COURSE TITLE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

COURSE INSTRUCTOR MR.ABINKENG FABRICE A.

TELEPHONE 672403831/656102806
COURSE OUTLINE

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

• Meaning of Research
• Objectives of Research
• Motivation in Research
• Types of Research
• Significance of Research
• Research Methods versus Methodology

CHAPTER TWO: REPORT WRITING

• What is a report
• Types of reports
• Format of a report
• Format of an internship report
CHAPTER THREE: DATA COLLECTION

• Types of Data
• Sources of Data
• Collection of Primary Data
• Observation Method
• Interview method
• Collection of data through questionnaires
• Collection of secondary data

CHAPTER FOUR: INTERNSHIP

• Definition of an Internship
• Difference between internship and apprenticeship
• Why companies offer internship
• Typical activities of intern on internship
• Benefits of internship
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Meaning of Research
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. It can also be defined as a scientific
and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of
scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the

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meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts
in any branch of knowledge.” Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain
new knowledge.” Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to
the unknown. It is actually a journey of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of
inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us
probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother
of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever is
unknown, can be termed as research.

Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they
fit the formulating hypothesis.

Research can therefore be regarded as a means through which more knowledge about a particular
concept or problem is added to the existing stock of knowledge, leading to its advancement. It is
the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment.

Objectives of Research
The reason or purpose behind research is to discover or unearth answers to questions or problems
through the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth
which is hidden and which has not been discovered yet. Though each research study has its own
specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad
groupings.
• To gain new insight or knowledge into a particular phenomenon or concept. Such studies
are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies.
• To portray or disclose accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or
a group. Studies of this nature are known as descriptive research studies.
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else. Studies of this nature are known as diagnostic research studies
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables. Such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies.
Motivation in Research
Just like any other endeavor in life, it takes a motivated individual to want to conduct a research on
a particular situation or problem. What makes people to undertake research? This is a fundamental
question of importance. The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the
following:
• The desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits.

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 • Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems. i.e concern over practical
problems initiates research.
• Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
• Desire to be of service to society
• Desire to get respectability
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new
things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening etc may as well
motivate people to do research.

Types of Research
The basic types of research are as follows:
• Descriptive vs analytical research: Descriptive research includes studies or surveys that
seek to present issues as they are. The major purpose of descriptive research is description
of the state of affairs as it exists at present. The main characteristic of this method is that
the researcher has no control over the variables. He can only report what has happened or
what is happening. For instance, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar
data. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyse these to make a critical evaluation of the
material.
• Applied vs. Fundamental Research: Research can either be applied research (or action)
or fundamental research (pure or basic). Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization whereas
fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation
of theory. Research studies concerning human behavior carried on with a view to make
generalizations about human behavior as well as relating to some natural phenomenon or
relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. On the other hand,
research aimed at certain conclusions facing a concrete social or business problem is an
example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that
may affect a particular institution or the marketing research or evaluation research are
examples of applied research. Therefore, the main aim of applied research is to discover a
solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards
finding information that has a broad based of applications and thus, adds to the already
existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
• Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research: Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomenon that can be expressed
in terms of quantity. Qualitative research on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon, i.e phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For example, when
we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behavior, we quite often talk of
motivation research which is an example of qualitative research. This research aims at

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 discovering the underlying motives and desires of individuals using in depth interviews for
the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence
completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques.
• Conceptual vs. Empirical Research: conceptual research is that which relates to an
abstract idea or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. Empirical research on the other hand relies on
experience or observation alone, often without following a system or theory. It is database
research, i.e. one that is based on conclusions which can be verified by observation or
experiment.

Significance of Research
“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry,
and inquiry leads to invention” is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of which the significance of
research can well be understood. The main purpose of research is to inform action, to prove a theory
and contribute to developing knowledge in a field or study. The following are some of the
importance of research.
a) A tool for Building Knowledge and for Facilitating Learning
Research is important not just for students and academics but for professionals as well as
businesses. It provides an avenue for discovering more knowledge about a concept or subject and
contributes to the process of learning. b) An Aid to Business Success
Research benefits business. Many successful companies such as those producing consumer goods
or automobiles, invest in research and development. It enables innovation and creates

Research Methods Vs Research Methodology

Research methods and research methodology are the two terms associated with research which are
confused by many. There is a big difference the two terms though they are often used
interchangeable.
Research methods refers to the various techniques and method which a researcher employs in a
research process to find the solution to the research problem. The sole purpose of research methods
is to find the solution. Research methods can be of two types; qualitative and quantitative research
methods.

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 CHAPTER TWO REPORT WRITING 1. What is a report
A report is a document that presents information in an organized format for a specific audience and
purpose and are mostly always in the form of written documents. Specific information and evidence
are presented, analysed and applied to a particular problem or issue. Reports are documents which
both give a reader information and ask the reader to do something with that information. They can
be used;
• To suggest new ideas and options
• To ask people to accept a point of view
• To influence decision
• To ask people to make choices between alternative recommendations
Therefore, a well structured and well written report can be a very influential document.

There are different types of reports ranging from academic reports, business reports, census reports,
police reports, military reports etc. All these reports are designed for the sole purpose of providing
information to a particular audience for decision making or for information update purposes.
The format may be influenced by the purpose and length of the report. There are nine identifiable
sections in most reports, although a contents list and abstract are usually only used with a long
report.
1. Title or title page
2. Contents list
3. Abstract
4. Introduction 5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
7. Summary
8. Recommendations
9. Appendices (and don’t forget the reference list when writing an academic report)

2. The Format of a Report

1. Title or title page

It helps the reader to know what the report is about to have a title and sometimes a brief explanation
of the purpose of the report. In a longer report you can have a short title and a long, more descriptive
title. You should also identify the audience for the report, who has written it (the authors) and when
it was written (the date).
3. Contents List
Used in long reports rather than short ones. A contents list helps the reader find their way around
the report. Keep the chapter titles simple and clearly worded so you don’t confuse the reader.
Ensure the pages are numbered so it is easy to move straight to the relevant section. Be consistent
if numbering chapters – don’t start with Chapter 1 and next have Chapter B and next have Chapter

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iii! Don’t get too complex with a numbering scheme. If your reader has to find Chapter
1.1.11.111.iii they might give up – not to mention you losing your way.

4. Abstract
Normally only used in long and formal reports or if your work is being published. It is the whole
report summarised in 80-200 words. It tells the reader what you examined and why; what you
discovered; how you did it and what conclusions you were led to. It is really a file note for a reader
to see if the whole document is worth reading. Sometimes you will be asked to provide an abstract
and the key words which give the reader an idea of what is covered/relevant. For example, the key
words in a handout on report writing could be: reports; purpose; content; structuring; styles;
learning; building an argument.

5. Introduction
Should be quite brief. It can be a paragraph or a whole chapter but it should tell the reader:
• The topic;
• Who commissioned (asked for) it and when;
• The reason for the report;
• The terms of reference and limitations;
• A brief outline of the background to the report;
• The method of working (if this is very detailed it might form one of the appendices);
• What sources have been used in researching the report (and again, if these are numerous the detail
should be in the appendices and referenced)

6. Discussion
The main body of the report and the longest part. It goes into more detail about the subject. See
Section C on ‘building your argument’. It should be arranged logically in one or a series of chapters.
You should use headings and sub-headings to help the reader find their way around it. Writing a
report is not like writing a detective novel so you don’t leave the best bits until last! The Plain
English Campaign recommends the use of the ‘inverted triangle’ way of writing in reports.

This ensures that even if the reader only wants to read part of the report they will still have read the
most important information. It might be worth mentioning here that staff will always read the whole
report if it is an assignment!

7. Conclusions
These are the main findings from the research that went into the report:
What you set out to find out – the purpose of the report
• What you found out;
• What was significant about what you discovered;
• How it answers the question set by the person who commissioned the report.

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Conclusions arise logically from the work you have already done. You shouldn’t present any new
information here. Just use the information you have collected to inform the options, indicators,
lessons or advice you wish to give the readers.

7. Summary
The key information from the report, often presented in bullet points or short paragraphs. It mainly
summarises the high points – the findings and conclusions, rather than discussing what, when and
how again. A summary can often be separated from and read instead of the whole report, so a brief
introduction to the summary could be used. Summaries are often placed at the front of long reports
in recognition that the long report will be too much for many busy readers to take in. You could
liken a summary to the trailer for a film, tempting you to go along for the whole thing, even when
you have been given a fair idea of the plot and outcomes!

8. Recommendations
When a report is being used to present options or make some recommendations for action you have
to give the reader some clues about what these might be. Again, don’t leave the preferred option or
course of action until last. Use that ‘inverted triangle’ approach here too. So, you should present
your most favoured ideas, options or recommendations first. These are likely to be debated more
thoroughly by the readers and they will ideally come to a more informed decision (the one you
prefer!).

9. Appendices
NOTE: You refer to one appendix or several appendices. However, you can refer to the whole
collection of appendices as ‘the Appendix’.
You use the Appendix to ‘dock’ informative and helpful information here. You shouldn’t use too
many appendices – they should never overwhelm the report itself. If you have done some research,
put the (blank) questionnaire or interview questions here. You can insert (short) documents from
other sources (for example, a brief summary of another report which would be helpful to the
reader). Tables, photographs, drawings or maps which will help the reader make sense of the report
can be inserted into the appendices. Be selective and don’t forget to provide the ‘signpost’ to the
relevant appendix in the body of your report - put the relevant appendix you want the reader to look
at in brackets, for example, (Appendix 1) or (see Appendix 1).As you may well be writing your
report as an assignment, you must reference all the sources you use in the body of the report and
always have a reference list whenever you are asked to write a report at university. This is not
always required in a report in the workplace, although crediting the sources you have used is a
courtesy.

3.Format of an Internship Report

An internship report is a summary of your internship experience that many employers require to
complete your time in their organization. For academic purposes (HND requirements) it entails a

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summary of the activities a student (intern) carried out in an organization and it is written for the
sole purpose of meeting the requirements for the award of an HND certificate.

An internship report includes relevant details about your intern experience, such as a description
of your position in the organization, the task your accomplished (intern’s activities) and the skills
you learned.

The format of an internship report depends on the purpose for which it is written. The format of an
academic internship report is different from that of a company internship report. For the purpose
of this course, our focus will be on the format of an academic internship report as it concerns the
award of an HND certificate. Below is an outline of the format of an internship report. An internship
report is structured into six major areas (preliminary pages, chapter one, chapter two, chapter three,
chapter four and chapter five)

A. Preliminary Pages
Preliminary pages are those write ups that come before the chapter one of every project or research
work. Standard preliminary pages have the following features in these chronological order
Cover page
This is the first page of any report or research work. It contains vital information such as, name of
researcher/intern, name of supervisor, title of report or research work, date of writing, name of
organization and a brief description of the purpose of the report. Dedication
Dedication has to do with dedicating the complete work to loved ones or people you hold in high
regard. When dedicating a report or research work, the intern or researcher most ensure that he or
she dedicates the work to a single entity, group of persons or a single individual. Declaration
Every research work must be deemed original and void of plagiarism (a situation of copying
someone’s ideas without any form of acknowledgement). To this effect the declaration is more of
an affidavit stating in clear terms that the work is an original work and was not copied from any
source. In declaring that your work as a researcher is original, it has to be done with your full name
and the full name of the supervisor who guided you through the research work and the date the
research was concluded. Certification
As the name depicts, certification of a research work is just a confirmation that the work or report
was actually embarked upon by you. In drafting your certification of the report, it has to come with
your full name beginning with your surname followed by your other names, your matricula number,
space of the name of date and signature of your report supervisor, your HOD and dean of studies.

Acknowledgements
This is where the researcher or intern appreciates people who contributed directly or indirectly in
the actualization of the report or project work. Acknowledgement in a research work takes into
cognizance your project or report supervisor for availing his time to making your work a success,

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your parents or loved ones for morally and financially supporting you through this work, and other
people you may have in mind (e.g God, friends) for what they did towards their direct or indirect
contribution to the success of your work. Abstract
The abstract is a summary of the entire report or project. It contains vital summary information that
one can read and have an entire idea of what the report is all about. It contains information such as
the title of report, organization where the internship was done, period of the internship, objectives
of the internship or project work, methods of data collection, activities of the intern while on
internship, challenges faced by the intern and the institution and the recommendations to the
challenges faced.

Table of Contents
The table of contents contains a structure of the report with important headings and their
corresponding page numbers. This section serves as a navigating tool to ease the readers way
through the report. It must be structured in an accurate and chronological format so that the reader
finds ease and convenience in going through the report.

B. Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Presentation of The Company

This section requires that you include a relevant history of the organization include information
like the date it was founded, the business’s purpose or mission statement, the types of task the
company completes daily, the products and services or portfolio of the company and other relevant
details. This section should give the reader a background knowledge of the company and a clearer
understanding of the experience of the intern.

1.2 Description of Department of Focus

Here, the intern is expected to give a detail description of the focus department. In the context of
internship writing, the focus department is that department that has a link with the focus topic or
focus area on which the report is written. the intern is expected to give detail information on this
department such as the daily activities of the department, the role its plays in the success of the
entire organization as well as the number of employees that are in that department.
1.3 Objectives of The Internship

The objectives of the internship give the reader an understand of the reasons why the intern or
researcher embarked on the internship. It involves two types namely the main and specific
objectives. For academic internship purposes, the main objective of going on an internship is to
blend theoretical knowledge or literature gained in class with the practical realities of professionals
in the field. The specific objectives on the other hand focuses on objectives related to the focus
topic or focus area.

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 1.4 Synopses

The synopses involve a summary of what each chapter entails. That is, it describes the content of
each chapter in the report in brief. Here, the intern is expected to tell the reader what each chapter
focuses on or talks about.

C. Chapter Two: Literature Review

2.1 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework involves all conceptual information about the focus topic or focus area.
That is, issues such as the definition of the topic as provided by at least 3 different authors or
experts, characteristics, importance, advantages, disadvantages of that topic and any other relevant
information that can enable the reader better understand the topic in question. Most of the
information in this section is mostly secondary data gotten from the internet, books, articles,
journals etc.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework involves all theoretical knowledge related to the topic. That is, various
theories propounded by researchers, authors, scholars and experts in that field. For instance, for a
topic like Motivation in human resource management, one will expect to see theories such as
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s two factor theory, McGregor’s theory X and Y.

D. Chapter Three: Methodology and Internship Activities

3.1 Methods of Data Collection

In this section, the intern is expected to present the various methods that were used to collect data
from the field in order to compile the report. The intern is expected to present the various tools
used to collect primary data as well as those used to collect secondary data.

3.2 Internship Activities

This section involves all the activities the intern carried out during the internship. Here the intern
is to present the activities carried out in each department. If for example, the intern was rotated
between more than one department, he or she is to present the detail activities carried out in these
departments in a chronological manner. Most often, activities in the focus department are
presented last.

E. Chapter Four: Analysis

4.1 Comparison Between Theory and Practice

Comparison between theory and practice highlights the major differences between theoretical
knowledge of a concept learned in class with the practicalities of such a concept in the field. Most
often, what we are taught in school may have a slight difference or actual relationship with what is

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done in the field. In this section, the intern is expected to highlight the differences or similarities
between what is taught in class and what is actually practiced in the field.

4.2 Challenges Encountered

This section deals with the various challenges encountered by the intern while on internship and
the challenges facing the institution.

4.2.1 Intern’s Challenges

Under the intern’s challenges, the intern is expected to highlight the major challenges he or she
faced while on internship. Challenges such as language barrier, distance to the company,
difficulties in catching up with organizational task, poor employee-intern relationship, sexual
harassment from superiors etc.

4.2.2 Institutional Challenges

Institutional challenges include the various challenges that the organization faces in all its areas
of operations. Most importantly, interns are expected to pay more attention to those challenges
that the organization faces in its focus department.

F. Chapter Five Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusion

In this section, the intern is expected to acknowledge in a conclusive manner if the internship
achieved its objectives as well as if it added some value to the intern. By value we, mean issues
such as skills, professional knowledge and clarity in areas that we theoretically complex to
understand or grasp.

5.2 Recommendations

By recommendations, we mean the various solutions that the intern proposes to meet the challenges
faced by the organization. Each recommendation given must relate to each challenge highlighted
in chapter 4.2.2.
Referencing

Academic writing relies on more than just the ideas and experience of one author. It also uses the
ideas and research of other sources: books, journal articles, websites, and so forth. These other
sources may be used to support the author's ideas, or the author may be discussing, analysing, or
critiquing other sources.
Referencing is used to tell the reader where ideas from other sources have been used in an
assignment. There are many reasons why it is important to reference sources correctly:

• It shows the reader that you can find and use sources to create a solid argument
• It properly credits the originators of ideas, theories, and research findings

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 • It shows the reader how your argument relates to the big picture
Failure to properly acknowledge sources is called plagiarism, and it can carry significant academic
penalties. Fortunately, plagiarism is easy to avoid by following a few basic principles. Appendixes
This section constitutes additional information in the form of documents, articles, questionnaires,
interview guides etc that can serve as proof that the internship was indeed conducted or that the
information provided by the intern as to the conduct of the internship is reliable and valid.

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 CHAPTER THREE DATA COLLECTION
Every internship report or project work requires data for its compilation. Data as we know is raw
facts that cannot be understood unless processed into meaningful information. For research
purposes, it is important for researcher to know that they are basically two types of data namely
primary and secondary data.
The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original
in character. The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone
else and which have already been passed through the statistical process. The researcher/intern would have
to decide which sort of data he would be using (thus collecting) for his study and accordingly he will have
to select one or the other method of data collection. The methods of collecting primary and secondary data
differ since primary data are to be originally collected, while in case of secondary data the nature of data
collection work is merely that of compilation.
Below is a description of the different methods of data collection, with the pros and cons of each method.

1. Collection of Primary Data

They are several tools or methods of collecting primary data particularly in survey and descriptive studies.
The most important ones are, questionnaires, observations, interviews

Observation Method

The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to behavioural
sciences. In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific observation.
Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a
formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls
on validity and reliability. Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s
own direct observation without asking from the respondent. For instance, in a study relating to consumer
behaviour, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by the respondent, may himself
look at the watch.
The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.
Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening; it is not
complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes. Thirdly, this method is independent
of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the
part of respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method. This method is

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particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not capable of giving
verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other.
However, observation method has various limitations. Firstly, it is an expensive method. Secondly, the
information provided by this method is very limited. Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere
with the observational task. At times, the fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct observation
creates obstacle for this method to collect data effectively.
While using this method, the researcher should keep in mind things like: What should be observed? How
the observations should be recorded? Or how the accuracy of observation can be ensured? In case the
observation is characterised by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the style of recording the
observed information, standardised conditions of observation and the selection of pertinent data of
observation, then the observation is called as structured observation.

Interview Methods
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of
oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if possible, through
telephone interviews.
(a) Personal interviews: Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer asking
questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. (At times the interviewee may
also ask certain questions and the interviewer responds to these, but usually the interviewer initiates the
interview and collects the information.) This sort of interview may be in the form of direct personal
investigation or it may be indirect oral investigation. In the case of direct personal investigation, the
interviewer has to collect the information personally from the sources concerned. He has to be on the spot
and has to meet people from whom data have to be collected. This method is particularly suitable for
intensive investigations.
Despite the variations in interview-techniques, the major advantages and weaknesses of personal interviews
can be enumerated in a general way. The chief merits of the interview method are as follows:
(i) More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents; the interview
method can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of the general population.
(iii) There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is always there,
specially in case of unstructured interviews.
(iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various questions.
(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.

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(vi) Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the missing returns;
nonresponse generally remains very low.
(vii) The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions. This is not possible
in mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group discussions may also be held.

But there are also certain weaknesses of the interview method. Among the important weaknesses, mention
may be made of the following:
(i) It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread geographical sample is taken. (ii)
There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent; there also remains
the headache of supervision and control of interviewers.
(iii) Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people in high income
groups may not be easily approachable under this method and to that extent the data may prove inadequate.
(iv) This method is relatively more-time-consuming, specially when the sample is large and recalls upon
the respondents are necessary.
(v) The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes even to
the extent that he may give imaginary information just to make the interview interesting.
(vi) Under the interview method the organisation required for selecting, training and supervising the
fieldstaff is more complex with formidable problems.

Questionnaire Method
This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being adopted by
private individuals, research workers, private and public organisations and even by governments. In this
method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned with a request to answer the
questions and return the questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed
in a definite order on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected
to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the
questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.
The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most extensively employed
in various economic and business surveys. The merits claimed on behalf of this method are as follows:
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.

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 5. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and reliable.
The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often
indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once questionnaires
have been despatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain
questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

2. Collection of Secondary Data

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already been
collected and analysed by someone else. When the researcher utilises secondary data, then he has to look
into various sources from where he can obtain them. In this case he is certainly not confronted with the
problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data. Secondary data may either be
published data or unpublished data. Usually published data are available in: (a) various publications of the
central, state are local governments; (b) various publications of foreign governments or of international
bodies and their subsidiary organisations; (c) technical and trade journals; (d) books, magazines and
newspapers; (e) reports and publications of various associations connected with business and industry,
banks, stock exchanges, etc.; (f) reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in
different fields; and (g) public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published
information. The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished
biographies and autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and research workers, trade
associations, labour bureaus and other public/private individuals and organisations.
Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data. He must make a minute scrutiny because it is just
possible that the secondary data may be unsuitable or may be inadequate in the context of the problem which
the researcher wants to study. In this connection Dr. A.L. Bowley very aptly observes that it is never safe
to take published statistics at their face value without knowing their meaning and limitations and it is always
necessary to criticise arguments that can be based on them.
By way of caution, the researcher, before using secondary data, must see that they possess following
characteristics:

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1. Reliability of data: The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said data: (a)
Who collected the data? (b) What were the sources of data? (c) Were they collected by using proper methods
(d) At what time were they collected? (e) Was there any bias of the compiler? (t) What level of accuracy
was desired? Was it achieved?
2. Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found suitable
in another enquiry. Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they should not be used by the
researcher. In this context, the researcher must very carefully scrutinise the definition of various terms and
units of collection used at the time of collecting the data from the primary source originally. Similarly, the
object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must also be studied. If the researcher finds differences in
these, the data will remain unsuitable for the present enquiry and should not be used.
3. Adequacy of data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the purpose of
the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by the researcher. The
data will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider
than the area of the present enquiry.

Selection of Appropriate Method for Data Collection

Thus, there are various methods of data collection. As such the researcher must judiciously select the
method/methods for his own study, keeping in view the following factors:
1. Nature, scope and object of enquiry: This constitutes the most important factor affecting the
choice of a particular method. The method selected should be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is to
be conducted by the researcher. This factor is also important in deciding whether the data already available
(secondary data) are to be used or the data not yet available (primary data) are to be collected.
2. Availability of funds: Availability of funds for the research project determines to a large extent the
method to be used for the collection of data. When funds at the disposal of the researcher are very limited,
he will have to select a comparatively cheaper method which may not be as efficient and effective as some
other costly method. Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in practice and the researcher has to act within this
limitation.
3. Time factor: Availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding a particular method
of data collection. Some methods take relatively more time, whereas with others the data can be collected
in a comparatively shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the researcher, thus, affects the selection of
the method by which the data are to be collected.
CHAPTER FOUR
INTERNSHIP

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As competition for graduate jobs increases, students need to think of new ways to set themselves apart from
all of the other equally qualified and skilled candidates. Graduates who have relevant workplace experience
tend to be more valued by employers, and this makes internships an attractive prospect. As one of the
requirements for obtaining an HND in any field of study, students are obligated to have conducted atleast a
month internship in any establishment after which an internship report will be developed and defended.
But what exactly is an internship, how can they help you and what will you be expected to do? We’ll explore
these areas in this guide, which should help you to decide whether an internship is the right choice for you.
1. What is an Internship
An internship is an opportunity offered by an employer to potential employees, called interns, to work at a
firm for a fixed period of time. Interns are usually undergraduates or students, and most internships last
between a month and three months. Internships are usually part-time if offered during a University semester
and full time if offered during the vacation periods.
An internship should give you practical skills, workplace experience and greater knowledge of that industry,
in exchange for the employer benefiting from your labour. An internship can be either paid or voluntary.
The trend is increasingly towards the former, as voluntary internships are often cited as exploitative. As you
would expect, internships that pay well are usually the most competitive.
2. How is an internship different from an apprenticeship
It is important to differentiate between an internship and an apprenticeship, since they offere quite different
experiences.
An apprenticeship is a dedicated vocational programme that combines work-based training and study
towards a national vocational qualification or foundation degree. Apprentices usually spend four days a
week with their employer and then a day in the training center, where they will work on building their
portfolio to achieve their national vocational qualification. Traditionally, apprenticeships were reserved to
trade occupations such as construction, carpentry etc. More recently, apprenticeships are offered in an
increasing number of industries, from accountancy to marketing.
Apprenticeships can be a valuable route into employment, as apprentices often stay with their employer
once they complete their vocational training, naturally progressing into a more senior role. Perhaps most
importantly, an apprenticeship is a paid programme where you will earn at least the national minimum wage
or apprenticeship rate depending on your age. Typically, an apprenticeship will last between 12 and 18
months, though this depends on the level of the qualification.
By contrast, an internship doesn’t result in any formal qualification and is often for a much shorter period
of time. And as mentioned previously, not all internships are paid. Perhaps the most significant difference
between internship and apprenticeship is the commitment required from you to complete them.
Apprenticeships are for the long term and you will need to commit to a programme for at least 12 months

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to obtain your qualification. Internships on the other hand, are more flexible and they allow you to try
different companies, work in different roles and really explore an industry in depth.
This can be beneficial if you are not really sure what direction your career is heading. Another factor that
you should consider is your area of specialism-some industries are more suitable for internships, while
others are better suited to apprenticeships.
3. Why Companies Offer Internships
Companies offer students internships for a variety of reasons: a)
Short term
Internships provide employers with cheap (sometimes even free) labour, for what is usually low-level office
based tasks, such as photocopying, filling, simple spreadsheet work or drafting reports. Many businesses
will bring on board interns for a number of weeks or months to assist with the completion of a major project
or event. This can be great for students, because it can really help you to develop and evident skills in project
management, problem solving and client relationship management. Even if the internship is only brief, it
can still equip you with a range of transferable skills and help you network and build valuable connections
in the industry. Plus it looks good on your CV. b) Long-Term
Employers often use internships as an effective way of advertising their graduate schemes to students.
Surveys indicate that almost half of all graduate employers hire at least 20% of their ex-interns for training
schemes. It is likely that graduates will return to the organisation that hired them as an intern for full-time
employment after leaving university.
Hiring ex-interns after they graduate is advantageous for employers as these graduates already understand
the company and the job they will be doing. Ex-interns require less training than new candidates, which
saves time and resources.
4. Typical Activities of Interns during Internship
The majority of interns will carry out a range of support tasks in a junior role. The specific duties of an
internship will vary considerably depending on your employer, the industry and the type of internship.
Unlike conventional employment, internships have an emphasis on training, rather than employment itself.
As an intern, don’t expect to be given a client account to manage, or a creative project to coordinate, in the
first week of your internship. By their very nature, internships are more of a support role than anything else.
But they are a great opportunity for you to learn how the business operates, even if you are only carrying
out basic (and perhaps mundane) activities. Typical duties may include processing mail, data entry, filing,
sorting through documents or scheduling appointments. However, in some organisations interns are given
greater responsibilities and can end up becoming a key member of the team, making significant
contributions to the company.

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5. What Experiences are Needed
Although employers will not expect you to have previous work experience, they will look at the skills that
you have obtained via your studies. So, what should you mention if you don’t have regular work experience?
Here are some ideas
a) Volunteering is an excellent way to build your experience. Don’t think about the work being unpaid,
think of it as a means to and end and an effective way to develop your skills and build your network.
b) There are a lot of part-time jobs that you can do in between your studies. Don’t worry too much about
the type of job that you get at this stage. It is the experience and transferable skills(communication,
problem solving, leadership, teamwork ability, time management) that the internship recruiter will be
looking for.
c) By joining student groups such as business clubs, associations or community groups, debate clubs, you
can develop skills that employers look for.
d) If you don’t want to get a part-time job, freelancing is always an option, particularly in creative
industries where you can build your portfolio and develop a variety of skills from marketing through
finance.
6. Benefits of an Internship
Some of the key advantages of internship include;
i. A chance to develop your knowledge and skills in a particular field or industry.
ii. Exploring different roles to see which one you would like to pursue. iii. Getting insight into
the way businesses work and what challenges they face on a daily basis. iv. The opportunity to
create a network of contacts.
v. Gaining valuable work experience to set you apart from other candidates.
vi. Applying the concepts and strategies of academic study in a live work environment.

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