Models and Subsystems Inputs 15 15.1.4 15−2
Function−Call Generator Ports & Subsystems 11 11.4 11−3
Function−Call Subsystem Ports & Subsystems 11 11.12 11−34
Gain Commonly Used blocks 2 2.10 2−18
Goto Signal Routing Group 13 13.1.15 13−16
Goto Tag Visibility Signal Routing Group 13 13.1.14 13−15
Ground Commonly Used blocks 2 2.2 2−4
Hit Crossing Discontinuities 4 4.10 4−13
IC (Initial Condition) Signal Attribute Manipulation 12 12.1.6 12−6
If Ports & Subsystems 11 11.15 11−41
If Action Subsystem Ports & Subsystems 11 11.15 11−41
Increment Real World Increment / Decrement 18 18.1 18−2
Increment Stored Integer Increment / Decrement 18 18.3 18−4
Index Vector Signal Routing Group 13 13.1.7 13−8
Inport Commonly Used blocks 2 2.1 2−2
Integer Delay Discrete−Time Linear Systems 5 5.1.2 5−2
Integrator Commonly Used blocks 2 2.14 2−22
Interpolation (n−D) Using Lookup Tables 7 7.5 7−8
PreLookup
Interval Test Logic Operations Group 6 6.1.3 6−2
Interval Test Dynamic Logic Operations Group 6 6.1.4 6−3
J−K Flip Flop Simulink Extras 19 19.4.5 19−52
Level−2 M−File S−Function User−Defined Functions 16 16.5 16−7
Logical Operator Commonly Used blocks 2 2.12 2−20
Lookup Table Lookup Tables 7 7.1 7−2
Lookup Table (2−D) Lookup Tables 7 7.2 7−3
Lookup Table (n−D) Lookup Tables 7 7.3 7−6
Lookup Table Dynamic Lookup Tables 7 7.7 7−16
Magnitude−Angle to Complex Complex Vector Conversions Group 8 8.3.2 8−27
Manual Switch Signal Routing Group 13 13.1.10 13−12
Math Function Math Operations Group 8 8.1.16 8−11
MATLAB Fcn User−Defined Functions 16 16.2 16−3
Matrix Concatenate Vector / Matrix Operations 8 8.2.3 8−23
Memory Sample & Hold Delays 5 5.2.1 5−21
Merge Signal Routing Group 13 13.1.8 13−8
MinMax Math Operations Group 8 8.1.19 8−14
MinMax Running Resettable Math Operations Group 8 8.1.20 8−15

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 Simulink Demos
TABLE 1.1 Simulink blocks
(con’t)
Block Name Library Chapter Section/Subsection Page
Model Ports & Subsystems 11 11.7 11−17
Model Info Documentation 10 10.2.1 10−7
Multiport Switch Signal Routing Group 13 13.1.11 13−13
Mux Commonly Used blocks 2 2.7 2−12
Outport Commonly Used blocks 2 2.1 2− 2
Permute Math Operations Group 8 8.2.6 8−25
PID Controller Simulink Extras 19 19.2.6 19−29
PID Controller (with Simulink Extras 19 19.2.7 19−31
approximate derivative)
Polar to Cartesian Simulink Extras 19 19.6.1 19−59
Polynomial Math Operations Group 8 8.1.18 8−14
Power Spectral Density Simulink Extras 19 19.3.1 19−33
Prelookup Index Search Lookup Tables 7 7.4 7−7
Probe Signal Attribute Detection 12 12.2.1 12−17
Product Commonly Used blocks 2 2.4 2−6
Product of Elements Math Operations Group 8 8.1.11 8−7
Pulse Generator Signal Generators 15 15.2.3 15−5
Quantizer Discontinuities 4 4.9 4−12
Radians to Degrees Simulink Extras 19 19.6.8 19−65
Ramp Signal Generators 15 15.2.5 15−9
Random Number Signal Generators 15 15.2.10 15−15
Rate Limiter Discontinuities 4 4.5 4− 6
Rate Limiter Dynamic Discontinuities 4 4.6 4−8
Rate Transition Signal Attribute Manipulation 12 12.1.8 12−8
Real−Imag to Complex Complex Vector Conversions Group 8 8.3.4 8−29
Relational Operator Commonly Used blocks 2 2.11 2−19
Relay Discontinuities 4 4.8 4−11
Repeating Sequence Signal Generators 15 15.2.8 15−13
Repeating Sequence Signal Generators 15 15.2.14 15−22
Interpolated
Repeating Sequence Stair Signal Generators 15 15.2.13 15−22
Reshape Vector / Matrix Operations 8 8.2.2 8−21
Rounding Function Math Operations Group 8 8.1.17 8−13
S−Function Ports & Subsystems 11 11.18 11−49
User−Defined Functions 16 16.4 16−7
S−Function Builder User−Defined Functions 16 16.6 16−11
S−Function Examples User−Defined Functions 16 16.7 16−11
S−R Flip Flop Simulink Extras 19 19.4.3 19−50

Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition 1−25

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Simulink

TABLE 1.1 Simulink blocks

(con’t)
Block Name Library Chapter Section/Subsection Page
Saturation Commonly Used blocks 2 2.13 2−21
Discontinuities 4 4.1 4−2
Saturation Dynamic Discontinuities 4 4.2 4−3
Scope Data Viewers 14 14.2.1 14−6
Selector Signal Routing Group 13 13.1.6 13−6
Shift Arithmetic Bit Operations Group 6 6.2.4 6−16
Sign Math Operations Group 8 8.1.13 8−9
Signal Builder Signal Generators 15 15.2.4 15−6
Signal Conversion Signal Attribute Manipulation 12 12.1.7 12−7
Signal Generator Signal Generators 15 15.2.2 15−4
Signal Specification Signal Attribute Manipulation 12 12.1.9 12−11
Sine Lookup Tables 7 7.8 7−17
Sine Wave Signal Generators 15 15.2.6 15−9
Sine Wave Function Math Operations Group 8 8.1.22 8−17
Slider Gain Math Operations Group 8 8.1.8 8−6
Spectrum Analyzer Simulink Extras 19 19.33 19−38
Spherical to Cartesian Simulink Extras 19 19.6.3 19−61
Squeeze Math Operations Group 8 8.2.3 8−21
State−Space Continuous−Time Linear Systems 3 3.1.3 3−7
State−Space (with initial Simulink Extras 19 19.2.5 19−27
outputs)
Step Signal Generators 15 15.2.7 15−12
Stop Simulation Simulation Control 14 14.3 14−17
Subsystem Commonly Used blocks 2 2.1 2−2
Subsystem Examples Ports & Subsystems 11 11.17 11−46
Subtract Math Operations Group 8 8.1.3 8−3
Sum Commonly Used blocks 2 2.9 2−17
Sum of Elements Math Operations Group 8 8.1.4 8−4
Switch Commonly Used blocks 2 2.8 2−15
Switch Case Ports & Subsystems 11 11.16 11−43
Switch Case Action Subsystem Ports & Subsystems 11 11.16 11−43
Switched Derivative for Simulink Extras 19 19.5.1 19−53
Linearization
Switched Transport Delay for Simulink Extras 19 19.5.2 19−56
Linearization
Tapped Delay Discrete−Time Linear Systems 5 5.1.3 5−3

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 Simulink Demos
TABLE 1.1 Simulink blocks
(con’t)
Block Name Library Chapter Section/Subsection Page
Terminator Commonly Used blocks 2 2.3 2−5
Time−Based Linearization Linearization of Running Models 10 10.1.2 10−4
To File Model and Subsystem Outputs 14 14.1.3 14−2
To Workspace Model and Subsystem Outputs 14 14.1.4 14−4
Transfer Fcn Continuous−Time Linear Systems 3 3.1.4 3−7
Transfer Fcn Direct Form II Additional Discrete 17 17.1 17−2
Transfer Fcn Direct Form II Additional Discrete 17 17.2 17−3
Time Varying
Transfer Fcn First Order Discrete−Time Linear Systems 5 5.1.11 5−14
Transfer Fcn Lead or Lag Discrete−Time Linear Systems 5 5.1.12 5−15
Transfer Fcn Real Zero Discrete−Time Linear Systems 5 5.1.13 5−18
Transfer Fcn Simulink Extras 19 19.2.2 19-21
(with initial outputs)
Transfer Fcn Simulink Extras 19 19.2.1 19-18
(with initial states)
Transport Delay Continuous−Time Delay 3 3.2.1 3−11
Trigger Ports & Subsystems 11 11.2 11−2
Trigger−Based Linearization Linearization of Running Models 10 10.1.1 10−2
Triggered Subsystem Ports & Subsystems 11 11.9 11−25
Trigonometric Function Math Operations Group 8 8.1.21 8−16
Unary Minus Math Operations Group 8 8.1.15 8−11
Uniform Random Number Signal Generators 15 15.2.11 15−16
Unit Delay Commonly Used blocks 2 2.15 2−27
Unit Delay Enabled Additional Discrete 17 17.7 17−9
Unit Delay Enabled Additional Discrete 17 17.9 17−12
External IC
Unit Delay Enabled Resettable Additional Discrete 17 17.8 17−11
Unit Delay Enabled Resettable Additional Discrete 17 17.10 17−13
External IC
Unit Delay External IC Additional Discrete 17 17.4 17−6
Unit Delay Resettable Additional Discrete 17 17.5 17−7
Unit Delay Resettable Additional Discrete 17 17.6 17−8
External IC
Unit Delay With Preview Additional Discrete 17 17.13 17−17
Enabled
Unit Delay With Preview Additional Discrete 17 17.14 17−19
Enabled Resettable
Unit Delay With Preview Additional Discrete 17 17.15 17−20
Enabled Resettable External RV

Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition 1−27

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Simulink

TABLE 1.1 Simulink blocks

(con’t)
Block Name Library Chapter Section/Subsection Page
Unit Delay With Preview Additional Discrete 17 17.11 17−15
Resettable
Unit Delay With Preview Additional Discrete 17 17.12 17−16
Resettable External RV
Variable Time Delay Continuous−Time Delay 3 3.2.2 3−12
Variable Transport Delay Continuous−Time Delay 3 3.2.3 3−13
Vector Concatenate Vector / Matrix Operations 8 8.2.4 8−24
Weighted Sample Time Signal Attribute Detection 12 12.2.2 12−18
Weighted Sample Time Math Math Operations Group 8 8.1.6 8−5
While Iterator Subsystem Ports & Subsystems 11 11.14 11−39
Width Signal Attribute Detection 12 12.2.3 12−19
Wrap To Zero Discontinuities 4 4.12 4−16
XY Graph Data Viewers 14 14.2.3 14−12
Zero−Order Hold Sample & Hold Delays 5 5.2.3 5−23
Zero−Pole Continuous−Time Linear Systems 3 3.1.5 3−9
Zero−Pole (with initial outputs) Simulink Extras 19 19.2.4 19−26
Zero−Pole (with initial states) Simulink Extras 19 19.2.3 19−23

1−28 Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition

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 Summary
1.3 Summary
• MATLAB and Simulink are integrated and thus we can analyze, simulate, and revise our mod-
els in either environment at any point. We invoke Simulink from within MATLAB.
• When Simulink is invoked, the Simulink Library Browser appears. The left side is referred to as
the Tree Pane and displays all libraries installed. The right side is referred to as the Contents
Pane and displays the blocks that reside in the library currently selected in the Tree Pane.
• We open a new model window by clicking on the blank page icon that appears on the leftmost
position of the top title bar. On the Simulink Library Browser, we highlight the desired library
in the Tree Pane, and on the Contents Pane we click and drag the desired block into the new
model. Once saved, the model window assumes the name of the file saved. Simulink adds the
extension .mdl.
• The > and < symbols on the left and right sides of a block are connection points.
• We can change the parameters of any block by double−clicking it, and making changes in the
Function Block Parameters window.
• We can specify the simulation time on the Configuration Parameters from the Simulation
drop menu. We can start the simulation on Start from the Simulation drop menu or by click-

ing on the icon. To see the output waveform, we double click on the Scope block, and

then clicking on the Autoscale icon.

• It is highly recommended that the simout To Workspace block be added to the model so all
data and variables are saved in the MATLAB workspace. This gives us the ability to delete or
modify selected variables at a later time. To see what variables reside in the MATLAB Work-
space, we issue the command who or whos.
• The state−space block is the best choice when we need to display the output waveform of three
or more variables.
• We can use Algebraic Constrain blocks found in the Math Operations library, Display blocks
found in the Sinks library, and Gain blocks found in the Commonly Used Blocks library, to
draw a model that will produce the simultaneous solution of two or more equations with two or
more unknowns.
• The Algebraic Constraint block constrains the input signal f(z) to zero and outputs an alge-
braic state z. The block outputs the value necessary to produce a zero at the input. The output
must affect the input through some feedback path. This enables us to specify algebraic equa-
tions for index 1 differential/algebraic systems (DAEs). By default, the Initial guess parameter
is zero. We can improve the efficiency of the algebraic loop solver by providing an Initial guess
for the algebraic state z that is close to the solution value.

Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition 1−29

Copyright © Orchard Publications
Chapter 1 Introduction to Simulink

1.4 Exercises
1. Use Simulink with the Step function block, the Continuous−Time Transfer Fcn block, and
the Scope block shown, to simulate and display the output waveform v C of the electric RLC
circuit* shown below where u 0 ( t ) is the unit step function, and the initial conditions are
i L ( 0 ) = 0 , and v C ( 0 ) = 0 .

1Ω L C +
+ vC
−
u0 t 1H iL 1F −

2. Repeat Exercise 1 using integrator blocks in lieu of the transfer function block.
3. Repeat Exercise 1 using the State Space block in lieu of the transfer function block.
4. Using the State−Space block, create a model for the differential equation shown below.
2
d v C dv C
----------- + --------- + v C = 2 sin ( t + 30° ) – 5 cos ( t + 60° )
2 dt
dt

subject to the initial conditions v C ( 0 − ) = 0 , and v' C ( 0 − ) = 0.5 V

* The electric circuits presented in this texts can be easily converted to their mechanical equivalent circuits where
a voltage source can be replaced by a force f, a resistor can be replaced by a dashpot B, an inductor can be
replaced by a mass M, and a capacitor can be replaced by an inverse spring constant 1/K. Thus the mechanical
analog of the electric circuit above can be converted to the mechanical system shown below.

1⁄K
B

f
M

x1 x2 x3

1−30 Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition

Copyright © Orchard Publications
 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises
1.5 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises
Dear Reader:
The remaining pages on this chapter contain solutions to all end−of−chapter exercises.
You must, for your benefit, make an honest effort to solve these exercises without first looking at
the solutions that follow. It is recommended that first you go through and solve those you feel that
you know. For your solutions that you are uncertain, look over your procedures for inconsistencies
and computational errors, review the chapter, and try again. Refer to the solutions as a last resort
and rework those problems at a later date.
You should follow this practice with all end−of−chapter exercises in this book.

Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition 1−31

Copyright © Orchard Publications
Chapter 1 Introduction to Simulink

1.
The s−domain equivalent circuit is shown below.

1
1 + +
--- Ls V C ( s ) = V OUT ( s )
s −
V IN ( s ) 1/sC −

and by substitution of the given circuit constants,

1
+
--- +
1
s V C ( s ) = V OUT ( s )
s − 1/s −
V IN ( s )

By the voltage division expression,

(s ⋅ 1 ⁄ s) ⁄ (s + 1 ⁄ s) s
V OUT ( s ) = --------------------------------------------------------- ⋅ V IN ( s ) = ---------------------- ⋅ V IN ( s )
(s ⋅ 1 ⁄ s) ⁄ (s + 1 ⁄ s) + 1 2
s +s+1
from which
V OUT ( s ) s
Transfer function = G ( s ) = --------------------
- = ----------------------
V IN ( s ) 2
s +s+1
We invoke Simulink from the MATLAB environment, we open a new file by clicking on the
blank page icon at the upper left on the task bar, we name this file Exercise_1_1, and from the
Sources, Continuous, and Commonly Used Blocks in the Simulink Library Browser, we
select and interconnect the desired blocks as shown below.

As we know, the unit step function is undefined at t = 0 . Therefore, we double click the Step
block, and in the Source Block Parameters dialog box shown below we enter the values indi-
cated. Likewise, we double click the Transfer Fcn block and in the Source Block Parameters
dialog box we enter the values indicated.

1−32 Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition

Copyright © Orchard Publications
 Solutions to End−of−Chapter Exercises

The model now appears as shown below.

Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, Second Edition 1−33

Copyright © Orchard Publications
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
of solids would by analogy be the result of a four-dimensional
movement."
I need hardly say that if we could experimentally obtain the
changing of an asymmetrical right-handed object into the
corresponding left-handed one it would be of the very first
importance as a proof of the reality of higher space.
Far more important than any of the foregoing, however, are the
considerations arising from what is known as the Principle of
Relativity. This subject, which has received much attention at the
hands of mathematical physicists in recent years, is far too abstruse
to be dealt with in detail here and a partial and popularised account
would almost certainly fail to satisfy those who are not wholly
ignorant of mathematical physics and would weary those who are. I
propose, therefore, to dismiss it in very few words in spite of its
great importance and relevance.
"The Principle of Relativity is the hypothesis that it is impossible by
means of physical experiments to determine the absolute velocity of
a body through space." (Cunningham "Relativity and the Electron
Theory," p. 2).
We cannot, for example, determine the velocity of the earth relative
to the ether.
This is of importance when we are dealing with the idea of
"simultaneity"—an idea which, as we saw in Chapter IV. is closely
associated with our notion of Time. For our criterion of simultaneity
has in practice been based on optical communication. (Cp. Ibid, pp.
5 and 28). But it is easy to show that "the setting up of a standard
of simultaneity by means of light signals is not possible until a
definite velocity is assigned to the observer. Thus the hypothesis of
relativity requires a reconsideration of the way in which we measure
time." (Ibid, pp. 5, 28, 29).
"This again reacts on the measurement of the length of a material
body, the 'distance between two points' being the distance between
simultaneous positions of those points. Thus it becomes necessary
also to examine the way in which we measure space. It becomes
impossible to consider space and time separately; the two measures
are interrelated to such an extent that Minkowski felt himself
constrained to say that 'from henceforth time by itself and space by
itself are mere shadows, that they are only two aspects of a single
and indivisible manner of co-ordinating the facts of the physical
world.'" (Ibid, pp. 5 and 6.)
When it is remembered that the Principle of Relativity is firmly
established in scientific thought it will be realised that this conclusion
arrived at as a result of purely physical considerations is of the very
utmost importance as an independent confirmation of the general
line of thought developed in the preceding pages.
I therefore feel it legitimate to claim that in so far as physical science
throws any light on the subject at all its testimony is distinctly
favourable.
 CHAPTER VII
THE CONNECTING LINK
In the foregoing chapters I have tried to show that there are,
scattered here and there over the field of Psychic Research,
sufficient indications to warrant our adopting, as a tentative working
hypothesis, the idea that four-dimensional space is a reality and that
the Individual consciousness is capable of functioning in a four-
dimensional vehicle quite apart from the three-dimensional physical
body.
I hope that I have made it quite clear that in my opinion the two
vehicles are entirely separate and independent, and that I do not
regard the three-dimensional body as being a mere section of a four-
dimensional whole.
I propose in this chapter to consider in some detail the question of
the nature of the connection which must perforce exist between the
two vehicles.
We know that there must be some form of connection because
impressions which are received by the three-dimensional sense
organs are transmitted to the conscious Ego, which is, ex hypothesi,
embodied in the four-dimensional vehicle.
Furthermore it is clear that the connection can be interrupted with
comparative ease, since in sleep, anæsthesia, and analogous
conditions, the conscious Ego does not receive these impressions
although the sense organs may still be subject to stimuli to a greater
or less degree.
We are not, of course, able to draw detailed conclusions as to the
precise nature of this connection by the exercise of pure deductive
reason.
But I think that my readers will agree with me that the first and
most obvious place to look for it will be in the realm of the nervous
system.
Further we may safely say that, assuming the hypothesis we are
considering to be correct, the sense impression must, at some stage
in its transmission, be deflected, so to speak, out of three space into
four space.
In order for this to happen it is necessary that some part of the
transmitting mechanism should be capable of producing this
deflection and it is reasonable to suppose that a substance or
mechanism specially differentiated for the purpose of deflecting
impressions in this manner out of three space into four space, will be
distinguished by an abnormal four-dimensional complexity as
compared with ordinary matter, which, as we have already seen,
probably possesses a very slight four-dimensional extension.
As a result of this abnormal four-dimensional complexity it is to be
anticipated that the part of the transmitting mechanism concerned
will possess characteristics sufficient to differentiate it from ordinary
matter.
I submit, then, that we may reasonably deduce that if the four-
dimensional hypothesis which I have outlined be correct, there
should exist, either as an integral part of the nervous system or in
close association with it, some constituent or substance which, in
spite of having many of the properties of ordinary matter, will also
possess characteristics peculiar to itself—as, for instance,
susceptibility to four-dimensional forces imperceptible to us.
At this point I would recall to the reader's attention the remarks
which I made in Chapter II regarding the processes of scientific
thought and the sequence of operations whereby we attain to exact
knowledge.
So far we have considered a number of observed facts and framed a
working hypothesis which, I believe, explains some, and is not
contradicted by any, of them.
In the immediately preceding paragraphs we have, by deductive
reasoning, concluded that if this hypothesis be correct then
something else must follow. There must, in fact, be some sort of
connecting link whereby sense impressions are deflected out of
three space into four space and are thus enabled to get through to
the consciousness.
We have also concluded that this connecting link is likely to consist
of matter in some curious condition such as to invest it with
properties unlike those of ordinary matter. If on turning again to the
realm of observation, we find that this deduction is substantiated in
practice, we shall receive distinct confirmation of the correctness of
our working hypothesis.
In the pages which follow I propose to show that there are a
number of facts which strongly indicate, even if they cannot at
present be held conclusively to demonstrate, the existence of some
such connecting link.
I am well aware that there are numerous gaps in the body of
evidence which I shall bring forward on this subject. To some of
these I shall draw specific attention in the hope that by doing so I
may induce some of my readers to experiment on the points in
question. There is an enormous amount of research work to be done
before we shall be able to have any considerable confidence in our
speculations or to feel that we are working on anything like a firm
foundation. Much of the evidence to which I shall refer in this
chapter is in urgent need of confirmation and there is very little
indeed which I should care to guarantee personally. Still the
indications, slight though they are, do seem to point rather in the
same direction and as my object is to stimulate investigation and,
perhaps to indicate some of the lines on which it may profitably
proceed rather than to lay down the law on obscure points, I have
thought it worth while to deal with them fairly fully.
Historically the first relevant experiments were probably those of
Reichenbach in the middle of last century. But so little was known in
those days about a variety of factors which might have vitiated his
results, and his work has been so strongly criticised by later
authorities that I will not do more than mention him for the benefit
of any reader who may have a fancy for probing into the historical
origins of the subject. None the less great credit is due to
Reichenbach for the thorough and painstaking character of his
researches to which he brought immense industry and a truly
scientific spirit which led him to fantastic and erroneous conclusions
only because he had not our present knowledge to guard him from
the many pitfalls which abound in these investigations.
The first phenomena to which I wish to call attention is that known
as Exteriorisation of Sensibility.
This has been investigated by de Rochas and later by Joire and by
Boirac, and I believe it is well established.
The gist of the phenomenon is that in certain hypnotic states the
skin of the subject becomes insensitive to pain but the "sensibility" is
transferred to a sensitive layer a few centimetres distant from the
skin. Pinching or pricking the skin itself produces no effect but doing
so in the region of the sensitive layer arouses the appropriate
sensation in the subject. Furthermore, according to Joire, this
sensibility can be localised and transferred to various objects—a fact
which gives the investigator a most desirable power of experimental
control.
Dr. Joire performed a number of experiments to determine whether
the results could be attributed to auto-suggestion, to unconscious
suggestion by the investigator or to unconscious connivance on the
part of the subject, but concluded that they could not. Any reader
who has doubts on the subject should read his book "Psychical and
Supernormal Phenomena." Dr. Joire was unable to give any
explanation of these phenomena, nor shall I attempt to do so at the
moment beyond pointing out that on the face of it, it looks as if
some definite substance of sensitive properties were exteriorised
which, however, must be supposed to be to some extent under the
control of the will, since it was found that the seat of sensibility
could be shifted at the word of command.
Leaving this for a moment I would draw attention to the subject of
the "aura." Certain persons claim to be able to see this normally as a
regular thing and describe it as being a bluish-grey haze surrounding
the body and at a little distance from it. Dr. Kilner in his book "The
Human Atmosphere" describes how he found it possible to induce
this power of vision in normal persons by causing them to gaze at
the light through suitably coloured screens which seemed to affect
the retina in such a way as to make it more sensitive to the
particular wave length of light which emanates from, or is reflected
by, the aura.
In the course of his investigations he found among other things that
the aura was apparently under the control of the will since it could in
certain cases be made to change colour or to extrude rays by mere
volition.
Through the courtesy of Dr. Kilner I have myself been able to try the
effect of the screens and I certainly saw, or thought I saw, an aura
of the type which he describes.
At the same time I am not altogether prepared to swear that the
appearance could not be some sort of optical illusion or "artifact"
and I should accept the aura with less reserve if it could be recorded
photographically.
On the other hand some of Dr. Kilner's experiments, notably as
regards colour of the aura and its uses in diagnosis, are very
remarkable and seem unlikely to be due to either of the above
mentioned causes.
If we accept these experiments at their face value they certainly
support the idea to which the phenomena of Exteriorisation of
Sensibility faintly pointed, namely that there may be some
exteriorisable substance under the control of the Will.
There are other experiments which also point the same way.
Consider for example those of MacDougal who weighed a number of
patients at the moment of death and found in each case that this
coincided with a sudden loss of weight of about threequarters of an
ounce, more than could be accounted for by loss from perspiration
or from the emptying of the lungs. He claims that "We have
experimental proof that a substance capable of being weighed does
leave the body at death." It is of course most important that these
experiments should be confirmed by independent investigators but
there seems no reason to doubt the facts as stated, although I
cannot agree with MacDougal's view that what leaves the body is
the "soul."
Dr. Baraduc, again, took photographs of his son and wife shortly
after death and found that in each case a luminous, cloudlike mass
or masses were visible over the bodies.
This case is of exceptional interest in that the observations were not
personal but were photographic records. Unless the case is
inaccurately reported it follows that there must have been some
objective foundation for the results, and it would also seem that,
since the object photographed affected the plate but was invisible to
the eye, it must not only have been material or quasi-material in
nature but also have emitted light of a frequency above the range of
normal vision, i.e., "ultra-violet" light. Here again there is great need
for confirmation but so far as it goes the evidence continues to point
the same way.
Surely this concatenation of evidences from such different sources
cannot be purely fortuitous?
The foregoing are the most important and representative
experiments on these lines but the whole of the literature of Psychic
Research abounds with minor pointers which all indicate the same
sort of thing.
Let us turn again to the work of Crawford, to which I have already
referred.
He started out to investigate the causes of telekinetic phenomena
and had at the outset no sort of notion of what the explanation was
likely to be and he found that his table is supported, during levitation
without contact, by a rigid structure.
This structure is invisible to the eye and is practically impalpable. It
appears to be composed of matter taken from the medium. The
main conclusion is, I think, inevitable, but for the experiments and
reasoning which have led to it the reader must consult Dr. Crawford's
book.
Again we have this same curious substance exteriorised from the
body.
But there are two points in particular which bring it closely into line
with the phenomena which we have been considering.
The first is that although Dr. Crawford has not yet succeeded in
photographing the structure in situ, he has obtained a photograph of
what appears to be the same substance issuing out of the medium.
Furthermore, the existence of the structure has been confirmed by
clairvoyants, and this fact, taken in conjunction with the
photographic results and with what I said about "etheric" or "ultra-
violet" clairvoyance in Chapter III, forces us once more to the
conclusion that this elusive substance possesses the property of
emitting or reflecting ultra-violet light.
The second point is that the extrusion of this substance from the
medium results in superficial insensibility, although she is in full
possession of all her normal faculties.
Dr. Crawford discusses this point at some length in an article which
appeared in the Psychic Gazette for September 1916. Into the
minutiæ of the discussion I need not enter here. It is sufficient to
say that the medium is to some extent insensitive and that in Dr.
Crawford's opinion "It seems likely that the want of sensibility to
heavy and varied reactions which undoubtedly occur upon the
medium is due to some peculiar condition of her organism during
the period of phenomena."
Now, these various experiments although they may be individually
weak do seem rather to hang together. There is an appearance of
possible connection between the experiments of Joire and recent
views on the "aura"; and it is possible that what MacDougal weighed
and Baraduc photographed are the same thing.
It is obvious that all these experiments ought to be checked and re-
checked by independent investigators and further experiments
undertaken to discover whether there is any real connection
between them.
But for the present purpose I think it legitimate to extrapolate and to
assume that they are reliable and connected in the way that I
suspect.
The experiments of de Rochas, of Joire and of Kilner suggest that a
temporary loss of sensibility is accompanied by the extrusion from
the body of a sensitive substance of peculiar properties.
In the Baraduc and MacDougal experiments a total and permanent
loss of sensibility seems to be accompanied by the extrusion of a
substance of somewhat similar properties.
Finally in the case of Dr. Crawford's researches we find that the
extrusion of an apparently very similar substance is again
accompanied by a certain insensitivity.
Somewhat similar conditions are to be found in cases of
"materialisation"—compare, for example, the work of Dr. Schrenk-
Notzing and Mme. Bisson or Dr. Geley's paper in Part I. of the
"Annales des Sciences Psychiques" for 1919.
It is far too early yet to say that the extrusion of this sensitive
substance is an invariable concomitant of insensibility; but at present
the evidence—assuming it to be reliable—does seem to point that
way. When we have made an exhaustive study of what happens to
the "aura" during sleep, in various states of hypnosis, in local and
general anæsthesia and in death we shall be able to draw more
definite conclusions on the subject.
I shall now turn to evidence of a more general type which deals with
the existence of this mysterious substance viewed as a whole rather
than with this or that indication of its presence or properties as did
the previous experiments.
There are many references in Psychic literature which bear on the
point and the general trend of them seems to be that the substance
we have been considering is not, normally, entirely formless and
distributed fortuitously through the body but that it forms an exact
counterpart of the latter or, to be more strictly accurate, of the
nervous system.
Lombroso states that Durville has succeeded in separating this
"replica" experimentally from the physical body.
("After Death—What?").
He says that it seemed to be connected with the body by a sort of
cord and that the patient under observation was able to see through
opaque objects and to discern events at a distance. The apparent
sense organs of the replica worked, while those of the physical body
were put out of action. When approached, it excited a sensation "like
that produced by cold, by blowing air, by shivering," and if the hand
were placed in it a cold, clammy sensation was experienced.
Compare with this last statement the remarks of Crawford on the
sensations produced by inserting the hand into the midst of the
levitating structure.
M. Leon Denis in "Christianity and Spiritualism" quotes experiments
from the "Revue Spirite" for November 1894, and alleges that de
Rochas and Barlemont obtained simultaneous photographs of the
body of a medium and of the exteriorised "double."
A long account of experiments on these lines by Durville appears in
the "Journal de Magnetisme" for 1907 and 1908 but although they
tend to confirm the ideas at which we have already arrived, there is
nothing to be gained by going into their details here.
A very interesting case which has a considerable bearing on the
subject is given in the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical
Research, Vol. VIII, pp. 180-193.
The following is an abbreviated account:
The narrator is a physician and the case seems to have been
singularly well attested and was carefully scrutinised by no less a
critic than Dr. R.H. Hodgson.
"I passed some four hours in all without pulse or
perceptible heart beat, as I am informed by Dr. S.H.
Raynes, who was the only physician present. During a
portion of this time several of the bystanders thought I
was dead, and, such a report being carried outside, the
village church bell was tolled. Dr. Raynes informs me,
however, that by bringing his eyes close to my face, he
could perceive an occasional short gasp, so very light as
to be hardly perceptible, and that he was several times on
the point of saying, 'He is dead,' when a gasp would occur
in time to check him. He thrust a needle deep into the
flesh at different points from the feet to the hips, but got
no response.[5] Although I was pulseless for four hours,
the state of apparent death lasted only about half an hour.
I lost, I believe, all power of thought or knowledge of
existence in absolute unconsciousness. I came again into
a state of conscious existence, and discovered that I was
still in the body, but the body and I had no longer any
interests in common. I looked with astonishment and joy
for the first time upon myself—the me, the real Ego, while
the not-me closed upon all sides like a sepulchre of clay.
With all the interest of a physician I beheld the wonders of
my bodily anatomy, intimately interwoven with which,
even tissue for tissue, was I, the living soul of that dead
body. I realised my condition and calmly reasoned thus: I
have died, as man terms death, and yet I am as much a
man as ever. I am about to get out of the body. I watched
the interesting process of the separation of soul and body.
By some power, apparently not my own, the Ego was
rocked to and fro, laterally as the cradle is rocked, by
which process its connection with the tissues of the body
was broken up. After a little while the lateral motions
ceased, and along the soles of the feet, beginning at the
toes, passing rapidly to the heels, I felt and heard, as it
seemed the snapping of innumerable small cords. When
this was accomplished, I began slowly to retreat from the
feet, toward the head, as a rubber cord shortens. I
remember reaching the hips and saying to myself, 'Now
there is no life below the hips.' I can recall no memory of
passing through the abdomen and chest, but recollect
distinctly when my whole self was collected in the head,
when I reflected thus: 'I am all the head now, and I shall
soon be free.' I passed around the brain as if it were
hollow, compressing it and its membranes slightly on all
sides towards the centre, and peeped out between the
sutures of the skull, emerging like the flattened edges of a
bag of membranes! I recollect distinctly how I appeared to
myself something like a jelly fish as regards colour and
form! As I emerged, I saw two ladies sitting at my head. I
measured the distance between the head of my cot and
the knees of the lady opposite the head and concluded
there was room for me to stand, but felt considerable
embarrassment as I reflected that I was about to emerge
naked before her, but comforted myself with the thought
that in all probability she would not see me with her bodily
eyes, as I was a spirit. As I emerged from the head I
floated up laterally like a soap bubble attached to the bowl
of a pipe, until I at last broke loose from the body and fell
lightly to the floor, where I slowly rose and expanded to
the full stature of a man. I seemed to be translucent, of a
bluish cast and perfectly naked. With a painful sense of
embarrassment, I fled toward the partially open door to
escape the eyes of the two ladies whom I was facing, as
well as others who I knew were about me, but upon
reaching the door I found myself clothed, and satisfied
upon that point, I turned and faced the company. As I
turned, my left elbow came in contact with the arm of one
of two gentlemen, who were standing in the door. To my
surprise, his arm passed through mine without apparent
resistance, the several parts closing again without pain, as
air reunites. I looked quickly up at his face to see if he
had noticed the contact, but he gave me no sign—only
stood and gazed toward the couch I had just left. I
directed my gaze in the direction of his, and saw my dead
body. Suddenly I discovered that I was looking at the
straight seam down the back of my coat. 'How is this, I
thought, how do I see my back?' and I looked again, to
reassure myself, down the back of my coat, or down the
back of my legs to the very heels. I put my hand to my
face and felt for my eyes. They were where they should
be: I thought 'Am I like an owl that I can turn my head
half way round' I tried the experiment and failed. No!
Then it must be that, having been out of the body but a
few moments, I have yet the power to use the eyes of the
body, and I turned about and looked back in at the open
door where I could see the head of my body in a line with
me. I discovered then a small cord, like a spider's web,
running from my shoulders back to my body and attaching
to it at the base of the neck, in front. I was satisfied with
the conclusion that by means of that cord, I was using the
eyes of the body and, turning, walked down the street. A
small densely black cloud appeared in front of me and
advanced towards my face. I knew that I was to be
stopped. I felt the power to move or to think leaving me.
My hands fell powerless at my side, my shoulders and my
head dropped forward and I knew no more. Without
previous thought and without effort on my part, my eyes
opened. I looked at my hands and then at the little white
cot upon which I was lying, and, realising that I was in the
body, in astonishment and disappointment, I exclaimed;
'What in the world has happened to me? Must I die
again?..."
Now, if this case stood alone we should, perhaps, be right to explain
it all as a dream. But it does not stand alone for there are numerous
other cases to be found in the Proceedings of the S.P.R. and in
Meyer's "Human Personality." In my opinion, therefore, it merits the
most careful consideration and contains many points of the greatest
interest and significance.
I think it will be found to work in remarkably well with the whole
idea of the detachable quasi-physical replica, towards which
hypothesis the whole of the observations in this chapter have been
tending.
The narrator of the experience seems to think that the vehicle which
he observed to become detached from the body and in which he
was apparently functioning throughout the period in question, was
actually the "Soul" itself, the permanent and immortal post-mortem
embodiment of consciousness.
On the whole this seems to be the view taken by Mr. Carrington,
who quotes the case, and to be that commonly held in France on the
authority of MM. Leon Denis, Delanne and other writers. These latter
refer to the organism in question as the "perisprit" and it is
represented as being the vehicle by virtue of which the
Consciousness persists after Death.
With this view I cannot agree.
I suggest rather, provisionally of course, that the Consciousness
persists embodied in a four-dimensional vehicle to which the word
"physical" as commonly understood cannot be applied at all. The
replica, perisprit or "Etheric Double" as the Theosophists call it, is
only the connecting link between the three and four-dimensional
vehicles which, as we saw at the beginning of this chapter, must be
supposed to exist if the four-dimensional hypothesis is to hold good
at all. It seems likely that it is no more permanent than the physical
body, and that it disintegrates after death in the same way that the
bodily tissues do.
It is interesting to compare and contrast this case with the
somewhat similar one of which a brief resumé was given on page
58. In each case the consciousness of the narrator was separated
from the physical body but the conditions after separation seem to
have been notably different.
In the first case the patient seems to have been independent of
space in that he was able to pay a visit to a friend at a distance of
about a thousand miles and to return in the space of a few minutes;
while in the second he seems to have been tethered to his physical
body by the "cord" to which he refers.
This is perhaps the most important point, but others are easy to find
—notably in the apparent constitution of the temporary vehicle of
consciousness.
It seems probable that in the first case the vehicle was four-
dimensional while in the second it was the "quasi-physical replica"
which we have been discussing.
It is with this supposition in mind that I shall examine the second
case.
First then we notice that the narrator seems to have been in error in
referring to what he saw interwoven, tissue for tissue, with the
physical body, as the Ego. But this error was clearly a very natural
one.
Although the point is not brought out with precision, the record
seems to suggest that the narrator was viewing things with that
internal or four-dimensional vision which I discussed in my remarks
on Clairvoyance in Chapter III.
The process which is described as the separation of soul and body, I
should prefer to describe as the exteriorisation of the "Etheric
Double."[6]
As it happens, this exteriorisation does result in the separation of the
Consciousness from the body, but to say that it is the separation
would be liable to confuse the Consciousness and the four-
dimensional vehicle with the Etheric double.
That exteriorisation should begin at the feet is only what one would
expect from the known fact that the extremities are the first parts of
the body to grow cold at the approach of death.
Throughout the account we notice the extreme plasticity of the
vehicle in which the narrator functioned. It seems to have squeezed
out of the body in a formless condition and then to have recovered
its normal shape as soon as the deforming stresses were removed.
This is entirely in accord with the properties we must postulate for a
substance which can, apparently, be moved and shaped by mere
volition or at least by "mental forces," whatever that may mean, set
in motion by the will. At first, that is to say during the process of
extrusion, the Etheric Double seems to have been under the
influence of some repulsive force acting between it and the body.
This is admirably suggested by the analogy of the soap bubble.
When extrusion was complete, however, the E.D. "fell lightly to the
floor." It was therefore composed of more or less ponderable matter,
which is what we would expect from MacDougal's experiments.
The translucency and bluish colour are entirely consonant with the
observations of Kilner on the aura, which, as already mentioned, I
believe to be closely associated with the E.D.
The part about the clothes is curious and I am not prepared to
hazard any explanation about it, beyond a very tentative proposal of
auto-suggested hallucination.
Scarcely less odd is the apparent ability to use both the physical
eyes and those belonging to the E.D.
But the fact that the latter were in operation is concordant with the
observation of Durville that the sense organs of the exteriorised E.D.
were operative in his experiments.
The small cord connecting the E.D. with the physical body is also in
accordance with his observations.
On the whole then I think it fair to claim that this case fits in
admirably with the experimental work I have quoted.
There is one other source of information which may profitably be
considered here, namely the statements of the clairvoyants and of
the Occultists.
I hope that the criticisms which I have been moved to make about
the Occultists in preceding passages have been sufficiently stringent
to clear me of any suspicion of being unduly credulous or over-ready
to accept their statements as authoritative.
There are many things in their methods and their teachings which
excite my distrust and antipathy.
None the less I think it foolish to ignore every statement which
happens to be supported by, or to form part of, Occult doctrine.
I think it highly probable for instance that clairvoyant descriptions of
facts concerning the Etheric Double are often reliable.
We have seen that the whole question of its study is probably a
matter of observing, directly or indirectly, by ultra-violet light. We
also have reason to suppose that the retina of the eye can be
rendered abnormally sensitive to light of this frequency by artificial
means.
But if such abnormal retinal sensibility can be induced artificially, it is
very probable that it may sometimes occur naturally.
Hence, if the E.D. actually exists, as the evidence undeniably
suggests, it is not only possible but probable that certain people will
be able to see it without invoking artificial aid.
It must be remembered that observations of this kind contain, in
themselves, no sort of "supernatural" element, although they may,
of course, receive the most strange and erroneous interpretations at
the hands of the uninformed.
When we turn to Occult literature we find that the theory of the E.D.
is worked out in considerable detail. It is said to be violet-grey or
blue-grey in colour and to interpenetrate the physical body. The
"health aura," i.e., the physical aura dealt with by Dr. Kilner, is said
to be that part of the E.D. which projects beyond the physical body.
It is stated that the physical body and the E.D. are not normally
separated during life, although in certain nervous conditions the E.D.
may be more or less extruded from the physical body. (Compare this
with the diagnostic researches of Kilner.)
"Anæsthetics drive out the greater part of the E.D., so that
consciousness cannot either affect or be affected by the
dense (physical) body. In the abnormally organised
persons called mediums, dislocation of the etheric and
dense bodies easily occurs, and the E.D., when extruded,
largely supplies the physical basis for 'materialisations'
(and for Crawford's structure. W.W.S.)."
"In sleep, when the consciousness leaves the physical
vehicle which it uses during waking life, the dense and
etheric bodies remain together.... At what is called death
the etheric double is drawn away from its dense
counterpart by the escaping consciousness; the magnetic
tie existing between them during earth life is snapped
asunder...."
(Taken from "The Ancient Wisdom.")
In other passages it is stated that the E.D. is connected with the
physical body by a filamentary structure, "The silver cord," and that
so long as this is unbroken it is possible for connection between
Consciousness and the physical body to be re-established, but that
when it is broken as occurs in death, the separation is final.
Finally it is definitely stated that this E.D. is a quasi-physical
structure, disintegrates in the same way as the physical body and is
perceived by a mere heightening of the ordinary visual faculty.
Let it be clearly understood that I do not wish one whit more
importance to be attached to this last-quoted evidence than each
individual reader may choose to assign to it and I fully sympathise
with those who prefer to allow it no weight at all.
I have myself a strong penchant in favour of good hard scientific
experiments with apparatus and, if the clairvoyant testimony stood
by itself without any experimental evidence to support it, I should
make no mention of it here. But I think that in common justice we
ought to admit that the statements of the clairvoyants are, in the
main, in close agreement with what we should expect from the
indications afforded us by the experimental work which has at
present been done. In continuing the latter we shall be well advised
to keep the former in our minds as furnishing, at least, useful hints
for our guidance.
On the strength of the various considerations discussed above, I am
disposed to extend the four dimensional hypothesis as follows:
"Connection between the three- and four-dimensional
vehicles is maintained by means of a substance of peculiar
properties, which is intimately connected with the nervous
system in the conscious functioning of which it is an
essential factor. States of partial or total anæsthesia or
insensibility are accompanied and probably caused by the
extrusion of this substance from the body."
We are now faced by the problem of the constitution of this
substance.
To this there would appear to be two possible solutions.
The first of these is that favoured, apparently, by the occultists and
the exponents of the "perisprit" doctrine. The second is that to
which I am personally inclined at present.
According to the former of these two hypotheses, the E.D. is
composed of a sort of "rarified matter" by which, I take it, is meant
matter possessing a smaller complexity of organisation than that
with which we are normally acquainted. This would appear to be
more especially the Occult view; although on technical details of this
kind there is a somewhat unfortunate lack of precision and even of
unanimity among Occult authorities.
A variation on this is the idea that whereas ordinary matter is the
result of vibratory, or other periodic, disturbances in the ether of a
certain frequency, the "matter" of which the E.D. is composed is the
result of similar disturbances of a greater frequency; that it is matter
transposed into a higher key so to speak.
The experiments of Le Bon, who claims to have obtained a
temporary condition of equilibrium in the dissociation products of
matter, are sometimes adduced as supporting this hypothesis.
For my part I have grave doubts as to the correctness of this view.
In the first place, there is nothing in Le Bon's work to indicate that
these dissociation products are capable of being brought into a state
of such very stable equilibrium as must be possessed by the
constituents of the E.D.
In the second, the hypothesis involves us in all the difficulties which
render so unsatisfactory all attempts to account for post-mortem
existence on normal physical lines.
For, on either hypothesis, the E.D. is either the post-mortem vehicle
itself, as held by the French savants, or it is the connecting link
between the two vehicles, as I consider.
If the latter is the case, then in all probability the post-mortem
vehicle is to the E.D. as the E.D. is to the physical body. If the E.D. is
merely rarified matter then the post-mortem vehicle is probably
merely doubly-rarified matter.
For this and other reasons I prefer the idea that the E.D. is
composed of matter having an abnormal four-dimensional
complexity.
Indeed, as I pointed out at the beginning of this chapter, this view
seems to be a necessary corollary of the whole four-dimensional
hypothesis I have been advocating.
It is very possible that we shall be compelled to reject the
hypothesis in toto in the light of future research, but until this
becomes necessary I think that my present view of the nature of the
E.D. is the only tenable one.
Whether this abnormal four-dimensional complexity is molecular or
atomic in its nature, or whether it is neither, I am not prepared to
say.
The points in this chapter which I would wish to emphasise are, first,
that if the four-dimensional hypothesis be true, there should exist a
connection between the three- and four-dimensional vehicles.
Secondly, that this link should possess properties of a peculiar nature
distinguishing it from ordinary physical substances.
Thirdly, that there are distinct evidences to be found in very
independent quarters which strongly indicate that such a connecting
link or substance does in fact exist.
Fourthly, that this substance does present unusual features, as for
instance, susceptibility to volitional control and to forces which
appear to be applied from some direction unknown to us (vide my
remarks on the theory of Crawford's structure in Chapter III).
Finally, that, as it appears to be intermediate between the physical
body and the post-mortem vehicle, it is well worthy of the closest
study.
It will be very evident to my readers that this chapter is
"extrapolatory" and speculative in the highest degree. The ideas
discussed are based on experiments which are very far from being
conclusive. I should be sorry indeed to guarantee them all as being
of cast-iron reliability and I have no doubt that comparatively few
will ever receive the amount of confirmation which is necessary
before we can accept such things as proven facts.
Still, tenuous as the evidence is, it all seems to point in the same
sort of direction and I have therefore thought it worth while to give
it the benefit of the doubt and see what could be made of it on the
temporary assumption that it is really reliable.

FOOTNOTES:
[5] Note the insensibility.—W.W.S.
[6] Note.—In future I shall borrow the term "Etheric Double" from
the Theosophists and use it instead of the rather cumbrous
phrase "Quasi-physical replica." I do not think that the term
Etheric Double is a good one, but it is in common use, and I will
adopt it until some better word is suggested.
 CHAPTER VIII
THE RELIGIOUS ASPECTS OF THE HYPOTHESIS
Although I have no wish to become involved in controversial
theology, I feel it incumbent on me to examine briefly the question
of whether a general acceptance of the four-dimensional hypothesis
would be fraught with any considerable consequences in the sphere
of religious thought.
No one venturing to advocate conceptions so far-reaching as those I
have been discussing, would be justified in ignoring their relation to
any important stream of thought with which they might be held
liable to come in contact. And it is evident that any hypothesis
formulated, however tentatively, as a solution to the problems of
Survival of Death and the nature of post-mortem conditions, must
inevitably come into very close contact with Religion.
I shall try to show that it is a matter of contact only and not of
conflict.
Even so, I might have omitted the present discussion had I not
found a tendency, on the part of certain representatives of orthodox
theology, to deprecate any attempt to find an intelligible solution to
the problems involved.
It must be clearly understood that I am not concerned here with the
defence of Psychical Research as a means of investigation, but only
with the legitimacy of the end.
Generally speaking, those with whom I am so unfortunate as to
disagree on this matter accuse me on two counts.
First it is suggested that I am attempting to advance by Reason or
Sight rather than by Faith and, secondly, I am told that to "explain"
such a matter as the Survival of Death or the nature of the
connection between matter and spirit, would tend to reduce
everything to terms of mere mechanism and to leave no place at all
in the Cosmos for Divine Will and Purpose or for the transcendental
and mystical aspects of religion.
I need hardly say that I violently resent both these accusations.
The first charge seems to me to be easy of refutation.
In the first place the idea of "Blind Faith" or "Unreasoning Belief" is
one which involves a contradiction in terms.
As Whately well says in his "Logic":
"If a man resolves that he will implicitly receive e.g., in
religious points, all the decisions of a certain Pastor,
Church or Party, he has in doing so performed one act of
private judgment (i.e., the result of reasoning), which
includes all the rest."
Hence it is impossible to dissociate Faith and Reason.
Secondly, just as Courage, in its proper sense, does not mean feeling
no fear but the overcoming of it; so Faith consists, not of having no
doubts but of dispelling them, and this involves a deliberate exercise
of the will in choosing between two possible alternatives; that is to
say, an act of reasoning.
Thirdly, I submit that Life is not a sort of crazy competition in which
special awards are to be received for completing the course
blindfold, but a phase in the general upward progress of man—
whether considered collectively or individually—and that
consequently any knowledge is desirable which will enable us
consciously and intelligently to co-operate in the process.
Finally, and I think that this puts the whole matter in one sentence,
however clearly a man can see, he must still be able to believe his
eyes.
However plainly we can see the path, we must still believe that it
leads in the right direction, however conclusively we may
demonstrate a proposition, we are still dependent on our Faith in the
validity of Reason and the veridicity of the observations on which it
is based—and this is equally the case whether the latter be scientific
measurements or spiritual experiences.
The supreme effort of Faith, made by the most material of scientists
no less than by the Saint, is the belief that the Cosmos, of which
Reason is a part, is a coherent whole and not a Chaos.
The second argument appears to me to be equally fissiparous.
In the first place I should never dream of attempting to reduce the
whole Cosmos to terms of mechanism.
Any such idea would be infinitely repugnant to me. Moreover, the
attempt would inevitably be foredoomed to failure since there are
problems which are essentially insoluble. The first and most obvious
of all—the problem of the nature and origin of Consciousness—is
one to which we can never hope to find an answer.
But quite apart from all this I entirely fail to see why the explanation
of mechanism, using the word in its widest sense, should have any
bearing on religion at all.
Religion, by which I mean something more than a mere code of
morals, is concerned rather with motives than with methods.
If a child were to ask one why the sun and moon did not fall on to
the earth, one might reply to the effect that they were prevented
from doing so by the exercise of the Divine Will. Alternatively one
might embark on a disquisition about the law of gravitation and
planetary mechanics.
The two forms of explanation would be by no means mutually
exclusive since the second does no more than expand the first by an
exposition of the means employed.
If, as required by the Christian religion, we believe in the survival of
the individual personality after death, it is evident that this survival
must take place by virtue of certain properties inherent in the
Cosmos and the necessity of Faith in our ultimate destiny will not be
affected by any determination of the nature of those properties.
If our Consciousness does in fact persist after death it must do so in
some state of embodiment, since the idea of pure essence is
inconceivable.
For my part I utterly fail to understand why the study of the nature
of the vehicle in which the consciousness functions after death, or of
the conditions in which it lives, has any more to do with religion, in
the proper sense of the term, than the study of the physical body
and the physical world.
I need hardly say that I do not anticipate that Psychic Research will
confirm the idea of the old-fashioned conventional Heaven and Hell
of harps and crowns on the one hand and fire and brimstone on the
other. But it would be a bold person who would be prepared to
maintain now-a-days that these ideas form an integral part of
Christianity.
Modern research on Evolution and the process of natural selection
have somewhat notably discounted the story of Adam and Eve in the
garden of Eden, considered as historical fact. But it would be difficult
to maintain that the Christian religion has suffered as a
consequence.
The account of the creation given in Genesis has had to be re-
interpreted in the light of geological and astronomical knowledge,
but Christianity is as vital a force in the world to-day as it was when
that account was taken literally word for word.
Even so, if any specific revelation existed on the subject of the
manner of survival, if, for instance, any of the words of Christ could
be held to contain any precise information on the subject, it might
be contended that no further knowledge was necessary. But this is
not the case.
Immortality is insisted on, but nothing specific is said of the
conditions by virtue of which it obtains. Nor, so far as I am aware, is
any veto laid on endeavours to ascertain those conditions.
I repeat that in my opinion, cosmic mechanism and religion are
distinct, and no knowledge, however full, as to the former can
possibly either impair or replace the latter.
In short I do not see that the necessity for religion as an integral
part of life would be one whit diminished even supposing we knew
as much about the "next world" and conditions of life therein, as we
know of this.
And this contention holds good no matter what results research may
bring to light, no matter how much they may differ from our
preconceived ideas.
For the truth is there all the time although at the moment we may
not have grasped it and the Christian religion, if it be the true
religion, as we believe, was framed, so to speak, to meet the needs
of a cosmos organised in this particular way and in no other.
Unless, therefore, the Christian religion be false, it is impossible that
the results of research, supposing them to be accurate and reliable,
—a matter which can only be ensured by the exercise of scientific
reason,—should in any way conflict with religious truth.
In case any one should feel that I ought to specify more precisely
than I have done, what I mean by the Christian religion, I would
refer them to the Nicene creed. Or if it is a matter of the
interpretation of this in terms of conduct, I should cite "My duty
towards God" and "My duty towards my neighbour" in the Church
Catechism. Or in secular writings I would mention that view of
Christianity which is defended by Mr. G.K. Chesterton in his book
"Orthodoxy."
With these I am prepared to stand four-square, although it is
conceivable that I might find myself at variance with some
authorities on the precise interpretation to be given to certain
clauses, as for instance "the resurrection of the dead" in the first
mentioned.
But controversies about interpretation have been rife among
Christian theorists from the earliest times and differences of opinion
on minor points do not constitute lack of adherence in fundamentals.
Hitherto in this discussion I have been concerned only with
negatives. That is to say I have been trying to show that there is
nothing in the attempt which has led me to adopt the four-
dimensional hypothesis which is in any way contrary to the essential
teachings of Christianity.
There is however a positive side to the question.
I believe that so far from being antagonistic to Christian teaching,
the general acceptance of the hypothesis would be of real value, in
that it would put into the hands of the Church a very powerful
weapon for the repelling of a certain form of attack, that of the
scientific materialist to wit.
I do not mean to claim this as a merit of the four-dimensional
hypothesis as such, for it would equally accrue to any other
hypothesis which might prove to be true.
In the second chapter I gave my reasons for believing that the
establishing of some such hypothesis would be calculated to remove
the principle cause of dissension between religious and
materialistically scientific thinkers. I there pointed out that the chief
strength of the materialist lay in the reluctance or inability of the
Church to give an intelligible explanation of the terms used in
speaking of certain religious and spiritual matters.
I have explained that I see nothing in anyway repugnant to religion
in the attempt to formulate an hypothesis to explain the mechanism
of survival, etc.
Equally it should be observed that religion, considered as something
more than a mere ethical and moral code, would be in no way freed
from the necessity of justifying itself, qua religion, by the
acceptance, however unanimous, of this or any other hypothesis.
Such justification is a matter for an apologetic of quite another order,
of which order, by the way, I regard Mr. Chesterton's "Orthodoxy"
mentioned above as a very admirable example.
What the general acceptance of such an hypothesis would do, would
be finally and for ever to deprive the materialist of the possibility of
maintaining that matter, as he knows it, is the final and only
permanent reality and that Spirit therefore cannot exist.
It is true that this would only involve driving him back one stage. If
we suppose for the sake of argument that we could finally attain to
as complete a knowledge of the "next world" as we at present
possess of this, he could always return to the attack, using with
regard to that state the same arguments as he originally used with
regard to this. But having once broken through the ring fence of
matter and demonstrated that there exist other realities of which he
was at one time entirely ignorant, he could never deny that there
might still be realms as yet unknown to him. He could never catch
us again, so to speak.
I admit that the above is a somewhat fantastical supposition and
scarcely within the sphere of practical politics, but the point is, that
until we are prepared to give an intelligible explanation of things we
are pent up in a sort of intellectual cul-de-sac bounded by matter.
We may know, as the result of personal experience, that there is a
way out, that matter is not the only reality; but our knowledge is a
purely personal affair and the scientist is perfectly entitled, if he
wishes, to decline to take the steps that led to the experiences
which have convinced us, to dismiss them as mere hallucinations
and to write off our alleged "revelations" as superstitious myths.
But let us once demonstrate to him, in a manner calculated to
appeal to his intellect, that there may be a non-material reality and
the cul-de-sac is at once broken through and becomes a vista.
It may be one of which we cannot see the end, and we shall
certainly require faith to believe that it leads to the right destination,
but the point is that it is a vista and not a cul-de-sac.
This is where I am convinced that the adoption of some hypothesis
of the same general order as that which I have been advocating
would prove of definite value to the Church and that is why I am so
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