Plant Biology – H92H 35

Outcome 3
Describe how structure is related to
function in the major groups of flowering
plants and how this determines their
distribution.

Plant Biology H92H 35 Outcome 3 1

In this Outcome you will learn how structure is related to function in the major
groups of flowering plants, and how this determines their distribution. You will
learn how the reproductive and floral biology of Monocotyledons and
Dicotyledons, as well as their vegetative structure, allows them to adapt to xeric,
mesic and aquatic environments.

Angiosperms – the Flowering Plants

The angiosperms are the phylum of flowering plants. They show a huge variety
of form and are adapted for many different habitats. The largest are species of
Eucalyptus over 100m tall, the smallest a duckweed where the entire flowering
plant is 1mm across. The angiosperms are the plant group best adapted to life on
land. They colonised the land rapidly and became the dominant form of
vegetation soon after they evolved 135 million years ago.

Flowers

Angiosperms have a specialised reproductive structure called a flower. This is a

specialised shoot with four sets of modified leaves. The first and lowest set are
the sepals – often the most leaf like. They enclose the flower before it opens.
The second set are the petals, often coloured. The next set is derived from
microsporophylls – the stamens that produce pollen. The fourth set are the
carpels, derived from megasporophylls, which contain ovules. All the flower
parts are attached to a receptacle.

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ACTIVITY
Carry out the ‘build a flower’ activity

Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms

Angiosperms are highly specialised compared to liverworts, mosses and other

‘lower’ plants, yet comparisons can still be made between life cycles. Alternation
of generations can still be traced, although the gametophyte generation is
reduced to a few cells within the sporophyte.

Angiosperms have a very unusual feature – double fertilisation. The male

gametophyte produces two sperm nuclei. One sperm nucleus fuses with the egg
to produce the embryo. The other sperm nucleus fuses with two nuclei within the
female gametophyte to form the endosperm nucleus. Because three haploid
cells have fused, this nucleus, and the endosperm tissue which develops from it,
is triploid.

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Angiosperm life cycle

mitosis,
growth and
ADULT development EMBRYO ENDOSPERM 3n
SPOROPHYTE 2n within seed within seed
2n plant

meiosis in anthers mitosis mitosis

and ovules

MEGASPORE MICROSPORE ZYGOTE ENDOSPERM

n n 2n NUCLEUS 3n

mitosis

mitosis, MICROGAMETOPHTYE n double fertilisation

growth and inside pollen grain
development
inside megaspore
inside integuments
GAMETES n
2 sperm nuclei

ADULT
MEGAGAMETOPHYTE
n GAMETE n
8-nucleus embryo sac ovum

2 POLAR NUCLEI n

The angiosperm gametophyte is extremely reduced. The mature

microgametophyte (the germinated pollen grain) contains only 3 cells. The
mature megagametophyte (known as an embryo sac) usually has seven cells.
Pollination is the process of a pollen grain landing on the receptive part of the
carpel (stigma). The pollen grain germinates, growing a long tube which burrows
into the carpel, enters the ovule within the ovary and deposits two sperm nuclei
into the embryo sac. One sperm nucleus fuses with the egg cell, forming a
zygote which develops into an embryo sporophyte. The other sperm nucleus

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fuses with a pair of nuclei in the embryo sac (called polar nuclei – they occupy
one cell). This means that three haploid nuclei fuse together – the resulting cell is
triploid. The triploid cell divides and forms a tissue called endosperm which
acts as a nutrient source for the developing embryo.

Angiosperm gametophytes

In all the gymnosperms, the nutrient material for the developing embryo is
derived from the female gametophyte and forms before fertilisation; in
angiosperms it is a product of fertilisation.

The ovule with the embryo inside becomes a seed and the carpel becomes a
fruit. Eventually the seed germinates and a new adult sporophyte grows.

Plant Biology H92H 35 Outcome 3 5

Tutorial Questions
1. Flowers are made from 4 sets of modified leaves. Identify the flower
structures which arise from each set.

2. How many
(a) cells
(b) nuclei are there in the female gametophyte?
(c) Why are these figures different?

3. How many nuclei are there in the male gametophyte? How many of them
represent sperm?

4. Angiosperms have a unique feature called double fertilisation.

a) Which cells and/or nuclei from the two gametophytes are involved
in this process?
b) What two cells result from double fertilisation?

5. What is the purpose of endosperm?

6. The edible, red bit of a tomato is derived from what part of the flower?

Plant Biology H92H 35 Outcome 3 6

 Methods of Pollination
Insect Pollination.

Many angiosperms use insects to transfer their pollen from the anthers where
they are produced, to the female stigma so that fertilisation can occur. These
plants usually put a lot of energy into producing large, colourful, scented flowers,
and nectar to attract insects. Small amounts of heavy, sticky pollen are produced,
which stick to insects as they visit the flower to feed on the nectar. The pollen is
then brushed onto the sticky female stigma when the insect visits another flower.
Both anthers and stigma are situated inside the flower where the insect can
brush against them.

Advantages and Disadvantages of insect pollination

Advantages Disadvantages

Pollination is more efficient than with If the pollinator is scarce, then

wind pollinated flowers. Therefore less pollination is poor. For example, a
pollen needs to be produced. reduction in the number of bees
worldwide is negatively affecting the
pollination of commercial fruits and
vegetables.

Pollination can occur in areas with

little/no wind or air currents.

Insects can distribute the pollen over a

wide area, helping the plant to colonise
other areas.

Plant Biology H92H 35 Outcome 3 7

Wind Pollination

Many monocots use wind to pollinate their flowers. Because they do not have to
attract insects, a lot less energy has to be expended producing flowers. Some
features of wind pollinated flowers include:

 Small petals
 No nectar
 Lots of light pollen produced which can travel on air currents
 Anthers loosely attached and dangle outside the flower to shed their
pollen easily.
 Feathery stigma which hangs outside the flower to catch passing pollen
grains.

Advantages and Disadvantages of wind pollination

Advantages Disadvantages

Pollination does not depend on the Pollination can only occur in areas with
presence of pollinators such as insects. wind or air currents, such as
grasslands. Wind pollination cannot
occur in still areas such as the floors of
tropical rain forests.

Energy is saved when producing the

flowers as they are small and simple.

The wind can carry the pollen over

large distances, allowing extensive
cross pollination.

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 Structure of Angiosperms

The two main classes which include the vast majority of angiosperm species are
the Monocotyledones (called the Monocots) and the Eudicotyledones (called
the Dicots). They are distinguished by various features of their flowers and other
anatomy. The class names are derived from how many cotyledons are found in
the seed.

Structural Characteristics of Dicots

 Leaves have reticulate venation (veins form a network).
 Stem has a ring of vascular bundles (veins) and secondary growth.
 Root system arises form a tap-root.
 Roots have a few groups of xylem, and often have secondary growth.
 Flower parts are in 4’s or 5’s, the sepals being different from the petals.
 Seeds have two cotyledons.

Named Examples of Dicots:

Pea (Pisum) Rose (Rosa) Apple (Malus) Daisy (Bellis)

Structural Characteristics of Monocots

 Leaves have parallel venation (parallel veins).
 Stem has vascular bundles randomly placed, and no true secondary
growth.
 Root system is fibrous, with adventitious roots arising from the base of the
stem.
 Roots have many groups of xylem, but no secondary growth.
 Flower parts in 3’s, sepals and petals look the same.
 Seeds have one cotyledon.

Named Examples of Monocots:

Tulips (Tulipa) Iris (Iris) Lily (Lilium) Date palm (Phoenix). Grasses are the most
successful members of this group.

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Angiosperm seeds
Unlike gymnosperms which have naked seeds, angiosperms have endosperm
and a cotyledon

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Other angiosperm features

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Transport and support: The water transport system (xylem) has more
specialised cell types than other vascular plants. Like the gymnosperms and the
lycophytes, there are tracheids – but there are also vessel elements which
make water transport more efficient. Xylem fibres which are extremely lignified
help with strength and support of stems roots and leaves.
The nutrient transport system (phloem) also has a more specialised range of cell
types, in addition to the sieve tube cells, making the movement of sugary sap
around the plant more efficient. These include sieve tube elements and
companion cells.

Interaction with animals: Angiosperms have coevolved with animals to mutual

benefit, e.g. in pollination and the dispersal of seeds. There has also been a
coevolutionary ‘arms war’ with plant adaptations to avoid being eaten and
animals adapting to get around defences such as thorns.

Resistance to environmental stress: The early angiosperms were resistant to

drought and cold. They had very tough leaves, often reduced in size, reducing
water loss and physical damage. Many still show these traits. Some leaves have
a waxy coat or fine hairs to trap water vapour to prevent drying (e.g. holly, lambs’
lugs). Tough resistant seed coats stop the embryo drying out while the seed
waits for suitable conditions to germinate. The deciduous habit enables plants to
become dormant and reduce metabolism, water loss and damage during a
frozen winter season or a very dry, hot summer. This is seen in some
gymnosperms but angiosperms have made it a specialty, with many losing all
their growth above ground and renewing it each year.

ACTIVITY - Flower dissection

Your lecturer will provide you with some monocot and dicot flowers. Using your
knowledge of the structural features of monocots and dicots, identify which group
your flowers belong to.

Dissect and draw the flowers. Are they insect or wind pollinated?

Plant Biology H92H 35 Outcome 3 12

Tutorial Questions
1. Fill in the following table comparing insect and wind pollinated flowers:

Feature Insect Pollinated Wind pollinated

Size

Colour

Are flowersScented?

Is nectar produced?

Amount and nature of

pollen produced

Position and nature of

stigma

Position of anthers and

stigma

2. Give one advantage and one disadvantage of Insect pollination

3. Give one advantage and one disadvantage of wind pollination

Plant Biology H92H 35 Outcome 3 13

 4. Fill in the following table comparing monocots and dicots

Feature Monocots Dicots

Number of cotyledons in
seed

Leaf venation

Arrangement of vascular
bundles in stem

Type of root system

Do roots have secondary

growth?

Flower parts in groups of

…….?

Plant Biology H92H 35 Outcome 3 14

 Vegetative Adaptations of Angiosperms which determine their
distribution

Adaptations of Leaves
Xerophytes – Plants which can live in dry conditions
Xerophyte is the term used to describe a plant adapted for a dry environment, i.e.
against water stress. Many xerophytes have modified their leaves to such a
degree that they are no longer recognisable and have no photosynthetic function,
e.g. the spines of Cacti. In these cases, the plants have eliminated the water loss
associated with leaves and photosynthesis is carried out by green stems.

Xerophytes leaves show adaptations to prevent excess water loss by

transpiration. Leaves are relatively small or compact, with a low surface area to
volume ratio. The palisade mesophyll is often the only mesophyll present. Extra
sclerenchyma or thickened cell walls counteract the effect of wilting.

Oleander (Nerium oleander) is a shrub with attractive pink or white flowers often
used for gardens or roadside planting in Mediterranean countries and hot, dry
conditions worldwide. Its leaves show various adaptations (diagram below):

The stomata are located in depressions called crypts, protected from warm dry
wind which would increase transpiration. However, there are plenty of stomata, to
maximise gas exchange when water conditions are better.
The crypts contain trichomes, which trap air and moisture, raising the humidity in
the crypts and further decreasing transpiration.
Both sides of the leaf have several layers of tightly fitting epidermal cells and a
thick cuticle to minimise water loss.

Oleander Leaf

Many xerophytes store water in their tissues (succulents) in specially adapted

large parenchyma cells.

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 Mesophyte leaf

Mesophytes - plants which is adapted for ‘average’ conditions, plenty of

water, adequate temperatures and humidity, and so on.
The leaf shown above is a typical leaf above would belong to a mesophyte.
Despite their enjoyment of a largely stress-free existence, mesophytes do show
some adaptations:

Drip-tips Tropical evergreen plants in areas of high rainfall may suffer from the
problem of algae and bryophytes growing on the surface of their leaves,
therefore blocking the light from the leaf tissue and preventing photosynthesis,
and eventually causing the leaf to die. To avoid this the leaves have a shiny
surface, are angled slightly downwards, and come to a fine point, encouraging
water to run off so the leaf stays dry and this discourages small plants from
growing on it.

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Adaptations for survival in Sunny and Shady conditions
Palisade and spongy mesophyll The distinction between these two layers of
photosynthetic tissue is most marked in mesophytes. The palisade cells are
elongated and upright and have more chloroplasts, and there are more regular
airspaces between the cells. This layer carries out most photosynthesis. The
arrangement of cells in the palisade layer allows light not falling directly onto
chloroplasts to pass through. The more irregular spongy mesophyll scatters the
light through the leaf. Leaves grown in sun are thicker with extra layers of
palisade, while ‘shade’ leaves are thinner with short, squat palisade.

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Hydrophytes – Plants which can grow in water

Hydrophytes are those plants that grow in very wet, boggy conditions or actually
in the water. In general, they have less vascular tissue, especially xylem.
Submerged leaves usually have no stomata.

Waterlily (Nymphaea) leaves float on the surface of the water. They have:
 Large airspaces for buoyancy with sclereids to support this very spongy
tissue.
 Stomata only on the upper surface, away from the water.
 Thin epidermis, little cuticle.
 Reduced vascular tissue.

Living in waterlogged environments is often associated with lack of oxygen.

Reduced oxygen slows growth and protein synthesis. However, plants that can
germinate seeds and grow in conditions of low oxygen, such as waterlogged
mud, can use a habitat where they will have very little competition from less well-
adapted plants. In hydrophytes, spongy tissue with large airspaces in stems,
roots and leaves is so common it has a special term, aerenchyma. This tissue
allows air down into the underwater parts. Trees such as Swamp Cypress and
Mangrove produce special roots called pneumatophores which grow upwards
and act as ‘snorkels’

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Adaptations for Survival in Poor Soil Conditions

Most plants require over a dozen inorganic nutrients derived from soil. Where the
soil is low in nutrients, other strategies may be used:

Mycorrhizae
This is an example of symbiosis (mutualism). Fungi live on the roots of host
plants, where their hyphae act as extensions of root hairs. There is an increased
uptake of water and nutrients, especially phosphorus, by the host, and also some
protection against pathogenic fungi and nematodes. The host plant supplies
carbohydrates and vitamins to the fungus. Most vascular plants have
mycorrhizae, and many forest trees could not survive without them. They are
essential for the gernimation of orchid seeds, which are so tiny they have next to
no nutrient store; in this case the fungus supplies carbohydrate. The
mycorrhizae of the Heather family appear to digest certain substances in the soil,
providing forms of nitrogen for plant uptake. This family can colonise infertile,
acid soils.

Nitrogen Fixation
Most nitrogen is in the form of gas in the air, which plants cannot use. Plants take
up ammonium or nitrate ions formed by bacterial activity in the soil. Bacteria are
also able to take gaseous nitrogen from the soil to form ammonium ions, a
process called nitrogen fixation. A symbiotic relationship has evolved between
plants from the Legume family (Leguminosae or Fabaceae) including peas,
beans and clover, where the N-fixing bacteria live in small nodules on the plant
roots, providing a source of nitrogen for the plant and receiving carbohydrates in
return.

Carnivorous Plants
Some plants living in nutrient-poor, usually acidic and boggy conditions, have
adapted to use animal protein directly as a source of nutrients, including nitrogen,
potassium, phosphate and organic compounds. These are the carnivorous
plants, including Venus Flytrap, Sundew, Butterwort and Bladderwort. These
have sticky surfaces or hairs, or rapid-action traps.

Plant Biology H92H 35 Outcome 3 19

Adaptations for life on windy plains.

Grasses (monocots) have long, ribbon like leaves which are streamlined. This
allows them to live on windy plains. The air currents pass between the leaves,
leaving them undamaged. They would be shredded if they were broad.

Pollen and seeds are light and wind-distributed.

Tillering also occurs in grasses. This is a form of asexual reproduction which

results in the production of side shoots around the original shoot. It produces
multiple stems and dense tufts of grass. This allows grasses to survive on land
which is grazed by animals.

Plant Biology H92H 35 Outcome 3 20

Adaptations of Sexual Reproduction
Many plants use adaptations of their life cycle to enable them to survive in harsh
environments. Some examples include:
The annual habit – survival as a seed.
Some angiosperms can colonise areas with harsh conditions (seasonal, irregular
rainfall, or very cold most of the year), by completing their life cycles in a few
weeks. The plant reproduces in a small window of opportunity while conditions
are suitable, and survives as a dormant seed the rest of the time.
Examples
Monocot Dicot
Whitlow Grass (Erophila verna), a Lots of common bedding plants such
monocot sand dune annual that as Poppies and Busy Lizzies are dicot
accomplishes its life cycle in a few annuals. They flower, produce seed,
weeks in the spring, and desert and then die.
annuals that may wait years for a rainy
season before germinating in
thousands, reproducing before all the
water disappears again, and returning
to dormant seed.

Annuals that live this way can invest 50-60% or their resources in seed
production, meaning that when conditions are right the population can explode
and make more seed to survive the harsh times.

Plant Biology H92H 35 Outcome 3 21

Tutorial Questions
What is meant by the terms xerophyte, mesophyte and hydrophyte?

Would it be more correct to say that water is pulled or pushed up a tree? Explain
your answer.

Describe 2 ways in which leaf structure in a xerophyte such as Oleander is

adapted to reduce water loss.

Describe how leaf structure in Xerophytes such as Cacti are adapted to reduce
water loss.

What are ‘drip tips’ and how do they benefit plants living in tropical areas?

Name two forms of symbiotic relationship used by many plants to improve

nutrient uptake.

Nitrogen tends to be in short supply in acidic or anaerobic conditions, because

the appropriate soil bacteria for breaking down organic waste are not present.
Describe a plant adaptation to obtain nitrogen in these conditions.

Plant Biology H92H 35 Outcome 3 22

 Adaptations of Asexual Reproduction
Strategies include:
1. Underground storage (perrenating) organs that also allow asexual
reproduction.
How does this determine plants’ distribution? Many plants survive cold
winters or hot summers underground, by forming a bud with storage material
that can grow again in suitable conditions. In some cases, this habit leads to the
formation of clones, i.e. asexual reproduction.

Examples include:
Tubers: An underground stem modified as a storage organ, with buds in the
axils of tiny scale leaves that can grow to a new plant in the following season.

Rhizomes: An underground or half-buried horizontal stem, including storage

material and buds that can grow in suitable conditions.

Bulbs: A specialised bud, with fleshy leaves adapted as storage organs.

Corms: A short, fleshy underground stem with thin scale leaves, supporting a
bud.

Plant Biology H92H 35 Outcome 3 23

Storage root: Root thickened with storage material, to support buds for the next
growing season.

Examples of plants employing underground storage organs:

Type of organ Monocot Dicot
Tuber Yams. Potato.
Rhizome Iris Mint (Mentha),Ginger
Bulb Daffodil (Narcissus),
Onion (Allium cepa),
Garlic
Corm Gladiolus (Gladiolus sp.), cyclamen
Crocus (Crocus sp.).
Storage root Carrot (Daucus carota),
Sugar beet (Beta
vulgaris).

2. Rapid asexual reproduction above ground to colonise a habitat.

Vegetative reproduction is less expensive of plant resources than sexual. In
conditions where photosynthesis and carbon fixation are limited, asexual
reproduction is therefore common, for example in Arctic environments where
around 80% of the Angiosperm species have such an adaptation.

Examples include:
Bulbils: Some plants, e.g. Alpine Bistort (Polygonum alpinum), produce small
swollen buds, often on a flowering stem, which are adapted to fall off and grow to
a new plant. The plant can therefore attempt both asexual and sexual
reproduction at the same time and on the same body part. Garlic also produces
bulbils.

Adventitious plantlets: The xerophyte Bryophyllum (Mexican Hat Plant, also

known as Maternity Plant, Kalachoë diagremontiana) has an adaptation to
produce plantlets on the edge of its leaves. This is also seen in some ferns (e.g
Asplenium rhizophyllum). The plantlets fall off and grow as new individuals.

Plant Biology H92H 35 Outcome 3 24

Apomixis: This is the production of seed with embryos without fertilization; the
embryo arises asexually and is a clone of the parent. This is found in Citrus sp.,
some orchids, Dandelions (Taraxacum sp.). The chance and expense of sexual
reproduction is eliminated, and the suite of adaptations that gives the plant
selective advantage is maintained intact. The hazards of cloning, vulnerability to
environmental change and disease, remain.

Stolons
A number of plants use horizontal stems called stolons to reproduce asexually.
The stem is produced as a side-shoot from the parent plant, grows a certain
distance and then produces a new bud and roots which become a new plant.
This sends out another stolon, and so on. This process is rapid enough in some
plants that the stolons are called ‘runners’. Examples include Dicots: Strawberry
(Fragaria ananassa) Creeping Buttercup (Ranunculus repens) and monocot
spider plants This allows them to colonise new clearings, disturbed ground and
newly-formed sand dunes respectively.

Plant Biology H92H 35 Outcome 3 25

Spider plant

Plant Biology H92H 35 Outcome 3 26

Tutorial Questions:
1. Complete the Following Summary Table of adaptations of Asexual
Reproduction:

Adaptation How does this determine the Monocot Dicot

plant’s distribution? Example Example
(if available) (if available)
Tuber

Rhizome

Bulb

Corm

Storage
Root

Bulbil

Adventitiou
s Plantlets

Apomixis

Stolons

Plant Biology H92H 35 Outcome 3 27

2.Explain why asexual reproduction might be advantageous to a plant.

3.Even plants such as Arctic Tundra which are capable of asexual reproduction,
attempt sexual reproduction wherever possible. Explain what advantage sexual
reproduction has over asexual reproduction.

4.Describe the way in which vegetative adaptations of one named monocot

determines its distribution.

5.Describe the way in which vegetative adaptations of one named dicot

determines its distribution.

Plant Biology H92H 35 Outcome 3 28