Physics II: Electromagnetism

PH 102

Lecture-2

January - May 2025

 ~
The operator r

~ @ @ @ @ @ @
r ⌘ x̂ + ŷ + ẑ which means of course rx ⌘ , ry ⌘ , rz ⌘
@x @y @z @x @y @z

~ is a vector operator, alone it does not have a meaning.

Important: r

In PH101, you have already encountered the derivative as an operator (recall

momentum operator i~@/@x in quantum mechanics).

~ means that r
rT ~ is a vector operator that acts upon a scalar field T to give a
~ does not mean r
vector field. (rT ~ is a vector that multiplies a scalar T ).

~ is an operator, T r
Since r ~ = ~ (unlike ordinary algebra)
6 rT

Still an operator, “hungry for The operator r~ has already

something to di↵erentiate” acted to give a Vector field

IIT Guwahati 2 PH102 (2025)

Differential Calculus of the vector eld
What else can we do with the del or grad operator? Try combining it with a vector eld

~
(a vector).r ~
r.(a vector)
(Still a hungry operator) (is a Scalar)

✓ ◆
~ v @ @ @
The Divergence: r.~ = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ .(vx x̂ + vy ŷ + vz ẑ)
@x @y @z
@vx @vy @vz
= + +
@x @y @z

Divergence is a measure of how much the vector is spread out (diverges) from the point in question.

1.0 2

0.5 1

0.0 0

-0.5 -1

-1.0 -2

-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 -2 -1 0 1 2

non-zero zero divergence: Positive zero divergence

IIT Guwahati 3 PH102 (2025)
fi
fi
Differential Calculus of the vector eld
x̂ ŷ ẑ
The Curl: Another operation with the gradient operator ~ ⇥ ~v =
r @ @ @
@x @y @z
vx vy vz
Curl means how much a vector swirls
around the point in question. If vector eld Or, if you like:
is a velocity eld of a uid then non-zero X
~ ⇥ ~v )i =
(r "ijk rj vk
curl indicates rotational ow.
j,k

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0

-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0

~1 = xŷ
V ~2 = yx̂
V V~3 = y x̂ + x ŷ ~4 = xx̂ + y ŷ
V
~ ⇥V
r ~1 = ẑ ~ ⇥V
r ~2 = ẑ ~ ⇥ V~3 = 2ẑ
r r~ ⇥V~4 = 0

Vector fields with zero curl is

called “irrotational” for obvious reasons!
IIT Guwahati 4 PH102 (2025)
fi
fl
fl
fi
fi
How does the curl represent swirling of a vector eld
Consider water is owing on a circular path shown in gure. A
small volume of water at point (x,y) at time t has coordinates

x = r cos !t, y = r sin !t

Velocity vector eld at point (x,y)

~v = x̂(dx/dt) + ŷ(dy/dt) = r![ x̂ sin !t + ŷ cos !t]

= !( x̂y + ŷx)

The curl of the velocity vector eld: ~ ⇥ ~v = 2ẑ!

r (Non-zero)

Curl of a vector eld can be ideated by placing a paddle wheel

in the ow. If the wheel rotates, the curl is non-zero. The wheel
will rotate with its axis pointing in the direction of the curl.

IIT Guwahati 5 PH102 (2025)

fl
fi
fi
fl
fi
fi
fi
More interesting example
y2 / 2
Imagine a vector eld ~v = ŷv0 e
Field lines point along y-axis and the magnitude varies with y

As expected the curl will be zero: ~ ⇥ ~v = 0

r
x2 / 2
However, consider ~v = ŷv0 e

Field lines still point along y but the magnitude varies with x

~ ⇥ ~v = 2x x2 / 2
r ẑv0 2
e Non-zero curl!

This can be understood by the non-zero torque

on the paddle wheel in the eld, although, there
is no visible swirling of the eld.

IIT Guwahati 6 PH102 (2025)

fi
fi
fi
Second derivatives of vector elds
So far we had only rst derivatives. Why not second derivatives?
Combinations which are possible
2 2 2
~ ~ @ T @ T @ T
r.(rT ) = rx (rx T ) + ry (ry T ) + rz (rz T ) = 2
+ 2
+
@x @y @z 2
~ rT
r.( ~ ) = r.~ rT
~ = r2 T r2 : new operator (scalar) - “Laplacian”
Scalar eld

~ ⇥ (rT
r ~ ) = 0 (why?) ~ ⇥ ~v = 0, there is a
Theorem: If r ~
such that ~v = r

~ r
r.( ~ ⇥ ~v ) = 0 (why?) ~ D
Theorem: If r. ~ = 0, there is a C
~ such that D
~ =r
~ ⇥C
~

~ r.~
r( ~ v ) = a vector field.

~ ⇥ (r
r ~ ⇥ ~v ) = r(
~ r.~
~ v) r2~v
IIT Guwahati 7 PH102 (2025)
fi
fi
fi
Important identities involving Gradient , Divergence and Curl

~ A
r.( ~ + B)
~ = r.
~ A~ + r.
~ B~ ~ ⇥ (A
r ~ + B)
~ =r
~ ⇥A
~+r
~ ⇥B
~

~ + g) = rf
~ + rg
~ ~ g) = f rg
r(f ~ + g rf
~
r(f

~
r.(f ~ = f r.
A) ~ A~ + A.
~ rf
~ Homework

~ A.
r( ~ B)
~ =A
~ ⇥ (r
~ ⇥ B)
~ +B
~ ⇥ (r
~ ⇥ A)
~ + (A.
~ r)
~ B
~ + (B.
~ r)
~ A
~

~ A
r.( ~ ⇥ B)
~ = B.(
~ r ~ ⇥ A)
~ ~ r
A.( ~ ⇥ B)
~ Homework

~ ⇥ (A
r ~ ⇥ B)
~ = (B.
~ r)
~ A
~ ~ r)
(A. ~ B
~ + A(
~ r.
~ B)
~ ~ r.
B( ~ A)
~

~ ⇥ (f A)
r ~ = f (r
~ ⇥ A)
~ ~ ⇥ rf
A ~ Homework

IIT Guwahati 8 PH102 (2025)

 Line, Surface and Volume Integrals

IIT Guwahati 9 PH102 (2025)

Line Integrals
Line integral is an integral where the function to be integrated1.3 Integral Calculus
is evaluated along a path.

dl
b b

∫a,P
v ⋅ dl,
a
y

FIGURE 1.20

integral is independent of path and is det

be our business in due course to characte
that has this property is called conserva

∮
If the path is closed loop v ⋅ dl, Line integrals are basically one
Example 1.6. Calculate
dimensional the line integr
integrals
from the point a = (1,!1, 0) to the point
in Fig. 1.21. What is v · dl for the lo
IIT Guwahati 10 returns to a along (2)? PH102 (2025)
 be our business in due course to characterize this special class of vectors. (A force
Line Integrals
that has this property is(Example)
called conservative.)

2 ̂
Calculate the line integral of the function v = y
Example 1.6. Calculate the line integral of the function
(i) x + 2x(y x̂ y+̂ from
v = +y 21) 2x(ythe ŷ a=(1,1,0) to
point
+ 1)
the point
from theb=(2,2,0)
point a =along
(1, 1,the paths
0) to (1) and
the point b=(2)(2,
shown
2, 0),inalong
the gure.
the paths (1) and (2)
!
in Fig. 1.21. What is v · dl for the loop that goes from a to b along (1) and
returns
(ii) to a along
Calculate (2)?closed line integral from a to b via path (1) and back from b to a via path (2)
also the
Solution
As always, dl = d x x̂ + dy ŷ + dz ẑ. Path (1) consists of two parts. Along the
“horizontal” segment, dy = dz = 0, so
2
" "2
(i) dl = d x x̂, y = 1, v · dl = y d x = d x, so v · dl = 1 d x = 1.

On the “vertical” stretch, d x = dz = 0, so

1.3 Integral Calculus 25
(ii) dl = dy ŷ, x = 2, v · dl = 2x(y + 1) dy = 4(y + 1) dy, so
z
# # 2
y
v · dl = 4dl (y + 1) dyb = 10.
1 2 b
(2)
By path (1), then, (ii)
a 1
# b y a (i) (1)
v · dl = 1 + 10 = 11.
a
x 1 2 x
Meanwhile, on path (2) x = y, d x = dy, and dz = 0, so
dl = d x x̂ + d x ŷ, v · dl = x 2 FIGURE
d x + 2x(x d x = (3x 2 + 2x) d x,
+ 1)11
1.20 FIGURE 1.21
IIT Guwahati PH102 (2025)
and
fi
 By path (1), then,
Line Integrals (Example)
# b
v · dl = 1 + 10 = 11.
a

Meanwhile, on path (2) x = y, d x = dy, and dz = 0, so

dl = d x x̂ + d x ŷ, v · dl = x 2 d x + 2x(x + 1) d x = (3x 2 + 2x) d x,
and
# b # 2
2 3
$
2 $2
v · dl = (3x + 2x) d x = (x + x ) 1 = 10.
a 1

(The strategy here is to get everything in terms of one variable; I could just as well
have eliminated
Chapter in
1.3favor
1 Vector xAnalysis of y.)Calculus
Integral 25

For the loop that goes out (1)

z and back (2), then,
y
! dl b
2 b
v · dl = 11 − 10 = 1.
(2)
(ii)
a 1
y a
(b) Surface Integrals. A surface integral is an expression of the form (i) (1)
"
x 1 2 x
v · da, (1.50)
S
FIGURE 1.20 FIGURE 1.21
where v is again some vector function, and the integral is over a specified surface
integral is independent of path and is determined entirely by the end points. It will
S. Here da is an infinitesimal patch of area, with direction perpendicular to the
be our business in due course to characterize this special class of vectors. (A force
surface (Fig. 1.22). that
IIT Guwahati There are, of course, two12 directions perpendicular to anyPH102 (2025)
has this property is called conservative.)
Line Integrals (example)
Circulation of a vector eld. Consider a vector led A = xyx ̂ + (3x 2 + y)ŷ
Calculate the circulation of this vector led around the circular path : x2 + y2 = 1

Solution

IIT Guwahati 13 PH102 (2025)

fi
fi
fi
Line Integrals (example)

IIT Guwahati 14 PH102 (2025)

 Conservative vector eld
ZZ bb ZZb b✓ Z b✓ ◆ ◆
~ @ @ @@ @ @
=
, ~
r .d~
F .d~r =r = ~x̂ +
r .d~r = ŷ + ẑ
x̂ .(dxx̂
+ ŷ + ẑ ŷ +.(dxx̂
+ dy dz ẑ) + dy ŷ + dz ẑ)
aa aa @x @y
a
@z
@x @y @z
Z b✓ Z b✓ ◆ ◆
@ @ @ @ @ @ Fundamental theorem for gradients.
= dx=+ dy + dx + dz dy + dz Will discuss later in detail.
a @x @y
a @x @z @y @z
Z b Z b
= d = =(b) (a) = (b)
d (a) Integral depends only on the end points,
a a but not on the path chosen.

If a vector eld can be written as F ⃗ = ∇ ⃗ ϕ, then F ⃗ ⋅ dl ⃗ =

∮ ∮
dW = 0 (integral form)

• Work done by such vector elds in a closed loop is zero.

• Gradient of a scalar function is always a conservative eld ( F ⃗ = ∇ ⃗ ϕ).

• We have the vector identify : ∇ ⃗ × ( ∇ ⃗ ϕ) = 0 (Check it !!)
• If F ⃗ = ∇ ⃗ ϕ ⟹ ∇ ⃗ × F ⃗ = 0 (differential form)
• Note : Every vector eld can not be written as a gradient of some scalar eld.

IIT Guwahati 15 PH102 (2025)

fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
Surface Integrals: How do we de ne a surface?
z = f (x, y) or x = f (y, z) or uy = f (x, z) is one of the standard form to represent
surfaces.
Examples

p
2 2
1. z = constant is a plane parallel to xy plane. 2. z = a (c x2 + y 2 )2 is a torus.

Another way to represent: f (x, y, z) = constant

The sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2

IIT Guwahati 16 PH102 (2025)

fi
Surface integrals
Surface integral is an expression of the form

∫S
v . da

Here, v is some vector function and da is an in nitesimal patch of area

∮
v . da

Closed surface integration gives the total or net ux through a closed surface

IIT Guwahati 17 PH102 (2025)

fi
fl
Elementary area on a surface
z
ẑ • Let S be a smooth surface: z = f (x, y).
n̂

• Project it on xy-plane : R be the projection.

da S

• Choose an elementary area da on S and

let n̂ be a unit vector perpendicular to it.
y
• Projection of da on xy-plane is dxdy.
dxdy
) dxdy = |n̂.ẑ| da
x R
dxdy
da =
|n̂.ẑ|
• Hence we can denote da as vector area
✓ ◆
dxdy
d~a = n̂ = n̂da
|n̂.ẑ|
For an open two-sided surface, the “outward” normal shows the direction for
the surface. Open surfaces are bounded by curves and “outward” normal is
defined by the right hand rule-if the bounding curve is traversed in the direction
of rotation of a right handed screw, the direction in which the head of screw
moves is the direction of outward normal.
IIT Guwahati 18 PH102 (2025)
Concept of area as a vector
Imagine a tiny area (like a postage stamp) in 3 dimensions at some location ~r.
What can I do to specify it?

• how big it is? • in which plane it lies?

da square meters (say). in the xy plane (say)

it lies perpendicular to z axis

=) A vector d~a, of magnitude da and direction along the z axis can be
associated with this area.
But, there are two ways to draw ? to xy plane: up or down the z axis.

To further specify the area, to make it an oriented one, we draw arrows that
run around the perimeter of the area in one of the two possible directions.

Area vector will point in the direction following the right hand thumb rule.
Only a planar area can be represented as a vector. Non-Planar areas like a
hemisphere can not be represented by a single vector.

The use of right hand rule in defining areas might remind you of the cross
product and indeed that is true as we will see soon.
Summary
~ is perpendicular to level curves/surfaces.
• rT
~ = 0.
• The scalar field T has extremum/saddle point if rT
~ v and is a scalar. It gives the
• Divergence of a vector field is denoted by r.~
outward flux of the field around a point.
• Curl of a vector field is a vector field and denoted by r ~ ⇥ ~v and non-zero curl
implies rotational flow in case of a velocity field of a fluid.

Line integral If the path is closed loop

Surface integral Closed Surface integral

IIT Guwahati 20 PH102 (2025)

Thank You

21