MODULE - II

Literature Survey and Report writing: Importance and purpose of Literature Survey, Sources
of Information, Assessment of Quality of Journals and Articles, Need of Review, Guidelines
for Review, Record of Research Review.
Report writing: Meaning of interpretation, layout of research report, Types of reports,
Mechanism of writing a report. Research Proposal Preparation: Writing a Research Proposal
and Research Report, Writing Research Grant Proposal.
MODULE - III

LITERATURE REVIEW
A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research on a topic. ... The
review should enumerate, describe, summarize, objectively evaluate and clarify this previous
research. It should give a theoretical base for the research and help you (the author)
determine the nature of your research.
A literature review discusses published information in a particular subject area, and sometimes
information in a particular subject area within a certain time period. A literature review can
be just a simple summary of the sources, but it usually has an organizational pattern and
combines both summary and synthesis.
The literature review is a written overview of major writings and other sources on a selected
topic. Sources covered in the review may include scholarly journal articles, books,
government reports, Web sites, etc. The literature review provides a description, summary
and evaluation of each source.

The purpose of a literature review is to:

 Provide foundation of knowledge on topic

 Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication and give credit to other
researchers
 Identify inconstancies: gaps in research, conflicts in previous studies, open questions
left from other research
 Identify need for additional research (justifying your research)
 Identify the relationship of works in context of its contribution to the topic and to
other works
 Place your own research within the context of existing literature making a case for
why further study is needed.

Importance of literature review in research:

The importance of literature review in scientific manuscripts can be condensed into an

analytical feature to enable the multifold reach of its significance. It adds value to the
legitimacy of the research in many ways:

1. Provides the interpretation of existing literature in light of updated developments in the

field to help in establishing the consistency in knowledge and relevancy of existing
materials.

2. It helps in calculating the impact of the latest information in the field by mapping their
progress of knowledge.

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3. It brings out the dialects of contradictions between various thoughts within the field to
establish facts.

4. The research gaps scrutinized initially are further explored to establish the latest facts of
theories to add value to the field .

5. Indicates the current research place in the schema of a particular field .

6. Provides information for relevancy and coherency to check the research.

7. Apart from elucidating the continuance of knowledge, it also points out areas that require
further investigation and thus aid as a starting point of any future research.

8. Justifies the research and sets up the research question.

9. Sets up a theoretical framework comprising the concepts and theories of the research upon
which its success can be judged

10. Helps to adopt a more appropriate methodology for the research by examining the
strengths and weaknesses of existing research in the same field

11. Increases the significance of the results by comparing it with the existing literature

12. Provides a point of reference by writing the findings in the scientific manuscript

13. Helps to get the due credit from the audience for having done the fact-finding and fact-
checking mission in the scientific manuscripts

14. The more the reference of relevant sources of it could increase more of its trustworthiness
with the readers

15. Helps to prevent plagiarism by tailoring and uniquely tweaking the scientific manuscript
not to repeat other’s original idea

16. By preventing plagiarism, it saves the scientific manuscript from rejection and thus also
saves a lot of time and money

17. Helps to evaluate, condense and synthesize gist in the author’s own words to sharpen the
research focus

18. Helps to compare and contrast to show the originality and uniqueness of the research
than that of the existing other researches

19. Rationalizes the need for conducting the particular research in a specified field

20. Helps to collect data accurately for allowing any new methodology of research than the
existing ones.

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SOURCES OF INFORMATION
There are various sources of literature which may be used for this purpose. These sources can
be
broadly classified into these heads. (1) Books and Text-Books material. (2) The Periodical
literature,
and (3) General references.
1. Books and Text books Material
The most useful list of books published in the English language is the Cumulative Book Index
and Book
Review Index, Books Review Digest, Subject Guide to Books indicates that books are in print
or press
or forthcoming books. National Union Catalogue is also useful for this purpose. There are a
number of
publications that locate specific references that cover particular area of knowledge. The
Cumulative
Book Index is published monthly to provide the references, all books published in the English
Language.
Sources of Information in the social sciences ‘organized’ by subject area and indexed by
author
and title, this work contains comprehensive list of reference books and monographs.
2. Periodicals
A periodical is defined as a publication issued in successive parts, usually at regular intervals,
and as a
rule, intended to be continued indefinitely. These include Yearbook, Documents, Almanacs,
The
Cumulative Book Index, International Abstracts, Journals, Newspapers, Magazines,
International Index
to Periodicals.
Periodicals are generally placed in open shelves in the Periodical room. Their effective use is
predicted on the use of an index to identify the articles on subject matter under the study.
The Education Index has served as a comprehensive index of practically all publications in the
area of education.
Education Index. New York, published monthly.
Canadian Education Index, Ottawa published by the Council of Education.
Current Index of Journals in Education, New York, it is published monthly. Index of Doctoral
Dissertations International. Ann Arbor, it is published annually and consolidates all
dissertations accepted
American, Canadian and European Universities.
Bibliographic Index, New York, this guide indexes by subject current bibliographies of
published
books and educational periodicals both in English and in foreign languages.
3. Abstracts
Another type of reference guide is the abstract, review, or digest. In addition to provide a
systematized
list of reference sources, it includes a summary of the contents. Usually the brief summaries of
research
studies are given in the form of abstract Educational abstracts, International abstracts in
humanities.
ERIC Educational Documents Abstracts, Washington DE., this annual publication includes
abstracts
of all reports which appeared in Resources in Education for, the year. Education Abstracts,
psychological

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Abstracts and Sociological Abstracts are published including research studies in these
disciplines.
A wide variety of indexes and general references can be found to cover almost any area in
which
the modern researcher might be interested.

4. Encyclopaedias
Encyclopaedias provide concise information on a number of subjects written by specialists.
They
provide a convenient source of information, and often include illustrations and
bibliographies. Only
specialized encyclopaedias deal with restricted areas of knowledge.
Encyclopaedia of Educational Research, New York. It is published, every ten years. It refers to
important work on educational problems.
5. Almanacs, Handbooks, Yearbooks and Guides
This general category of references includes those publications that present rather detailed up-
to-date
information on a variety of subjects, organized around a given theme. They are the types of
references
that one consults to find specific information, often of a statistical nature. Generalized sources
are
listed first, followed by those with a more specialized emphasis.
‘World Almanac’ Book of Facts, New York: It is source of miscellaneous information of
various
subjects.
‘Handbook of Research on Teaching’ Chicago: It provides comprehensive research on
teaching
within depth and extensive bibliographies.
‘Education Year Book’, New York: It is annual publication which includes statistical data on
major educational issues and movements with an extensive bibliography and reference guide.
‘Year Book of Higher Education’ : It provides upto-data information on all aspects of higher
education in U.S.A., Canada and Mexico.
Mental Measurement Year Book, Highland Park: It provides the most comprehensive
summary
on psychological measurement and standardized tests inventories. It is published every four
years.
6. References on International Education
This type of publications deals with education outside the United States.
‘The World Yearbook of Education’, New York: It is issued annually and prepared under the
joint
responsibility of University of London and Teachers College of Columbia University, each
issue is
devoted to some aspect of international education.
‘Inter-national Yearbook of Education’, Geneva: The Yearbook presents in English and French
a
review of educational development for the previous year in the United States, Canada and
more than 40
foreign countries.
‘Educational Documentation and Information’, Geneva: It is a quarterly issue which provides
short-descriptive articles on national, international institutions, documentation and research.
‘International Handbook of Universities’ Paris: This book describes universities and other
higher

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institutions of bearing in more than 100 countries of the world and the British Common
wealth. It
provides information about facilities, history, structure, academic year, admission, scholarships
degree
programme, libraries, teaching staff, publications and language of instruction. There is also a
publication
‘Common wealth Universities Yearbook.’ Edinburgh which provides information of
universities in 23
Common wealth Countries.
‘Higher Education in Developing Countries.’ Cambridge: It is a selected bibliography on
students.
politics and higher education.

7. Specialized Dictionaries
There are specialized dictionaries of education which includes terms, words and their
meanings.
‘Dictionary of Education,’ New York: This educational dictionary covers technical and
professional
terms. Foreign educational terms used in comparative education writings are also included.
Government of India has also prepared a ‘Dictionary of Education’ which includes technical
and
professional terms from English to Hindi.
The educational worker often needs information about another educator or a prominent“
person
outside the field of education. These are essential to conduct an educational research. It
requires
biographical and auto-biographical references.
8. ERIC (Educational Research Information Centre)
The current knowledge explosion makes selective data retrieval the key to the research
enterprise as
well as to effective educational practice. The major developments in this regard as they relate
to the
educational literature are ERIC (Educational Research Information Centre) and SRIS (School
Research
Information Service). ERIC is an attempt to facilitate information exchange and to increase the
value of
research to the educational community by simply making its results readily available in usable
form. A
related service in SRIS initiated to provide and ERIC type coverage of educational materials.
In our country NCERT has established a separate ERIC cell to facilitate educational research
community.
9. Microfiche (a flat piece of film containing microphotographs of the pages of a newspaper,
catalogue, or other document.)

The development of the microfiche has been one of the most significant contributions of
library services
by providing economy and convenience of storing and displaying of scholarly material.
A microfiche is a sheet of film containing micro-images of printed material. A copy of film 4"
×
6" card countries the material of one hundred printed pages of 9" × 11" size. There are many
documenter production
services that supply microfiche to libraries upon special order.

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Super-and Ultra Microfiche is the recent development in the field of micro-printing. It has
transformed the process of storage of published material in libraries of the future. A super
microfiche
has been developed that contains upto two pages of printed material on a single 4" × 6"
transparent
card, the equivalent of two or more books. An even more spectacular development is the
ultra- microfiche
that contains upto 3200 micro-dots on a single card of 4" × 6". When projected each dot
contains the
equivalent of several pages. Thus, seven to ten volumes can be included on a single 4" × 6"
transparent
card. Reader printers make hard copy points out of any page in few seconds.
10. Dissertations and Theses
The theses and dissertations which embody the bulk of presenting educational research, are
usually
housed by the institutions and universities that award the authors their advanced degrees.
Sometimes
these studies are published in whole or in part in educational journals. The related
dissertations and
theses are the main sources of review of literature. the entry ‘dissertations and theses’ issue of
the
bibliographic index in the most comprehensive listing of sources to these research in progress.
11. Newspaper
The current newspapers provide upto-data information and speeches, reports. conferences.
new
developments in field of education. The current events and educational news are also
reported in
newspapers. It is also one of the important sources of review of literature. Exploring the
literature moves the researcher to the frontiers of knowledge where he can evaluate new
findings in his field, gaps in knowledge contradictory findings and identifying needed
research. He will be familiar with methods and bibliographies that may prove useful in his
own investigation.

NEED OF REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The review of literature is essential due to the following reasons:
1. One of the early steps in planning a research work is to review research done previously in
the particular area of interest and relevant area quantitative and qualitative analysis of this
research usually gives the worker an indication of the direction.
2. It is very essential for every investigator to be up-to-date in his information about the
literature, related to his own problem already done by others. It is considered the most
important prerequisite to actual planning and conducting the study.
3. It avoids the replication of the study of findings to take an advantage from similar or
related literature as regards, to methodology, techniques of data collection, procedure
adopted and conclusions drawn. He can justify his own endeavor in the field.
4. It provides as source of problem of study, an analogy may be drawn for identifying and
selecting his own problem of research. The researcher formulates his hypothesis on the basis
of review of literature. It also provides the rationale for the study. The results and findings of
the study can also be discussed at length.
The review of literature indicates the clear picture of the problem to be solved. The
scholarship in the field can be developed by reviewing the literature of the field.

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ASSESSMENT OF QUALITY OF JOURNALS AND ARTICLES

Journal papers are usually evaluated based on their impact factor and process of review.
Papers in reputed journal are rigorously reviewed by experts. Generally, such papers give
more authentic information than articles or informative websites. The following things
should be taken into consideration before using any journal article for reference:
• Source of the journal/article: You have to look for the article from scholarly journals which
are written by the experts in research area. Some references may be available, which can
lead you to the additional references of article or books. For some research topic a huge
database may be available. In that case you can limit your search by the type of research
article, review process, an editorial or a clinical trial
• Length of the article/journal: Note the length of the article. It can be a good clue to check
whether the article will be useful for initial research or not
• Authority: Use authoritative sources in the research article. You have to use article which
are written by experts in the research domain. The experts should be from the research
domain and academic/research institute
• Date of publication of research: We need the latest information in the research domain.
Research in almost any area requires the current information available. You need to ask
yourself the questions such as: Is the article/journal you are referring is up to date for your
research purpose?
• Usefulness of the article/journal: Is the article/journal you are referring is relevant to your
research topic?
• Audience referring the article/journal: What type of readers are referring the article/journal?
If the article/journal you are referring is written for some other research domain/area, then
it will use the term/language/keywords special to that research domain
• Citations: Citation refers to the work published in past years. It is a reference to the
previous case, used as guidance. Citation means you have to add a reference to the source
where the mentioned idea/fact/statistics has been given. It is very important to cite the
credible sources in your essay
• Citation search engine: Citation search engine are used to find the citations of scientific
research paper. Different Databases are available to find citations of research paper or
author. These include web of science (WOS), SCOPUS, Google scholar and IN-Recs
• (WOS)Web of science: This is one of the best tools for finding the number of citations of a
specific article. It provides various options for finding citation. “Times Cited” section gives
the number of citations in WOS
• SCOPUS: This gives a list of results including the number of citations that papers have
received. SCOPUS is the largest citation and abstract database of peer-reviewed literature.
SCOPUS indexing includes scientific journals, books and conference proceedings. Scopus h-
index is used to measure the published work of scholar or scientist. It measures both the
impact and static value; it is calculated live on a set of results each time you look it up.
• Google Scholar: This search provides data on citations of authors and their published work.
It searches for journals, books and chapters in the book. Google scholar shows information
on the number of citations a paper has received among the different documents available in
its database
• Indexed Journals: The quality of journals considered by the indexation of the journal.
Indexed journals are of higher scientific quality as compared to non-indexed journals. There
are various indexation services developed such as SCOPUS, EBSCO, PubMed, EMBASE,
MedLine and SCIRUS
(iii) Evaluating websites: Authenticity of data available on various web sites is many times
questionable. In this era of the World Wide Web, information about anything and
everything is available on one click in the form of websites, blogs, social media pages, and
so on. Checking the authenticity of such material is very important before using it for

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 research. Anybody can add to such information without having actual knowledge of topic.
To check whether information is genuine or not, check who are the authors providing the
information? If the author is working in the same domain then information can be
considered as authentic. Also check the references and bibliography given by author. Other
than authenticity, another concern in using online resources is copyright of information.
Many times the information, code and data set available on the Internet is under copyright.
Researchers should take care to obtain the required permissions before using any such
information. Lastly, all material used for research should be properly cited in the
documentation related to research.

GUIDELINES FOR REVIEW

While going through the literature you should carefully and critically examine it with
respect to the following aspects:
•• Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework has been confirmed
beyond doubt.
•• Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the methodologies
adopted (study design, sample size and its characteristics, measurement procedures, etc.) and
the criticisms of them.
•• Examine to what extent the findings can be generalized to other situations.
•• Notice where there are significant differences of opinion among researchers and give your
opinion about the validity of these differences.
•• Ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is known – the gaps that exist in the body of
knowledge.

RECORD OF RESEARCH REVIEW

Recording and Summarizing the Findings of Literature Survey
In literature, a summary of the work done in existing research topic is given. Generally, it is
based on the secondary sources, that is, what other researchers/people have already written
about research project. It is not concerned about the novel or new discoveries about the
research. Actually, it should find the way for further research. The central interest of literature
survey is always on the theories put together by the recognized experts in the research
domain/field. It also includes the data collected from
the different experts, who have already worked on the same research topic. A literature
review will try to find the existing research, which is already done in the selected
research domain. It should review the important scholarly books in the relevant area.
But, reading only scholarly books is not sufficient, one should take a keen interest in
journals articles. Journal articles give you more updated information about the research
subject.
Preparation of literature survey involves following points
• Summarizing the key points from the literature
• Searching of accurate, reliable, and latest information on the research topic or subject
Listing the ideas and concepts into a summary of what is known
• Synthesizing, discussing and evaluating these ideas and concepts
• Criticising and identifying the particular area for debate or controversy
• Preparation of mind-set of the researcher and relevant resources for the application of these
ideas for new research to be proposed

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REPORT WRITING: MEANING OF INTERPRETATION
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an
analytical and/or experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of research
findings. The task of interpretation has two major aspects viz., (i) the effort to establish
continuity in research through linking the results of a given study with those of another, and
(ii) the establishment of some explanatory concepts. “In one sense, interpretation is concerned
with relationships within the collected data, partially overlapping analysis. Interpretation also
extends beyond the data of the study to include the results of other research, theory and
hypotheses.”1 Thus, interpretation is the device through which the factors that seem to
explain what has been observed by researcher in the course of the study can be better
understood and it also provides a theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for
further researches.
Interpretation is essential for the simple reason that the usefulness and utility of research
findings lie in proper interpretation. It is being considered a basic component of research
process because of the
following reasons:

(i) It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract principle
that works beneath his findings. Through this he can link up his findings with those of other
studies, having the same abstract principle, and thereby can predict about the concrete
world of events. Fresh inquiries can test these predictions later on. This way the continuity
in research can be maintained.
(ii) Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide
for future research studies; it opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulates
the quest for more knowledge.
(iii) Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings are what
they are and can make others to understand the real significance of his research findings.
(iv) The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often results into
hypotheses
for experimental research and as such interpretation is involved in the transition from
exploratory to experimental research. Since an exploratory study does not have a hypothesis
to start with, the findings of such a study have to be interpreted on a post-factum basis in
which case the interpretation is technically described as ‘post factum’ interpretation.

LAYOUT OF RESEARCH REPORT

Contents of the Research Report
The research report should start with problem selected for research study. The report
should consist of nature, scope and limitations of the proposed study. This will help to
understand the importance of the study conducted.
If the investigation is planed with a view to make contribution in the theory, than
theory within which study is organized should be explained.
In order to have proper presentation and easy understandability research report format
consist of the following aspects.
1. Preliminary Text
2. Main text
3. Reference material
1. Preliminary Text
The composition of preliminary text include the title page. preface or foreword and
acknowledgements. It also includes table of contents, list of charts, graphs figures used in
study.

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2. Main Text
It provides the complete outline of the research work. It will include introduction, main
body of the report, findings and conclusions, summary of the results.
3. Reference Material
This will include the bibliography appendixes and indexes. This is also know as end
matter. All these three main aspects of the contests of the research report are described here
separately.
1. Preliminary Text
As it has been already explained in the beginning that the preliminary test in related to
title and preface of the research work. Detailed information in this respect is given as under.
A. Title of the research work will include name of the researcher the organization of
researcher place and year of the research.
B. Preface or forward relates to the acknowledgements in selection to the study
conducted. This will also include object nature and scope of the study.
It is necessary to make the references about the persons and organization who have
extend their co-operation in compiling of the work. The assistance or the guidance provided
to by them in making study more useful.
Special mention should be made if financial assistance is provided by any of the
organization. The appreciation of the co-operation extended in any from should be properly
recognized in preface note.
C. Table of contents - The main object of table of contents is to provide overview of
the material included in the research study. This is basically deals with scheme of
chapteriasation with brief information included in each of the chapter.
The entire study is required to divided in various chapters. First being introduction
and last is regarding observations conclusions are developed according of the need of the
study.
Though table, charts and graphs are used in various chapters for presenting information
in tabulated form but reference to all the charts in various chapter should be mode available
at one place. So the list of the tables charts and graphs is prepared so the reference will help
to anybody who is interested to find out information he can easily locale the information in
the research study report.
2. Main Text of the research report
This is an important aspect of the research study it provides the outline of the research
with more details of the study through the scheme of the chapterisation. It will consist of the
following sections.
A. Introduction:
The main purpose of the introduction is to make clear statement of the objectives of
the research. It should also include information about other relevant research as to how
present study can he seen in the light of the content.
If proper introduction is not made it will make our research study aimless. In order to
have clarity in research proper explanation of definitions and concepts used in research
should be made. In conducting the methods adopted should also be explained.
This chapter contains the following information.
1. The statement of problem.
2. The scope of the study.
3. The need and importance of the study.
4. The historical background of the research problem.
5. The sources of data collected methods use for analyzing the data.
6. The various limitations under which research study conducted, must be narrated.
7. Questionnaire used for collection of data's what type of question were asked should
be given in brief
8. The hypotheses of the study should be stated in this part.

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B. Main part of the report
The main part of report consist of various chapters. The findings are incorporated in
this part. Every statement made at this stage in relation to findings of the research study
should be properly supported with the evidences and facts. If the findings are extensive than
they should be presented in summarized form.
In this part of the report the following information should be included.
1. Detailed findings along with tables and charts.
2. Results in logical sequence.
3. presentation of relevant data.
4. Interpretation of data should include.
a. Statement of inferences.
b. Conditions which limits the inferences.
c. Unanswered questions.
C. Conclusion of the study
The research study report should be concluded with brief account of the activity conducted:
methodology used and finding and conclusions are drawn. This should also highlight potential
of the further research in the context of the study. The necessary instructions in this respect
to future action should in incorporated in this stage.
3. Reference Material
The reference material consist of the bibliography. appendix and index At the end of the
research studs report all this information should be provided.
A. Bibliography
It is min part of the reference material. In compilation of the bibliography information
regarding primary and secondary sources text articles and journals can be classified
accordingly.
There in no division in the classified structure of the bibliography regarding exhibits,
but comprehensive listing of the sources should have logical arrangement in the proper
alphabetical order in composition of the bibliography.
B. Appendix
This includes copy of questionnaire and interview schedule which are used in collecting
the primary data :
the research study.
If some documents and original data is used, in order draw findings are also tested out
in appendix
C. Index
If the research report or the theses is published in form of a book or in any other form
like. bulletin the in such case, index is necessary. This act as guide for him regarding the
contents of the research study.

TYPES OF REPORTS
Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each individual case, both the length and
the
form are largely dictated by the problems at hand. For instance, business firms prefer reports
in the
letter form, just one or two pages in length. Banks, insurance organisations and financial
institutions
are generally fond of the short balance-sheet type of tabulation for their annual reports to
their
customers and shareholders. Mathematicians prefer to write the results of their investigations
in the
form of algebraic notations. Chemists report their results in symbols and formulae. Students of

11
literature usually write long reports presenting the critical analysis of some writer or period or
the like
with a liberal use of quotations from the works of the author under discussion. In the field of
education
and psychology, the favourite form is the report on the results of experimentation
accompanied by
the detailed statistical tabulations. Clinical psychologists and social pathologists frequently find
it
necessary to make use of the case-history form.
News items in the daily papers are also forms of report writing. They represent firsthand on-
thescene
accounts of the events described or compilations of interviews with persons who were on the
scene. In such reports the first paragraph usually contains the important information in detail
and the
succeeding paragraphs contain material which is progressively less and less important.
Book-reviews which analyze the content of the book and report on the author’s intentions,
his
success or failure in achieving his aims, his language, his style, scholarship, bias or his point of
view.
Such reviews also happen to be a kind of short report. The reports prepared by governmental
bureaus,
special commissions, and similar other organisations are generally very comprehensive reports
on
the issues involved. Such reports are usually considered as important research products.
Similarly,
Ph.D. theses and dissertations are also a form of report-writing, usually completed by students
in
academic institutions.
The above narration throws light on the fact that the results of a research investigation can be
presented in a number of ways viz., a technical report, a popular report, an article, a
monograph or at
times even in the form of oral presentation. Which method(s) of presentation to be used in a
particular
study depends on the circumstances under which the study arose and the nature of the results.
A
technical report is used whenever a full written report of the study is required whether for
recordkeeping
or for public dissemination. A popular report is used if the research results have policy
implications. We give below a few details about the said two types of reports:

(A) TECHNICAL REPORT

In the technical report the main emphasis is on (i) the methods employed, (it) assumptions
made in
the course of the study, (iii) the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and
supporting data.
A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:
1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or three pages.
2. Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study, formulation of the
problem in
operational terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data required, etc.
4. Data: Discussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics and limitations. If secondary

12
data are used, their suitability to the problem at hand be fully assessed. In case of a survey,
the
manner in which data were collected should be fully described.
5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of data and presentation of the
findings of the study with supporting data in the form of tables and charts be fully narrated.
This, in
fact, happens to be the main body of the report usually extending over several chapters.
6. Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications drawn from
the
results be explained.
7. Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and attached.
8. Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to
questionnaire,
mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique of analysis and the like ones.
9. Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.
The order presented above only gives a general idea of the nature of a technical report; the
order
of presentation may not necessarily be the same in all the technical reports. This, in other
words,
means that the presentation may vary in different reports; even the different sections outlined
above
will not always be the same, nor will all these sections appear in any particular report.
It should, however, be remembered that even in a technical report, simple presentation and
ready
availability of the findings remain an important consideration and as such the liberal use of
charts and
diagrams is considered desirable.
3. Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For instance,
in
sampling studies we should give details of sample design viz., sample size, sample selection,
etc.
(B) Popular Report
The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness. The
simplification
should be sought through clear writing, minimization of technical, particularly mathematical,
details
and liberal use of charts and diagrams. Attractive layout along with large print, many
subheadings,
even an occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of the popular
report.
Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and policy implications.
We give below a general outline of a popular report.
1. The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the findings of most
practical interest and on the implications of these findings.
2. Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the basis of the findings of
the
study is made in this section of the report.
3. Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arise is presented along with
the
specific objectives of the project under study.
4. Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the methods and techniques
used,

13
including a short review of the data on which the study is based, is given in this part of the
report.
5. Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of the
study are
presented in clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such as
charts,
diagrams and the like ones.
6. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms, etc. is presented
in
the form of appendices. But the appendices are often not detailed if the report is entirely
meant for
general public.
There can be several variations of the form in which a popular report can be prepared. The
only
important thing about such a report is that it gives emphasis on simplicity and policy
implications from
the operational point of view, avoiding the technical details of all sorts to the extent possible.

MECHANICS OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

There are very definite and set rules which should be followed in the actual preparation of
the
research report or paper. Once the techniques are finally decided, they should be scrupulously
adhered
to, and no deviation permitted. The criteria of format should be decided as soon as the
materials for
the research paper have been assembled. The following points deserve mention so far as the
mechanics
of writing a report are concerned:
1. Size and physical design: The manuscript should be written on unruled paper 8 1 2² × 11² in
size. If it is to be written by hand, then black or blue-black ink should be used. A margin of at
least
one and one-half inches should be allowed at the left hand and of at least half an inch at the
right hand
of the paper. There should also be one-inch margins, top and bottom. The paper should be
neat and
legible. If the manuscript is to be typed, then all typing should be double-spaced on one side
of the
page only except for the insertion of the long quotations.
2. Procedure: Various steps in writing the report should be strictly adhered (All such steps
have
already been explained earlier in this chapter).
3. Layout: Keeping in view the objective and nature of the problem, the layout of the report
should
be thought of and decided and accordingly adopted (The layout of the research report and
various
types of reports have been described in this chapter earlier which should be taken as a guide
for
report-writing in case of a particular problem).
4. Treatment of quotations: Quotations should be placed in quotation marks and double
spaced,

14
forming an immediate part of the text. But if a quotation is of a considerable length (more
than four
or five type written lines) then it should be single-spaced and indented at least half an inch to
the right
of the normal text margin.
5. The footnotes: Regarding footnotes one should keep in view the followings:
(a) The footnotes serve two purposes viz., the identification of materials used in quotations in
the report and the notice of materials not immediately necessary to the body of the research
text but still of supplemental value. In other words, footnotes are meant for cross references,
citation of authorities and sources, acknowledgement and elucidation or explanation of a
point of view. It should always be kept in view that footnote is not an end nor a means of
the display of scholarship. The modern tendency is to make the minimum use of footnotes
for scholarship does not need to be displayed.
(b) Footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page on which the reference or quotation
which
they identify or supplement ends. Footnotes are customarily separated from the textual
material by a space of half an inch and a line about one and a half inches long.
(c) Footnotes should be numbered consecutively, usually beginning with 1 in each chapter
separately. The number should be put slightly above the line, say at the end of a quotation.
At the foot of the page, again, the footnote number should be indented and typed a little
above the line. Thus, consecutive numbers must be used to correlate the reference in the
text with its corresponding note at the bottom of the page, except in case of statistical
tables and other numerical material, where symbols such as the asterisk (*) or the like one
may be used to prevent confusion.
(d) Footnotes are always typed in single space though they are divided from one another by
double space.
6. Documentation style: Regarding documentation, the first footnote reference to any given
work
should be complete in its documentation, giving all the essential facts about the edition used.
Such
documentary footnotes follow a general sequence. The common order may be described as
under:
(i) Regarding the single-volume reference
1. Author’s name in normal order (and not beginning with the last name as in a bibliography)
followed by a comma;
2. Title of work, underlined to indicate italics;
3. Place and date of publication;
4. Pagination references (The page number).
Example
John Gassner, Masters of the Drama, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 1954, p. 315.
(ii) Regarding multivolumed reference
1. Author’s name in the normal order
2. Title of work, underlined to indicate italics;
3. Place and date of publication;
4. Number of volume;
5. Pagination references (The page number).
(iii) Regarding works arranged alphabetically
For works arranged alphabetically such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, no pagination
reference is usually needed. In such cases the order is illustrated as under:
Example 1
“Salamanca,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, 14th Edition.
Example 2

15
“Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin,” Dictionary of national biography.
But if there should be a detailed reference to a long encyclopedia article, volume and
pagination reference may be found necessary.
(iv) Regarding periodicals reference
1. Name of the author in normal order;
2. Title of article, in quotation marks;
3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics;
4. Volume number;
5. Date of issuance;
6. Pagination.
(v) Regarding anthologies and collections reference
Quotations from anthologies or collections of literary works must be acknowledged not
only by author, but also by the name of the collector.
(vi) Regarding second-hand quotations reference
In such cases the documentation should be handled as follows:
1. Original author and title;
2. “quoted or cited in,”;
3. Second author and work.
Example
J.F. Jones, Life in Ploynesia, p. 16, quoted in History of the Pacific Ocean area, by R.B. Abel,
p. 191.
(vii) Case of multiple authorship
If there are more than two authors or editors, then in the documentation the name of only
the first
is given and the multiple authorship is indicated by “et al.” or “and others”.
Subsequent references to the same work need not be so detailed as stated above. If the work
is
1. cited again without any other work intervening, it may be indicated as ibid, followed
by a comma and
2. Title of work, underlined to indicate italics;
3. Place and date of publication;
4. Number of volume;
5. Pagination references (The page number).
(iii) Regarding works arranged alphabetically
For works arranged alphabetically such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, no pagination
reference is usually needed. In such cases the order is illustrated as under:
Example 1
“Salamanca,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, 14th Edition.
Example 2
“Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin,” Dictionary of national biography.
But if there should be a detailed reference to a long encyclopedia article, volume and
pagination reference may be found necessary.
(iv) Regarding periodicals reference
1. Name of the author in normal order;
2. Title of article, in quotation marks;
3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics;
4. Volume number;
5. Date of issuance;
6. Pagination.
(v) Regarding anthologies and collections reference
Quotations from anthologies or collections of literary works must be acknowledged not
only by author, but also by the name of the collector.

16
(vi) Regarding second-hand quotations reference
In such cases the documentation should be handled as follows:
1. Original author and title;
2. “quoted or cited in,”;
3. Second author and work.
Example
J.F. Jones, Life in Ploynesia, p. 16, quoted in History of the Pacific Ocean area, by R.B. Abel,
p. 191.
(vii) Case of multiple authorship
If there are more than two authors or editors, then in the documentation the name of only
the first
is given and the multiple authorship is indicated by “et al.” or “and others”.
Subsequent references to the same work need not be so detailed as stated above. If the work
is
cited again without any other work intervening, it may be indicated as ibid, followed by a
comma and
the page number. A single page should be referred to as p., but more than one page be
referred to as
pp. If there are several pages referred to at a stretch, the practice is to use often the page
number,
for example, pp. 190ff, which means page number 190 and the following pages; but only for
page 190
and the following page ‘190f’. Roman numerical is generally used to indicate the number of
the
volume of a book. Op. cit. (opera citato, in the work cited) or Loc. cit. (loco citato, in the
place cited)
are two of the very convenient abbreviations used in the footnotes. Op. cit. or Loc. cit. after
the
writer’s name would suggest that the reference is to work by the writer which has been cited
in
detail in an earlier footnote but intervened by some other references.
7. Punctuation and abbreviations in footnotes: The first item after the number in the footnote
is
the author’s name, given in the normal signature order. This is followed by a comma. After
the
comma, the title of the book is given: the article (such as “A”, “An”, “The” etc.) is omitted
and only
the first word and proper nouns and adjectives are capitalized. The title is followed by a
comma.
Information concerning the edition is given next. This entry is followed by a comma. The
place of
publication is then stated; it may be mentioned in an abbreviated form, if the place happens
to be a
famous one such as Lond. for London, N.Y. for New York, N.D. for New Delhi and so on.
This
entry is followed by a comma. Then the name of the publisher is mentioned and this entry is
closed
by a comma. It is followed by the date of publication if the date is given on the title page. If
the date
appears in the copyright notice on the reverse side of the title page or elsewhere in the
volume, the

17
comma should be omitted and the date enclosed in square brackets [c 1978], [1978]. The
entry is
followed by a comma. Then follow the volume and page references and are separated by a
comma
if both are given. A period closes the complete documentary reference. But one should
remember
that the documentation regarding acknowledgements from magazine articles and periodical
literature
follow a different form as stated earlier while explaining the entries in the bibliography.
Certain English and Latin abbreviations are quite often used in bibliographies and footnotes to
eliminate tedious repetition. The following is a partial list of the most common abbreviations
frequently
used in report-writing (the researcher should learn to recognise them as well as he should
learn to
use them):
anon., anonymous
ante., before
art., article
aug., augmented
bk., book
bull., bulletin
cf., compare
ch., chapter
col., column
diss., dissertation
ed., editor, edition, edited.
ed. cit., edition cited
e.g., exempli gratia: for example
eng., enlarged
et.al., and others
et seq., et sequens: and the following
ex., example
f., ff., and the following
fig(s)., figure(s)
fn., footnote
ibid., ibidem: in the same place (when two or more successive footnotes refer to the
same work, it is not necessary to repeat complete reference for the second
footnote. Ibid. may be used. If different pages are referred to, pagination
must be shown).
id., idem: the same
ill., illus., or
illust(s). illustrated, illustration(s)
Intro., intro., introduction
l, or ll, line(s)
loc. cit., in the place cited; used as op.cit., (when new reference
loco citato: is made to the same pagination as cited in the previous note)
MS., MSS., Manuscript or Manuscripts
N.B., nota bene: note well
n.d., no date
n.p., no place
no pub., no publisher
no(s)., number(s)

18
o.p., out of print
op. cit: in the work cited (If reference has been made to a work
opera citato and new reference is to be made, ibid., may be used, if intervening
reference has been made to different works, op.cit. must be used. The
name of the author must precede.
p. or pp., page(s)
passim: here and there
post: after
rev., revised
tr., trans., translator, translated, translation
vid or vide: see, refer to
viz., namely
vol. or vol(s)., volume(s)
vs., versus: against
8. Use of statistics, charts and graphs: A judicious use of statistics in research reports is often
considered a virtue for it contributes a great deal towards the clarification and simplification
of the
material and research results. One may well remember that a good picture is often worth
more than
a thousand words. Statistics are usually presented in the form of tables, charts, bars and line-
graphs
and pictograms. Such presentation should be self explanatory and complete in itself. It should
be
suitable and appropriate looking to the problem at hand. Finally, statistical presentation
should be neat
and attractive.
9. The final draft: Revising and rewriting the rough draft of the report should be done with
great
care before writing the final draft. For the purpose, the researcher should put to himself
questions
like: Are the sentences written in the report clear? Are they grammatically correct? Do they
say
what is meant’? Do the various points incorporated in the report fit together logically?
“Having at
least one colleague read the report just before the final revision is extremely helpful.
Sentences that
seem crystal-clear to the writer may prove quite confusing to other people; a connection that
had
seemed self evident may strike others as a non-sequitur. A friendly critic, by pointing out
passages
that seem unclear or illogical, and perhaps suggesting ways of remedying the difficulties, can
be an
invaluable aid in achieving the goal of adequate communication.”6
10. Bibliography: Bibliography should be prepared and appended to the research report as
discussed
earlier.
11. Preparation of the index: At the end of the report, an index should invariably be given,
the
value of which lies in the fact that it acts as a good guide, to the reader. Index may be
prepared both
as subject index and as author index. The former gives the names of the subject-topics or
concepts

19
along with the number of pages on which they have appeared or discussed in the report,
whereas the
latter gives the similar information regarding the names of authors. The index should always
be
arranged alphabetically. Some people prefer to prepare only one index common for names of
authors,
subject-topics, concepts and the like ones.

Research Proposal
Researchers should able to convince people for selected topic and objectives through the
research proposal. It is very important document that is reviewed by different committees.
In industry proposal needs to be written for approval of top management, finance
and marketing department. Research proposal is mandatory document to be submitted
to the university or research organisation during the registration for a PhD degree. It can
also be written to avail the funding from different agencies. Every agency generally has
its own research proposal format. Research proposal formats generally include the
following sections: Introduction (Proposed Topic of Research/Rational and Significance
of the Study), Literature Survey (Background of the Proposed Research/Study of
Research Work Done in the Area and Need for More Research), Motivation, Research
Statement, Objectives of the Research Proposed, Probable Methodologies/Techniques to
be Used, Expected Outcome(s) (the kinds of conclusions expected and their possible
value), Plan of Research Work, References/Bibliography.
• Introduction (250–300 words)/Proposed Topic of Research
In this part, the introduction to the area of interest can be included along with its
potential for research and its application. Introduction also specifies the work to be
proposed and it should be related to the title of the theses in case of the PhD
dissertation.
• Literature Review of Research Topic (1,500–2,000 words)
Present status of topic of research from existing literature can be written in this part
of proposal. Literature of our work is been prepared by the scholar after going
through the contemporary literature done in the area of interest after referring the
Science Citation Indexed (SCI) Journals/e-journal, reputed conferences, magazines,
MTech and PhD dissertations, reports published in the institution and company
organisations along with patents in domain of research. In this context there should
be a broad summary that should reveal the present status in the area of work and
should highlight the identified research gap.
Gap in Existing Research
Issues that are unresolved on the research topic should be reported in the project
with reference to the current status. Furthermore, possible utilization of the research
outcome can also be suggested.
• Objective of the Proposed Research
It should be clearly indicating the perception of the research work and should not
be a mere repetition of the topic of research. What is to be achieved as an outcome
of the research has to be visualized while mentioning the objective of the research.
Objectives should be given pointwise (three to six points).
• Outcome
It is important to make clear the impact of the proposed research and the particular
aspect of the problem that is anticipated to produce an original contribution(s) by the
candidate.
• Methodology
Methodology should provide the experimental/infrastructural/computing facilities
needed to carry out the research work and it should be described in the logical

20
phases that are used to investigate the identified research problem. There should be a
phasewise description with a brief explanation under each phase. The methods and
approach can also be represented by figures and flowcharts.

Research Proposal Preparation:

Writing a Research Proposal and Research Report
A research proposal is a document written by a researcher that provides a detailed
description of the proposed program. It is like an outline of the entire research process
that gives a reader a summary of the information discussed in a project.
So, A research proposal is an overall plan, scheme, structure and strategy designed to
obtain answers to the research questions or problems that constitute your research
project. A research proposal should outline the various tasks you plan to undertake to
fulfil your research objectives, test hypotheses (if any) or obtain answers to your research
questions. It should also state your reasons for undertaking the study. Broadly, a research
proposal’s main function is to detail the operational plan for obtaining answers to your
research questions.
More explicitly, the research proposal concentrates on the following issues-
 What is the study about?
 Why is the study being made?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can be the required data found?
 What periods of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analyzed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?
These questions will be answered in different ways and receive different emphases
depending on the nature of the proposed project and on the agency to which the
proposal is being submitted. Most agencies provide detailed instructions or guidelines
concerning the preparation of proposals (and, in some cases, forms on which proposals
are to be typed); obviously, such guidelines should be studied carefully before you begin
writing the draft. Most proposals are between ten and fifteen pages in length. The
proposal should be no longer than 1500 words (not including references).

Need for Write Research Proposals

The research proposal is a summary of the plan you are contemplating for carrying out in
the form of a dissertation - by making you put it down into a standard format and
requiring you to discuss it with your supervisor, it is intended that this will

 Help you to order your thoughts;

 Present your preparatory material in a logical way;
 Highlight the way in which each section interrelates with the others;
 Assist you in defining the boundaries of your study and the concepts to be
included.

The more you sort out your ideas at this stage, the more effectively you will use your
time.
Techniques of Preparing Research Proposal

21
A good place to begin preparing a research proposal is to ask yourself a series of
questions –

o What do I want to study, and why?

o How is it significant within the subject areas covered in my desire?
o What problems will it help solve?
o How does it build upon [and hopefully go beyond] research already conducted
on my topic?
o What exactly should I plan to do, and can I get it done in the time available?
o In the end, your research proposal should document your knowledge of the topic and
highlight
Enthusiasm for conducting the study. Approach it with the intention of leaving your
readers feeling like – ‘Wow, that’s an exciting idea and I can’t wait to see how it turns
out’. The following steps may be followed in designing a research proposal.

22
Writing Research Grant Proposal.
o FORMULATING A RESEARCH QUESTION
o Identify a broad area of interest through literature searches, discussions with
colleagues,
o policy makers and the community, then ask yourself a series of questions:
o − Is this idea stimulating and important enough to me so that I would want to
spend
o Considerable time thinking and reading?
o − Does this idea have long-term potential to be expanded and contribute to my
career?
o − What is the focus of my department, institution, and profession, and how do
their goals fit
o With my topic of interest?
o − Does the idea reflect contemporary thinking in the field?
o − Will the idea contribute by contesting contemporary thinking in the field?
o − Do I know the field and its literature well?
o − What are the important research questions in this field?
o − What areas need further exploration?
o − Could my study fill a gap or lead to greater understanding?
o − Has a great deal of research already been conducted in this topic area?
o − Has this or a similar study been done before? If so, is there room for
improvement?
o − Is the timing right for this question to be answered?
o − Which funding agencies would be interested in funding this study?
o − If you are proposing a service program, are the target community and policy
makers
o interested in such a programme?
o − Most importantly, will my study have a significant impact on the field?

 Evaluate your resources by asking yourself these questions:

 What is my level of expertise, interest and comfort with this topic?
 Do I have the necessary skills or knowledge to carry out my idea?
 Do I have the time to complete the tasks that will be required?
 Am I willing and able to commit the time to a project?
 Do I have the resources needed to complete the project?
 Are others available to serve as collaborators to complement my level of
expertise?

Write an abstract or concept paper that reflects your current thinking. This will help you
narrow your topic and force you to describe your idea systematically. This abstract can
also be used to obtain feedback from colleagues and potential funding agencies.
Discuss your ideas and establish whether the idea fits the priorities of the funding agency
you are targeting.
Begin to reshape your ideas based on these conversations and a further review of the
literature.
Finally, a good research question should be narrow enough to address specific issues but
not so narrow that it can be addressed with a yes or no answer or the gathering of a few
Statistics.

23
FORMULATING A HYPOTHESIS
Hypotheses are more specific predictions about the nature and direction of the
relationship between two or more variables. A well-thought-out and focused research
question leads directly into hypotheses.
Ideally, a hypotheses should:
− Give insight into a research question.
− Be testable and measurable by the proposed research methodology.
Make sure that you:
− Provide a rationale for your hypotheses explaining how they were derived and why
they are strong?
− Provide alternative possibilities for the hypotheses that could be tested and explain
why you choose the ones you did over others?

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

An aim is a broad statement of desired outcomes while objectives are the steps you are
going to take to test your hypotheses or answer your research question.
Make sure that each hypothesis is matched with a specific objective. Your objectives must
be measurable, highly focused and feasible, given the time and money you are requesting
in the grant. Be realistic about what you can accomplish in the duration of the grant and
within the budget requested
PROJECT TEAM
The goal of this section is to demonstrate the experience and competence of the
applicant or project team to perform the tasks of the proposed project. Use this section to
show reviewers that, based on your past successes with similar research, the project team
is capable of carrying out this work. If you have limited experience, complement your
experience by teaming-up with a collaborator to enhance your expertise in certain areas

The principal investigator (PI) is the person responsible for directing the study or
project, and is accountable to the funding Institute for proper conduct of the study.

What makes a good PI? These are some general criteria:

− Recent publications in peer-reviewed journals related to the proposed research area
− Prior supervision of research team members
− Prior position as a key member of a research team
− Receipt of prior funding for grants/contracts in the proposed research area
− Preferably a doctoral degree but sometimes a Masters degree with proven research
experience in the proposed area.

24
SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT (ABSTRACT)
This section should include information relating to:
− The purpose of the research
− The importance of the research
− The background and feasibility of your project
− A brief description of relevant information, the target population, hypotheses, and
methodology
− A brief description of methodology and expected results
− A description of the contributions your research will make to the field of knowledge
and health outcomes.

BACKGROUND

Make certain that your background discussion remains focussed on the issues your
research will address. At the end of each topic, point out to the reader how your
proposed findings will help resolve important issues in the field.
The background section should contain:
− Information about the scope of the problem i.e. why it is widespread, serious, or
important.
− A critical review of the relevant literature, including highlights of ongoing research
and gaps in knowledge. As a general rule, citations older than 10 years should not be
used unless they are absolutely necessary in making the case for the proposed study or,
if they are seminal works that should not be omitted.
− An explanation of why this study needs to be done, and why this research is relevant
and necessary for the target population. The work must be placed in context. Use
statistics and prevalence rates to emphasise the need. Spending some time to conduct a
small pilot study before you submit your proposal will increase your chances of getting
funded. If pilot data is unavailable, specifically mention data relating to similar
projects that support any of the ideas or hypotheses of the proposed study.
A well-grounded theoretical basis for your study or project; remember that reviewers
tend to look favourably upon projects that have strong theoretical underpinnings. You
need to convince the reviewer that you are planning to test hypotheses, not simply
collect data to confirm you favourite hypotheses, and that you are open-minded enough
to reject your hypotheses if the experimental results do not support your hypothesis.
The long-term uses of this research, including the contributions to the existing pool of
knowledge.

METHODOLOGY
The goal of the research design and methods section is to:
− Minimize the number of assumptions reviewers must make about your project.
− Show that you are using scientifically sound approaches.
Make sure that the study you describe corresponds with the specific objectives you listed
earlier in the proposal.
Make sure that the underlying science and methods behind your plan are sound, feasible
and complete as possible.
Give details of:
− The design of the study (e.g. descriptive, comparative, longitudinal, case-control,
quasi-experimental, randomised) and explain why that design was chosen.
− Data collection procedures (how will the data be collected, who will collect the data,
what procedures will be used?).

25
− The procedures for training of researchers or interviewers.
− Access to specialised facilities or equipment where applicable.
− Procedures for handling of participants and confidentiality issues.
− Procedures and approval for working with animals where applicable.
− Possible hazards to research personnel and study participants and procedures to
prevent
dangerous situations.

Briefly discuss the limitations of the proposed study, and alternative methodologies for
carrying out the proposed research plan if these limitations impact negatively on your
ability to conduct the study as planned.

Give a timeline for tasks to be completed during the project period. The timeline must
accurately reflect what was planned for in the study and be consistent with the requested
budget.

Statistical Considerations
Ensure that the following have been fully considered in your methodology section:
− What data will be collected and the frequency of data collection.
− The inclusion and non-inclusion criteria for subjects or participants.
− The source of recruitment of subjects or participants is clearly indicated.
− The nature of the control group, if any, indicating whether it will be simultaneously
studied
or whether it will be a historical reference group.
− The research instruments and data collection forms. If these have already been
developed,
include a copy of each instrument in an appendix. Include details of previous reliability
and validity data for the instruments.
− The sample size. Indicate whether this is sufficient in the light of the expected difference
and the variance within the control and test groups. What power does this sample size
give
you for addressing the objectives of the study? How long will it take to obtain this sample
size?
− Data analysis and evaluation. The data collection should address all the objectives of
the
study and the statistical analysis should consider all the data collected. Indicate the
statistical procedures and methods that you will use to analyse the data for each
hypothesis
you are testing and explain how will you deal with missing data. The methods to be used
for statistical analysis must be appropriate and documented.

BUDGET

Include all other sources of funding for the proposed study.

Provide a justification for all categories of funds requested
Reviewers can recommend budget cuts when they think that expenses are overly high or
unwarranted. The budget must accurately reflect the plan for data collection, data
analysis,
and data write-up.
If you are just beginning as an independent investigator, do not ask for a very large grant.

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Demonstrate that you can complete a good small project for a relatively smaller amount
of money and establish a good track record before applying for larger research grants.

OUTCOMES OF YOUR STUDY

Consider the following questions:
Why are you doing this research?
− What are the long-term implications? Who will benefit from these findings and who
might be deprived or harmed as a result of the study?
− What will happen with the research findings?
− What is the ultimate application or use of the research?
INSTITUTIONAL APPROVAL
Ensure that your proposal has the necessary ethics and institutional approval before
submitting to the funding agency. Incomplete proposals could be returned to you and
will delay the review of your proposal.

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