Cryptography

BLOCK CIPHERS

⚫ Types of symmetric key algorithms

– Block Ciphers: Manipulates blocks of data. Say 64 or 128
bits at a time.
– Stream Ciphers: Manipulates streams of data, typically one
bit at a time

Block cipher
Block Ciphers Vs Stream Ciphers

⚫ Stream ciphers
– Faster Encryption
– Low error Propagation
– Low Diffusion
⚫ Block Ciphers
– Slow Encryption
– High error propagation
– High diffusion
Properties of Block Ciphers

⚫ Correctness
– For a given key, one-to-one mapping between plaintext and
ciphertext
⚫ Two or more plain text cannot map to the same cipher text
⚫ The same plain text can not be mapped to two or more ciphertext
⚫ Efficiency: Encryption and Decryption time should be
in Polynomial time
⚫ Secure: Encryption should satisfy, mapping between
input and output generated by a Random permutation
– One-bit change in the input, half output bits should be changed
Implementation Block ciphers

⚫ Confusion via S-box

⚫ Diffusion via P-Box
⚫ Many rounds
⚫ Fast and easy to implement
⚫ Efficient to reverse
– Same code and hardware should be used for both encryption
and decryption
Secret-key or symmetric encryption

⚫ Ke = Kd .
⚫ Algorithms are fast and suitable for software and
hardware implementations.
⚫ The common key has to be agreed upon by Alice and
Bob before the actual communication.
⚫ Each pair of communicating parties needs a secret
key.
⚫ If there are many communicating pairs, the key
storage requirement is high.
Contd…

Q: how do Bob and Alice agree on key value?

⚫ Diffie-Hellman Symmetric Key Exchange Protocol,
Public key crypto
⚫ Offline methods
 Public-key or asymmetric encryption
⚫ Ke ≠ Kd .
⚫ Introduced by Rivest, Shamir and Adleman (1978).
⚫ Ke is the public key known to everybody (even to enemies).
⚫ Kd is the private key to be kept secret.
⚫ It is difficult to compute Kd from Ke.
⚫ Anybody can send messages to anybody. Only the proper
recipient can decrypt.
⚫ No need to establish keys a priori.
⚫ Each party requires only one key-pair for communicating with
everybody.
⚫ Algorithms are slow, in general.
 Substitution cipher Vs Transposition
cipher

⚫ Substitution cipher
– Changes its identity but retains its position
– Simple process and easy to crack the code
– Ex: cease cipher
⚫ Transposition cipher
– Changes its position, but retains its identity
– Complex and difficult to crack
– Ex: Columnar transposition ciphers
Components used in Block ciphers
Confusion:
– The relationship between the key and ciphertext is obscured
⚫ A common element for achieving confusion is substitution
⚫ The property of confusion hides the relationship between the ciphertext
and the key
⚫ SBOX: It is a key-less fixed substitution cipher
Diffusion:
Influence of one each plain text bit spread over many cipher text
bits
– if we change a single bit of the plaintext, then (statistically) half of the bits in the
ciphertext should change,
– Similarly, if we change one bit of the ciphertext, then approximately one-half of the
plaintext bits should change
– PBOX: It is a key-less fixed transposition cipher
Feistel Cipher
⚫ Feistel cipher refers to a type of block cipher design,
not a specific cipher
⚫ Split plaintext block into left and right halves:
Plaintext = (L0,R0)
⚫ For each round i=1,2,...,n, compute
Li= Ri−1
Ri= Li−1  F(Ri−1,Ki)
where F is round function and Ki is subkey
⚫ Ciphertext = (Ln,Rn)
The parameters and design
features of Feistel network
⚫ Block size:
– Larger block sizes mean greater security but reduced
encryption/decryption speed for a given algorithm.
– Traditionally, a block size of 64 bits
⚫ Key size:
– Larger key size means greater security but may decrease
encryption/decryption speed
– Key sizes of 64 bits or less are now widely considered to be inadequate.
128 bits has become a common size
⚫ Number of rounds:
– A single round offers inadequate security but multiple rounds offer
increased security. A typical size is 16 rounds
 Contd…
⚫ Rounds: Ensure each plain text input bit affects most
ciphertext output bits
– Diffuses better
– Only one round will change one-bit change
Contd…
⚫ Subkey generation algorithm:
– Greater complexity in this algorithm should lead to greater
difficulty of cryptanalysis
⚫ Round function F:
– Greater complexity generally means greater resistance to
cryptanalysis.
⚫ Fast software encryption/decryption:
– In many cases, encryption is embedded in applications in
such a way as to preclude a hardware implementation
⚫ Ease of analysis:
– make our algorithm as difficult as possible to cryptanalysis.
Data Encryption Standard
⚫ DES is the most widely used encryption scheme, adopted in
1977
⚫ National Bureau of Standards, now
⚫ National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

⚫ Features:
– Block size = 64 bits
– Key size = 56 bits (in reality, 64 bits)
– Number of rounds = 16
– 16 intermediary keys, each 48 bits
General Depiction
of DES Encryption
Algorithm
The details
of one round
of DES
 Initial Permutation (IP)

⚫Thistable specifies the input permutation on a 64-bit block.

⚫The meaning is as follows:
⚫The first bit of the output is taken from the 58th bit of the input;
⚫ The second bit from 50th bit, and so on, with the last bit of the output
taken from the 7th bit of the input.
Final Permutation (IP-1)

⚫ The final permutation is the inverse of the initial

permutation
Expansion function

⚫ E is an expansion function which takes a block of 32

bits as input and produces a block of 48 bits as output
⚫

16 bits appear twice,

in the expansion
S-boxes

⚫ The S-Boxes do the real mixing (Confusion). DES

uses 8-Boxes, each with a 6 Bit input and 4 bit output
S-Box rule

Input S-Box-1 is 100011

Ans: Row-3
Column-1
Value is 12

Output: 1100
S-boxes
Key generation

⚫ In rounds i = 1,2,9, 16,

the two halves are
rotated left by one bit
⚫ i = 1,2,9, 16, the two
halves are rotated left
by two bits
 Permuted Choice 1

⚫ In the DES specification, the key length is 64 bit

Permuted Choice 2
DES Decryption
⚫ The same algorithm as
encryption.
⚫ Reversed the order of key
(Key16, Key15, … Key1).
⚫ For example:
– IP undoes IP-1 step of
encryption.
– 1st round with SK16
undoes 16th encrypt round.
Security of DES
⚫ Two major criticisms against the cryptographic
strength of DES
– The key space is too small, i.e., the algorithm is vulnerable
against brute-force attacks
– The design criteria of the S-boxes was kept secret and there
might have existed an analytical attack that exploits
mathematical properties of the S-boxes, but which is only
known to the DES designers
Crypt analysis Attacks
⚫ Brute Force or Exhaustive key search:
– Try all 256 possible keys
– In 1977, Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman estimated that
it was possible to build an exhaustive key search machine
for approximately $20,000,000
– CRYPTO 1993 conference, estimated the cost of his design
– at approximately $1,000,000, and the time required to find
the key at 1.5 days
Contd…
⚫ In 1998, EFF (Electronic Frontier Foundation) built
the hardware machine Deep Crack
 Contd…

⚫ In 2006, the COPACOBANA (Cost-Optimized Parallel

Code-Breaker) machine was built based on commercial
integrated circuits
⚫ DES with an average search time of less than 7 days
Use of DES

⚫ Single DES should only be used for applications

where only short-term security is needed—say, a few
hours—or where the value of the encrypted data is
very low
Analytical Attacks
⚫ In year 1990, Eli Biham and Adi Shamir discovered
what is called differential cryptanalysis (DC)
⚫ DES S-boxes are particularly resistant against this
attack
History of full-round DES attacks
MULTIPLE ENCRYPTION AND
TRIPLE DES
⚫ Strengthening DES to avoid Exhaustive Search: 3DES
Lessons Learned

⚫ DES was the dominant symmetric encryption

algorithm from the mid-1970s to the mid-1990s.
– Since 56-bit keys are no longer secure, the Advanced
Encryption Standard (AES) was created
⚫ Standard DES with 56-bit key length can be broken
relatively easily nowadays through an exhaustive key
search
⚫ DES is quite robust against known analytical attacks:
In practice it is very difficult to break the cipher with
differential or linear cryptanalysis
 Contd…

⚫ triple DES (3DES) is created, against which no

practical attack is currently known
⚫ The “default” symmetric cipher is nowadays often
AES.
 DES modes of operation

⚫ A mode of operation describes the process of

encrypting each of these blocks under a single key
 Terminology
⚫ Initialize Vector (IV)
– A block of bits to randomize the encryption and hence produce distinct
ciphertext
⚫ Nonce: Number (used) Once
– Random of the pseudorandom number to ensure that past
communications can not be reused in replay attacks
– Some also refer to initialize vector as a nonce
⚫ Padding
– The final block may require padding to fit a block size
⚫ Method
– Add null Bytes, Add 0x80 and many 0x00. Add the n bytes with value n
Electronic Codebook Book (ECB)

⚫ Message is broken into independent blocks which are

encrypted
⚫ Each block is a value which is substituted, like a
codebook, hence name
⚫ Each block is encoded independently of the other
blocks
Ci = EK (Pi)
⚫ Uses: secure transmission of single values
 ECB Scheme

⚫ Each block is encrypted separately

⚫ Block synchronization between the encryption and
decryption parties Alice and Bob is not necessary
Remarks on ECB

⚫ Strength: it’s simple.

⚫ Weakness:
– Identical plaintexts are mapped to identical ciphertexts.
– If the same message is encrypted (with the same key) and
sent twice, their ciphertext are the same.
⚫ Typical application:
– secure transmission of short pieces of information (e.g. a
temporary encryption key)
Example image
 Cipher Block Chaining (CBC)
⚫ Two main ideas
– The encryption of all blocks is “chained together”
– The encryption is randomized by using an initialization vector
(IV)
⚫ IV is random each time and transmitted along with cipher text
⚫ Uses: bulk data encryption, authentication
Contd…
Initial Vector (IV)

⚫ If we choose a new IV every time we encrypt, the

CBC mode becomes a probabilistic encryption scheme
⚫ Note that we do not have to keep the IV secret
⚫ IV to be a nonce, i.e., a number used only once
⚫ IV communication ways:
– Randomly chosen number is transmitted to Alice and Bob,
next increment the values
– It could be derived from values such as Alice’s and Bob’s ID
number, e.g., their IP addresses, together with the current
time
Remarks on CBC

⚫ The encryption of a block depends on the current and

all blocks before it.
⚫ So, repeated plaintext blocks are encrypted differently.
⚫ Initialization Vector (IV)
– May sent encrypted in ECB mode before the rest of
ciphertext
Output FeedBack (OFB)

⚫ Is used to build a stream cipher encryption scheme

Remarks on OFB

⚫ Each bit in the ciphertext is independent of the

previous bit or bits. This avoids error propagation

⚫ Security issue
– when jth plaintext is known, the jth output of the forward cipher
function will be known
– Easily cover jth plaintext block of other message with the same IV
⚫ Require that the IV is a nonce
Cipher FeedBack (CFB)

⚫ Uses a block cipher as a building block for a stream

cipher
⚫ It is similar to the OFB mode but instead of feeding
back the output of the block cipher, the ciphertext is
fed back
Contd…
Remark on CFB

⚫ A ciphertext segment depends on the current and all

preceding plaintext segments.

⚫ A corrupted ciphertext segment during transmission

will affect the current and next several plaintext
segments.
CFB V.S. OFB

Cipher Feedback Output Feedback

 Counter (CTR)
⚫ The input to the block cipher is a counter which
assumes a different value every time the block cipher
computes a new key stream block
Key points

⚫ One attractive feature of the Counter mode is that it

can be parallelized because, unlike the OFB or CFB
mode
⚫ Applications with high throughput demands
– in networks with data rates in the range of Gigabits per
second
CTR Encryption and Decryption
Comparison of Different Modes
Contd…
To be explored

⚫ Cryptanalysis of DES algorithm

⚫ Any new Padding techniques
⚫ How do we specify the actual mode used for
Encryption and Decryption in Real-time
Recap

I
W
N
Mathematical Background
⚫ Will focus on these two topics
– Abstract Algebra
– Number Theory
⚫ Cryptography requires sets of integers and specific
operations that are defined for those sets
⚫ The combination of the set and the operations that are
applied to the elements of the set is called an algebraic
structure
Contd…

⚫ Abstract Algebra
– Group {G, .}
– Ring {R, +, *}
– Field {F, +, *, multiplicative inverse}
⚫ These are three different sets with different operations
⚫ Classification of each set, depends on the Axioms it satisfies
 Definitions

⚫ Set
– Is a distinct collection of well-defined objects
– Example:
⚫ N={1,2,3…..N}
– Set of natural numbers
 Group (G, *)
⚫ A Group(G, *) Is a nonempty set G together with a binary
operation (*) on G that the following condition hold:
– Closure: For all a, b 𝜖 G, the elements a+b 𝜖 G
– Inverse: Each element in G has a inverse i.e. ∀a 𝜖G ,
a+a-1=a-1+a=0
– Associativity: For a, b, c 𝜖 G, we have

a+(b+c)=(a+b)+c
– Identity: there exist identity elements e 𝜖 G such that,
∀a 𝜖G, a+e= e+a=a
Contd…
Example:
– A set of Natural numbers (N, +) is not a group, as it does not
satisfy the Inverse Ex: 3+ (-3)=0, but (-3) does not belong to I
– A set of Integers (I, *) is not a group, as it does not satisfy
Identity 3*1/3= 1, but 1/3 does not belong to I
– A set of Rational numbers (Q, +) is a Group
Abelian Group
⚫ Conditions are
– It should be a group and should satisfy (Closure,
Associative, Identity, and Inverse)
– Commutative Property
⚫ ∀ a,b 𝜖 G, a*b=b*a
⚫ Eexample (R,+) is an Abelian Group
⚫ (R,*) is an Abelian Group
 Ring (+, *)
⚫ It consists of a set equipped with two binary operations that
generalize the arithmetic operations of additions and
multiplications
⚫ Ring can also be a group with additional features
Multiplication:
Addition:( +)
⚫Closure: a.b 𝜖 G
⚫Closure: a+b 𝜖 G
⚫Inverse: Each has an additive inverse
⚫Inverse: Each has an additive inverse
⚫ Associativity: a.(b.c)=(a.b).c
⚫ Associativity: a+(b+c)=(a+b)+c
⚫ Distributive property:
⚫ Identity: a+0= a
a.(b+c)=a.b+a.c, (a+b).c=a.c+b.c
⚫ Integers, Real numbers, and Complex numbers are Ring
 Fields (+,*)
⚫ Field (F, +,*) is a set of elements with two binary operations
such as Addition and Multiplication and the following Axioms
are satisfied: ( if a, b, c are elements of F)
For Addition operation For Multiplication
1 Closure 6 Closure 11 No zero divisor
2 Associative 7 Associative
3 Additive Identity 8 Multiplicative identity
4 Additive inverse 9 Distributive 12 Multiplicative
5Commutative 10 Commutative inverse
A1-A4 is Group,
A1-A5 &M6-M9 is
A1-A5 is Abilian Group
Commutative Ring A1-A5 &M6-M11 is A1-A5 &M6-M12 is
A1-A5 &M6-M8 Field
Integral Domain
Properties of Groups, Rings, and Fields
Modular Arithmetic

⚫ Let (a) be an integer and (n) be a positive integer,

then if we divide a by n, will get a quotient (q) and
reminder ( r), 0≤r<n
⚫ a= qn+r
⚫ r is the reminder called the residuo or a mod n
⚫ 11 mod 7= 4
⚫ -11 mod 7= 3
– We can write (-11) as -2*7+3
Questions

⚫ Set of elements in Rational number is Field or not

⚫ Is the set of all elements in z/2 a field or not?
 Finite field

⚫ if the order of the field is finite

⚫ Galois showed that for a field to be finite, the number
of elements should be pm, where p is a prime and m is
a positive integer.
⚫ Finite fields for only PM elements where p is prime and
m is a positive integer
– GF(2)=GF(21)= {0,1} + 0 1 * 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
– GF (5)= GF(51) ={0,1,2,3,4}
1 1 0 1 0 1
– GF(81) =GF(34) ={0 1 2}
– GF(256)=GF (28)
Prime field and extension field

⚫ Pn , where n=1 is called as Prime field

⚫ pn , where n>1 is called an extension field
⚫ Example:
⚫ (21) is a prime field
⚫ (28) is extension field
 Polynomials
⚫ Poly means many and nominal means terms,
⚫ it has many terms
⚫ A polynomial of degree n − 1 is an expression of the form

where xi is called the ith term and ai is called the

coefficient of the ith term.
⚫We can represent the 8-bit word (10011001) using a
polynomial
⚫x7+ x4+ x3+1
 Advantages of Polynomial
Representation
⚫ Arithmetic Operations:
– Polynomial arithmetic is simple, leveraging XOR and shift
operations for addition and multiplication.
⚫ Implementation in Hardware/Software:
– Polynomial-based algorithms are computationally efficient
and widely supported.
⚫ Logical Compatibility:
– Bit-level representation aligns well with the binary nature of
digital systems.
Addition- Example-1

⚫ Let us do (x5+x2+x) (x3+x2+1) in GF(28).

Addition and Subtraction

⚫ Sum C(x)=A(x)+B(x) of two elements from GF(28) is

computed:
A(x) =x7+ x6+ x4+ 1
B(x) = x4+ x2+ 1
C(x) = x7+ x6+ x2

Note: if we computed the difference of the two

polynomials A(x)−B(x) from the example above, we
would get the same result as for the sum
Multiplication
Important points

⚫ GF(2n) order of polynomial will never exceed n-1

⚫ If, after some operation, the order exceeds n-1, then
perform division with an order of n irreducible
polynomial
⚫ Irreducible polynomial
– You can not represent the product of two different
polynomials
Irreducible polynomial

⚫ in finite field operations, is a polynomial that cannot

be factored into the product of two non-constant
polynomials over the same field.
Example:

⚫ Find the result of (x5+x2+x)*(x7+x4+x3+x2+x) in

GF(28) with irreducible polynomial (x8+x4+x3+x+1)
Irreducible polynomial
Degree 2 x^2 + x^1 + 1
Degree 3 x^3 + x^1 + 1
Degree 4 x^4 + x^1 + 1
Degree 5 x^5 + x^2 + 1
x^5 + x^4 + x^2 + x^1 + 1
x^5 + x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + 1
Degree 6 x^6 + x^1 + 1
x^6 + x^5 + x^2 + x^1 + 1
x^6 + x^5 + x^3 + x^2 + 1
Degree 8 x^8 + x^4 + x^3 + x+ 1
x^8 + x^5 + x^3 + x^1 + 1
x^8 + x^6 + x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + x^1 + 1
x^8 + x^6 + x^5 + x^1 + 1
x^8 + x^6 + x^5 + x^2 + 1
x^8 + x^6 + x^5 + x^3 + 1
x^8 + x^7 + x^6 + x^1 + 1
x^8 + x^7 + x^6 + x^5 + x^2 + x^1 + 1
Irreducible polynomial
Inversion in GF(2m)

⚫ Inversion in GF(28) is the core operation of the Byte

Substitution transformation, which contains the AES
S-Boxes
⚫ A−1(x) *A(x) =1 mod P(x)
Advance Encryption Standard (AES)

⚫ In year 2000, NIST

announced that it had
chosen Rijndael as the AES
⚫ Rijndael, by Joan Daemen
and Vincent Rijmen
Basic Structure
Applications

⚫ Internet security standard IPsec, TLS,

⚫ Wi-Fi encryption
⚫ standard IEEE 802.11i,
⚫ Secure shell network protocol SSH (Secure Shell)
AES
4 Transformations
⚫ Byte substitution,
⚫ ShiftRows,
⚫ MixColumns,
⚫ AddRoundKey,
3 Transformations
⚫ Byte substitution
⚫ ShiftRows,
⚫ AddRoundKey,
AES Encryption
and Decryption
Important points:

⚫ Is not a Feistel structure (half of the data block is used to modify

the other half of the data block and then the halves are swapped)
⚫ AES instead processes the entire data block as a single
matrix during each round using substitutions and
permutation
⚫ The key that is provided as input is expanded into an
array forty-four 32-bit words, w[i].
 Operations:
Four different stages are used, one of permutation and
three of substitution:
– Substitute bytes: Uses an S-box to perform a byte-by-byte
substitution of the block.
– ShiftRows: A simple permutation.
– MixColumns: A substitution that makes use of arithmetic
over GF(28).
– AddRoundKey: A simple bitwise XOR of the current block
with a portion of the expanded key.
Contd…

⚫ Basic ops for a round:

– Substitution – byte level (confusion)
– Shift row (transposition) – depends on key length (diff.)
– Mix columns – LSH and XOR (confusion +diffusion)
– Add subkey – XOR used (confusion)
AES Encryption Round
Substitute Bytes Transformation
 S-Box

⚫Left bits determine the row, right bits determine the

column
Example:
Shift row transformation

⚫ The first row of states is not altered.

⚫ The second row is shifted 1 bytes to the left in a circular
manner.
⚫ The third row is shifted 2 bytes to the left in a circular manner.
⚫ The fourth row is shifted 3 bytes to the left in a circular
Example
MixColumn Sublayer
⚫ The MixColumn step is a linear transformation which
mixes each column of the state matrix
⚫ MixColumn(B) =C,
⚫ Each 4-byte column is considered as a vector and
multiplied by a fixed 4×4 matrix.
⚫ The matrix contains constant entries
⚫ Multiplication and addition of the coefficients is done
in GF(28)
 Contd…

⚫The second column of output bytes (C ,C ,C ,C ) is computed by

4 5 6 7

multiplying the four input bytes (B ,B ,B ,B ) by the same constant

4 9 14 3

matrix
⚫ C0=(02*B0)+(03*B5)+(01*B10)+(01*B15)
⚫ C1=(01*B0)+(02*B5)+(03*B10)+(01*B15)
⚫ C2=(01*B0)+(01*B5)+(02*B10)+(03*B15)
⚫C3=(03*B0)+(01*B5)+(01*B10)+(02*B15)
Contd…

Finite Field Multiplication

Similar terms will be cancelled
Contd…

⚫ (02 • 87) ⊕ (03 • 6E) ⊕ 46 ⊕ A6 = 47

⚫ So to show this is the case we can represent each Hex
number by a polynomial:
– {02} = x
– {87} = x7 + x2 + x + 1
– Multiply these two together and we get: x • (x7 + x2 + x + 1)
= x8 + x3 + x2 + x
⚫ The degree of this result is greater than 7 so we have to
reduce it modulo an irreducible polynomial m(x). The
designers of AES chose m(x) = x8 + x4 + x3+ x + 1.
Key generation

⚫ The AES key expansion algorithm

– Takes as input a four-word (16-byte) key and
– Produces a linear array of 44 words (176 bytes)
– Initial round four words and 10 rounds each four words
 Left shift

Substitute bytes
⚫ W8= W4 Ex-OR G(W3)
⚫ W9 = W8 Ex-OR W5
⚫ W10 = W9 Ex-OR W6
⚫ W11 = W10 Ex-OR W7
Example

D R E A M B I G W O R K H A R D
68 82 69 65 77 66 73 71 87 79 82 75 72 65 82 68
68 77 87 72

82 66 79 65

69 73 82 82

65 71 75 68

W0 W1 W2 W3
 Function (g)

⚫RotWord performs a one-byte circular left shift on a

word (This means that an input word [B0, B1, B2, B3] is transformed into [B1,
B2, B3, B0].)
⚫ SubWord performs a byte substitution on each byte of
its input word, using the S-box
⚫ The result of steps 1 and 2 is XORed with a round
constant, Rcon[j].
Mathematical description of the S-
Box

⚫ S-boxes have a strong algebraic structure

⚫ AES S-Box can be viewed as a two-step mathematical
transformation

⚫
Decryption
AES decryption round function
Properties of Modular Arithmetic

⚫ a mod n is the remainder when n divides a,

the reminders can be {0,1,2,3…..(n-1)}
⚫ Modular arithmetic exhibits the following properties:
– [(a mod n) + (b mod n)] mod n = (a + b) mod n
– [(a mod n) - (b mod n)] mod n = (a - b) mod n
– [(a mod n) * (b mod n)] mod n = (a * b) mod n
 Example:
11 mod 8 = 3; 15 mod 8 = 7
Adiition:
– [(11 mod 8) + (15 mod 8)] mod 8 = 10 mod 8 = 2
– (11 + 15) mod 8 = 26 mod 8 = 2
Subtraction
– [(11 mod 8) - (15 mod 8)] mod 8 = -4 mod 8 = 4
– (11 - 15) mod 8 = -4 mod 8 = 4
Multiplication
– [(11 mod 8) * (15 mod 8)] mod 8 = 21 mod 8 = 5
– (11 * 15) mod 8 = 165 mod 8 = 5
Arithmetic Modulo 8

a+e=a
e is an additive identity
mod 8 additive element is 0
 Multiplication modulo 8

⚫ Multiplicative identity for

1, 3,5, and 7

⚫ Conclusion:
⚫ a is relative prime to n, then multiplicative inverse exist
Additive and multiplicative inverse
of mod 8
a Additive Multiplicative
inverse Inverse
0 0 -----
1 7 1
2 6 ----
3 5 3
4 4 ----
5 3 5
6 2 -----
7 1 7
 Z7

Addition mod 7 Multiplication mod 7

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 * 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 0 2 4 6 1 3 5
3 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 0 3 6 2 5 1 4
4 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 0 4 1 5 2 6 3
5 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 5 3 1 6 4 2
6 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 6 5 4 3 2 1

⚫ For each element of z7 multiplicative

inverse exists except Zero
⚫ With addition and multiplication zp (mod p) is a Field
Example

⚫ We can define GF(5) on the set Z5(5 is a prime)with

addition and multiplication operators