1.

OSI MODEL(check page 19)

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a conceptual framework developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to standardize the functions of a
telecommunication or computing system. This model divides the network communication process into seven
layers, each layer having specific functions and responsibilities to ensure efficient data transfer across
diverse networks. Here’s an explanation of each layer:

Layers of the OSI Model

1. Physical Layer
o Function: Deals with the physical connection between devices and the transmission of binary
data over physical mediums (e.g., cables, radio frequencies).
o Responsibilities: Defines hardware specifications (cables, switches), signal types, and data
transmission rates.
o Example: Ethernet cables, fiber optics.
2. Data Link Layer
o Function: Provides error detection and correction, and organizes data into frames for
physical transmission.
o Responsibilities: Manages node-to-node data transfer, error handling, and flow control.
Divided into two sublayers: MAC (Media Access Control) and LLC (Logical Link Control).
o Example: Ethernet, Wi-Fi.
3. Network Layer
o Function: Handles data routing, forwarding, and logical addressing, enabling data to find the
best path in a network.
o Responsibilities: Determines the optimal path for data, routes data packets, and provides
logical addressing (IP).
o Example: Internet Protocol (IP), Routers.
4. Transport Layer
o Function: Provides end-to-end communication, reliability, and flow control.
o Responsibilities: Segments data, manages error recovery, flow control, and ensures complete
data transfer between systems.
o Example: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
 5. Session Layer
o Function: Manages and controls the connections (sessions) between computers.
o Responsibilities: Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between applications,
handling session checkpoints and recovery.
o Example: Remote procedure call (RPC), SQL.
6. Presentation Layer
o Function: Translates, encrypts, and compresses data to ensure it is in a usable format.
o Responsibilities: Ensures data is in a readable format for the application layer, managing
data encryption and decryption, data format translation, and compression.
o Example: SSL/TLS encryption, JPEG format.
7. Application Layer
o Function: Provides network services directly to end-users or applications.
o Responsibilities: Supports user interface applications like email, file transfer, and web
browsing, directly interacting with software applications.
o Example: HTTP (for web browsing), FTP (for file transfer), SMTP (for email).

Key Features of the OSI Model

 Standardization: Defines a universal model for communication, ensuring interoperability across

different network systems.
 Layer Independence: Each layer operates independently but interacts with adjacent layers, allowing
for modular updates.
 Protocol Flexibility: Can accommodate a variety of protocols within each layer, which improves
compatibility and reduces complexity.

Importance of the OSI Model

 Interoperability: Allows diverse devices and networks to communicate, facilitating global network
interconnectivity.
 Troubleshooting: Simplifies network troubleshooting by allowing engineers to focus on specific
layers to identify issues.
 Protocol Development: Provides a foundation for protocol development, ensuring standardized and
organized communication processes.

Example of OSI Model in Action

When sending an email:

1. Application Layer (SMTP protocol) enables the email application.

2. Presentation Layer formats the message in readable ASCII code.
3. Session Layer manages the connection between sender and receiver.
4. Transport Layer ensures reliable data transfer (TCP).
5. Network Layer routes the message to the recipient’s IP.
6. Data Link Layer organizes the data into frames for transfer.
7. Physical Layer transmits the data over the physical network medium.

The OSI model provides a systematic way of understanding network communication and the interrelation of
various protocols, ensuring flexibility and robust data exchange in multi-platform environments.
2. TCP/IP MODEL

The TCP/IP Model is a framework developed to support internet communication and interoperability across
diverse networks. It organizes network communication into four layers, each handling specific functions, in
contrast to the OSI Model's seven layers. The TCP/IP model, named after its core protocols (Transmission
Control Protocol and Internet Protocol), is widely adopted due to its simplicity, reliability, and the popularity
of the Internet. Below is a detailed overview of the TCP/IP model, its layers, and a comparison with the OSI
model.

TCP/IP Model Layers and Functions

1. Link Layer
o Function: Manages communication over the physical network, handling device-to-device
data transfer on the same network.
o Responsibilities: Encapsulates IP datagrams into frames for physical transmission and
manages protocols like Ethernet, ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), and PPP (Point-to-
Point Protocol).
o Example Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, ARP.
2. Internet Layer
o Function: Routes data across interconnected networks, allowing it to move from the source
to the destination network.
o Responsibilities: Provides logical addressing (IP addresses), routing, and packet
fragmentation/reassembly. Manages protocols such as IP, ICMP (Internet Control Message
Protocol), and IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol).
o Example Protocols: IP (IPv4, IPv6), ICMP.
 3. Transport Layer
o Function: Ensures reliable data transfer and end-to-end communication between host
devices.
o Responsibilities: Provides flow control, error checking, and retransmission of lost data.
Supports both connection-oriented (TCP) and connectionless (UDP) protocols to allow
flexibility in data transfer.
o Example Protocols: TCP (for reliable, ordered delivery) and UDP (for faster, connectionless
delivery).
4. Application Layer
o Function: Interfaces directly with user applications, enabling various networking functions
like email, file transfer, and web browsing.
o Responsibilities: Supports application-specific protocols and services, merging the
application, presentation, and session functions from the OSI model.
o Example Protocols: HTTP (web browsing), FTP (file transfer), SMTP (email), DNS
(domain name resolution).

Key Differences: TCP/IP Model vs. OSI Model

Aspect OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Seven layers (Physical, Data Link, Network, Four layers (Link, Internet,
Layers
Transport, Session, Presentation, Application) Transport, Application)
Session & Separate layers for session management and Incorporated within the
Presentation Layers data formatting Application layer
A practical model designed for
Flexibility A theoretical model with less flexibility
interoperability and flexibility
Developed by the U.S. Department
Development Developed by ISO as a reference model
of Defense
Layers are more functional and
Layer Functions Defined specific functions per layer
protocol-specific
Efficiency and reliability for
Focus Standardization of protocols
internet communication
Reasons for Lack of OSI Model Success

1. Established TCP/IP: The OSI model was introduced after TCP/IP, which was already widely
adopted and proven effective. Switching to OSI would have required significant time and cost.
2. Incomplete Layer Definitions: The OSI model’s session and presentation layers were not fully
defined, lacking specific protocols and software, which limited its application and development.
3. Performance: In practice, implementations of OSI often did not meet the high performance and
reliability standards already offered by TCP/IP, making it less attractive for internet use.

Strengths of TCP/IP Model

 Interoperability: The model’s flexibility allows seamless integration across different systems and
networks.
 Efficiency: Fewer layers reduce complexity and improve data processing speeds, which is critical for
real-time internet communications.
 Protocol Development: The model provides a robust foundation for protocol development, ensuring
efficient data exchange across various devices and networks.

Example of TCP/IP Model in Action

When a user sends an email:

1. Application Layer (SMTP protocol) enables email service.

2. Transport Layer (TCP) establishes a reliable connection between sender and recipient.
3. Internet Layer (IP) routes the email data to its destination.
4. Link Layer transmits the data over the physical network.

The TCP/IP model’s streamlined structure and practical focus have made it the preferred framework for
internet and network communications worldwide, effectively supporting the growth of the Internet and
various network-based services.
3. SWITCHING - CIRCUIT AND PACKET SWITCHING

Switching is a technique used in networks to manage data transfer between multiple devices or systems. It
enables the movement of data from a source to a destination, often over a series of interconnected links. The
two primary types of switching networks are Circuit-Switched and Packet-Switched networks. Both have
unique characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages, which we discuss below.

1. Circuit-Switched Network

A circuit-switched network establishes a dedicated communication path between the sender and the receiver
for the duration of a connection. This path remains reserved for the communication, whether or not data is
continuously being sent. This type of network was traditionally used in telecommunication networks.
  Setup and Connection: In circuit switching, a dedicated path (circuit) is created between the two
end systems before data transmission begins. The entire bandwidth of this circuit is reserved, even
when there’s no data being transmitted.
 Efficiency: Circuit-switched networks are efficient when operating at full capacity (i.e., when all
circuits are actively in use), as shown in the example where all telephone lines are busy. However,
these networks become inefficient at partial capacity because the dedicated lines remain reserved
even if they are not actively used.
 Example: Consider a network with four telephone lines connected to a switch, as depicted in the
setup. If all four lines are busy, the capacity is fully utilized. However, if only one line is in use,
three-fourths of the capacity remains idle, reducing efficiency.


 Advantages:
o Provides dedicated bandwidth once a circuit is established, ensuring no interference from other
transmissions.
o Suitable for applications requiring constant and uninterrupted data transfer, such as traditional voice
communication.
 Disadvantages:
o Wastes bandwidth when the circuit is not in full use.
o Requires setup time to establish a circuit before data transfer begins.
o Inefficient for bursty data transmission, as the dedicated line may go unused when there is no data to
send.

2. Packet-Switched Network

In a packet-switched network, data is broken down into smaller units called packets and sent individually
across the network. Unlike circuit switching, packet switching does not require a dedicated path; packets can
take different routes to reach the destination.
  Storage and Forwarding: Routers in packet-switched networks use store-and-forward
mechanisms, where packets are temporarily stored and forwarded to the next node. This approach
allows routers to manage traffic effectively and handle multiple connections simultaneously.
 Queue Management: Each router has a queue to store packets temporarily when the network is
congested. If the network is at full capacity, packets are stored in the queue and transmitted in the
order of arrival, ensuring orderly data transmission despite delays.
 Example: In a scenario with limited bandwidth (e.g., only twice the capacity of data lines), packets
from one source can be handled efficiently. However, if multiple devices try to send data
simultaneously, packets are queued and forwarded as bandwidth becomes available.

Advantages:

o More efficient use of bandwidth, as packets from different sources can share the same
network paths.
o Allows for dynamic routing where packets can take different paths based on network
conditions, making it flexible and resilient.
o Suitable for bursty data traffic, such as internet browsing and file transfers.

Disadvantages:

o Packets may experience delays due to queuing, especially during high traffic.
o Does not guarantee a fixed bandwidth, which may lead to variable latency, unsuitable for
applications requiring real-time data delivery.

Comparison: Circuit-Switched vs. Packet-Switched Networks

Feature Circuit-Switched Network Packet-Switched Network

Path Establishes a dedicated path before data No dedicated path; packets take
Establishment transfer begins different paths

More efficient, utilizes bandwidth

Efficiency High efficiency only when at full capacity
dynamically

Resource Fixed resources per session, leading to Dynamic resource sharing across
Allocation potential waste packets

Bandwidth shared among multiple

Bandwidth Usage Reserved bandwidth for the entire session
transmissions

Transmission
Minimal delay once the circuit is established Delay may occur due to queuing
Delay

Reliable for continuous data streams (e.g.,

Reliability Efficient for bursty or intermittent data
voice calls)

Example
Traditional telephone systems Internet and data networks
Application
Summary

1. Circuit-Switched Networks provide dedicated paths and are optimal for constant data streams but
suffer from inefficiency when operating at partial capacity. These networks are commonly used in
applications where uninterrupted connection is essential, such as voice calls.
2. Packet-Switched Networks, on the other hand, allow data to be divided into packets and transmitted
across various paths, making better use of available bandwidth. They are ideal for computer
networks where bursty data transfer is common.
3. Efficiency and Flexibility: Packet-switched networks offer greater efficiency in terms of bandwidth
usage and are more adaptable to dynamic data traffic conditions, while circuit-switched networks
excel in providing stable connections for time-sensitive transmissions.

In conclusion, while both switching methods have their applications, packet switching is generally preferred
for modern data communication, especially for the Internet, due to its ability to handle multiple connections
and improve resource utilization dynamically.
4. TOPOLOGY - MESH, BUS, STAR, RING AND HYBRID

Network topology defines the physical layout of a network, illustrating how devices are interconnected
through links and nodes. Understanding the different types of network topologies is essential as they
determine the network’s efficiency, reliability, and data flow characteristics. Here are the primary types of
network topologies: Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring, and Hybrid.

1. Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, every device is connected to every other device through a dedicated, point-to-point
link. This direct connection allows each device to communicate independently with others, providing high
reliability and redundancy.

 Number of Links: For a fully connected mesh network with nnn nodes, the total number of required
physical links is calculated as:

Total links=n×(n−1)2\text{Total links} = \frac{n \times (n - 1)}{2}Total links=2n×(n−1)

 Advantages:
o High Reliability: Redundant links ensure that if one connection fails, data can still be rerouted.
o Dedicated Channels: Each link only carries traffic between two devices, preventing interference.
 Disadvantages:
o High Cost: Requires a large number of cables and ports, making it costly and complex to implement,
especially for large networks.
o Difficult Maintenance: Adding new devices increases complexity as each new device must be
connected to all existing devices.

2. Star Topology

A star topology has a central controller, or hub, to which all devices are individually connected. Each
device has a point-to-point connection with the hub, which manages and forwards data between devices.
  Communication: Devices cannot communicate directly with each other. Instead, they send data to
the hub, which relays it to the intended recipient.
 Advantages:
o Easy to Install and Maintain: The central hub simplifies adding or removing devices.
o Isolated Failures: If a device link fails, it does not affect other parts of the network.
 Disadvantages:
o Hub Dependency: The network relies heavily on the hub; if it fails, the entire network becomes
inoperable.
o Limited Scalability: Hub capacity limits the number of devices that can be added.

3. Bus Topology

In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single central cable, known as the backbone or bus. This
topology is multipoint, meaning multiple devices share a single communication line.

 Communication: Devices communicate by broadcasting data on the bus, and each device checks if
the data is intended for it.
 Advantages:
o Cost-Effective: Uses less cabling compared to mesh and star topologies.
o Easy Expansion: Devices can be added by extending the backbone.
 Disadvantages:
o Limited Cable Length and Number of Devices: Performance decreases as more devices are added.
o Failure in the Backbone: If the backbone cable fails, the entire network goes down.

4. Ring Topology

In a ring topology, each device connects to exactly two other devices, forming a circular data path. Data
travels in one direction around the ring until it reaches its destination.

 Communication: Data moves from one device to the next in a single direction. Each device includes
a repeater to regenerate the signal as it passes along.
 Advantages:
 o Efficient for Small Networks: Data travels along a single path, reducing the chance of collisions.
o Simplifies Troubleshooting: The circular structure makes it easy to isolate issues.
 Disadvantages:
o Failure Propagation: A break in the ring can disrupt the entire network unless a dual-ring topology
(bidirectional) is implemented.
o Data Delay: Data must pass through multiple devices before reaching its destination, causing
potential delays.

5. Hybrid Topology

A hybrid topology combines two or more of the basic topologies to form a complex network layout. For
instance, a network might have a star topology in one area and a bus topology in another, connected to form
a larger network.

 Advantages:
o Flexibility and Scalability: Allows networks to expand easily by combining topologies that best fit
each section’s needs.
o Reliability: Faults in one section don’t necessarily impact the entire network.
 Disadvantages:
o Complex Design and Management: Implementing and maintaining a hybrid topology requires
careful planning and resource allocation.
o High Cost: Combining different topologies can be expensive, especially when managing
compatibility between them.
Comparison of Network Topologies

Topology Description Advantages Disadvantages

Every device connected to High reliability, dedicated

Mesh High cost, complex installation
every other device connections

All devices connect to a Easy to install and maintain, Hub dependency, limited by hub
Star
central hub isolated failures capacity

Devices share a single Limited scalability, backbone

Bus Cost-effective, easy to expand
communication line failure affects network

Efficient data transfer, easy Failure affects entire ring,

Ring Devices form a closed loop
troubleshooting possible data delay

Combination of two or more Complex design, expensive to

Hybrid Flexible, scalable, reliable
topologies implement

Summary

1. Mesh Topology offers a fully connected network with high redundancy but is costly and complex to
maintain.
2. Star Topology simplifies connections with a central hub, making it suitable for small networks but
heavily reliant on the central hub.
3. Bus Topology uses a single backbone cable, making it cost-effective but susceptible to backbone
failures.
4. Ring Topology ensures orderly data flow in a closed loop but can be disrupted by a single device
failure.
5. Hybrid Topology combines topologies to create versatile, scalable networks, though it requires
more complex management.

Selecting an appropriate topology depends on factors like network size, required reliability,
budget, and desired scalability. Each topology has distinct benefits and limitations, and
hybrid networks often combine multiple topologies to leverage the strengths of each.
5. PROTOCOL LAYERING

Protocol Layering
Protocol layering in data communication and networking is a method that defines the rules for
communication between devices. It divides complex communication tasks into multiple layers, each of
which handles a specific aspect of the process. By separating tasks, protocol layering simplifies
troubleshooting, allows for modularity, and makes the network easier to design and manage. Here’s a
breakdown of the concepts involved in protocol layering:

Scenarios Illustrating Protocol Layering

1. First Scenario:
In simple communication, only one layer is needed. For instance, when two friends, Maria and Ann,
converse face-to-face, they follow certain rules such as greeting each other, allowing each person to
speak in turn, and using language that’s suitable for their friendship level. This scenario requires a
single-layer protocol since both parties communicate directly without needing complex rules or
encryption.
2. Second Scenario:
When Ann relocates, she and Maria still want to communicate and decide to use regular mail. For
added security, they encrypt and decrypt their messages to protect their ideas. This setup requires
three layers:
o Layer 3 (Communication): Where they generate the message.
o Layer 2 (Encryption/Decryption): Where the message is encrypted or decrypted for
security.
o Layer 1 (Sending/Receiving): Handles sending and receiving the encrypted message through
the mail.

In this scenario, modularity is achieved through layering, which allows them to change only the
encryption layer if needed, without impacting other layers.
Advantages of Protocol Layering

 Modularity: Allows different layers to operate independently. If one layer needs changes, other
layers remain unaffected, making the network adaptable.
 Separation of Services and Implementation: Each layer provides a specific service to the layer
above it, without needing to know how the layer below accomplishes its task.
 Simplified Intermediate Systems: Intermediate systems, like routers, do not need to implement all
layers, reducing complexity and cost. They only handle specific layers necessary for their function.

Disadvantages of Protocol Layering

 Increased Complexity for Simple Communication: For simple communication, a single-layer

protocol might suffice. However, layered architecture can add overhead by requiring each layer to
interact with the one above and below it.

Principles of Protocol Layering

1. First Principle - Bidirectional Communication:

Each layer must be capable of performing its function in both directions (sending and receiving),
such as:
o Layer 3: Listening and speaking
o Layer 2: Encrypting and decrypting
o Layer 1: Sending and receiving mail
2. Second Principle - Layer Matching:
Each layer at one end must match the corresponding layer at the other end. For example, the third
layer in both ends handles the plaintext letter, the second layer handles the ciphertext, and the first
layer manages the mail envelope.
Logical Connections

Protocol layering assumes logical connections between corresponding layers on either end of the
communication channel. These logical connections enable Maria and Ann, for instance, to perceive that their
communication flows directly between layers, even though physical transfer occurs sequentially through
each layer.

In summary, protocol layering offers modularity, simplifies troubleshooting, and is an essential method in
complex network communication. It enables communication tasks to be divided into distinct, manageable
layers, each with well-defined functions, promoting flexibility and interoperability across network systems.
6. PERFORMANCE

In data communication and networking, the performance of a network or communication system is critical
for determining its efficiency and usability. Various metrics are used to assess network performance,
including bandwidth, throughput, latency, bandwidth-delay product, and jitter. Each of these plays a distinct
role in evaluating how data is transmitted and received.

1. Bandwidth

Bandwidth is a measure of the capacity of a network to transfer data. It is categorized into two types:

 Bandwidth in Hertz: Refers to the range of frequencies that a channel can pass. For example, a
telephone line typically has a bandwidth of 4 kHz. Higher bandwidth in hertz means the channel can
accommodate a broader frequency range, leading to potentially more data transfer capability.
 Bandwidth in Bits per Second: This is the maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a
channel or link, measured in bits per second (bps). For example, a Fast Ethernet network has a
bandwidth of 100 Mbps. An increase in bandwidth often results in a higher capacity for data transfer,
though it may vary based on whether the system uses baseband or modulated transmission.

2. Throughput

Throughput represents the actual rate at which data is successfully transmitted through a network, usually
lower than the theoretical bandwidth due to various factors such as network congestion, hardware
limitations, and protocol inefficiencies. For instance, a link might have a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the
throughput might be limited to 200 kbps due to device constraints or network congestion.

3. Latency (Delay)

Latency, or delay, measures how long it takes for an entire message to travel from the source to the
destination. Latency is composed of four main components:

 Propagation Time: The time it takes for a signal to travel from the source to the destination,
depending on the distance and the speed of propagation (e.g., the speed of light in a vacuum is
approximately 3×1083 \times 10^83×108 m/s).
 Transmission Time: The time required to push all bits of a message onto the medium, calculated as:

Transmission Time=Message SizeBandwidth\text{Transmission Time} = \frac{\text{Message

Size}}{\text{Bandwidth}}Transmission Time=BandwidthMessage Size

 Queuing Time: The waiting time a message undergoes at intermediate devices like routers. This
time varies based on the network load; higher congestion leads to increased queuing time.
 Processing Delay: The time taken by devices to process the message, which is usually a minor
component but still contributes to overall latency.

Total Latency=Propagation Time+Transmission Time+Queuing Time+Processing Delay\text{Total

Latency} = \text{Propagation Time} + \text{Transmission Time} + \text{Queuing Time} + \text{Processing
Delay}Total Latency=Propagation Time+Transmission Time+Queuing Time+Processing Delay
4. Bandwidth-Delay Product

The bandwidth-delay product (BDP) represents the amount of data that can be in transit in the network at
any given time. It’s calculated as:

Bandwidth-Delay Product=Bandwidth×Delay\text{Bandwidth-Delay Product} = \text{Bandwidth} \times

\text{Delay}Bandwidth-Delay Product=Bandwidth×Delay

BDP is significant for determining the buffer size needed in high-speed networks to prevent data loss and
optimize throughput. For instance, a high bandwidth with low delay allows fast data transfers, while a high
bandwidth with high delay (e.g., in satellite communication) means data can take longer to reach the
destination.

5. Jitter

Jitter refers to the variation in packet arrival times, which can be problematic in time-sensitive applications
like video or voice calls. Different packets encountering different delays disrupt the smooth flow of data and
can affect the quality of real-time applications. For instance, if one packet arrives in 20 ms and another in 45
ms, the application may experience jitter, causing audio or video disruptions.

Conclusion

These performance metrics — bandwidth, throughput, latency, bandwidth-delay product, and jitter —
provide a comprehensive understanding of network performance. They help identify bottlenecks, optimize
data flow, and ensure that the network meets the requirements of different applications, especially those
sensitive to real-time performance.
1. OSI MODEL for 13 m
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model, developed by ISO (International Organization for
Standardization), is a conceptual framework that standardizes the functions of a network system into seven
distinct layers. The OSI model was introduced in the late 1970s to enable interoperability between
heterogeneous systems without altering underlying hardware or software.

Purpose of OSI Model

The OSI model is not a protocol but a guideline for designing network architecture that is robust, flexible,
and interoperable. It ensures communication across various systems regardless of their structural differences
by organizing the process into layers. Each layer is designed to perform specific tasks to allow seamless data
transmission across networks.

OSI Model Layers

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1)

o Interface Characteristics: Defines characteristics of the interface between devices and

transmission media.
o Bit Representation: Handles raw bits and encodes them into signals (electrical or optical) for
transmission.
o Data Rate: Specifies the transmission rate or bit duration.
o Synchronization: Ensures synchronization between sender and receiver clocks.
o Line Configuration: Manages device connections in either point-to-point or multipoint
setups.
o Topology: Defines network layouts like mesh, star, ring, bus, or hybrid.
o Transmission Mode: Manages simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex communication modes.
2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

o Framing: Breaks data into manageable frames.

o Physical Addressing: Adds header information with sender and receiver addresses.
o Flow Control: Prevents receiver overload by managing data flow rates.
o Error Control: Detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames using an error-checking
mechanism.
o Access Control: Determines which device can use the link when multiple devices are
connected.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3)

o Logical Addressing: Adds a header containing sender and receiver logical addresses to help
in identification across networks.
o Routing: Manages packet forwarding across interconnected networks, using routers to
determine the best path.
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

o Service-Point Addressing: Ensures data reaches the correct process on the destination
computer using port addresses.
o Segmentation and Reassembly: Divides messages into segments for transport, using
sequence numbers to reassemble at the destination.
o Connection Control: Supports both connection-oriented and connectionless services.
o Flow Control: Manages end-to-end flow control across the entire network path.
5. Session Layer (Layer 5)

o Dialog Control: Enables session establishment in half-duplex or full-duplex modes for

controlled data exchange.
o Synchronization: Provides checkpoints to keep track of data transfer progress, enabling
resynchronization if disrupted.
6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

o Translation: Converts data between application formats (e.g., ASCII to EBCDIC).

o Encryption: Ensures data security by encrypting data at the sender's end and decrypting it at
the receiver's end.
o Compression: Reduces data size for more efficient multimedia (text, audio, video)
transmission.
 7. Application Layer (Layer 7)

o Network Virtual Terminal: Simulates a physical terminal on a remote host.

o File Transfer, Access, and Management (FTAM): Allows remote file access and
management.
o Mail Services: Supports email functionality, including forwarding and storage.
o Directory Services: Offers distributed database access for information on objects and
services in the network.

Communication and Encapsulation

Each OSI layer communicates with its peer layer on another device using protocols. Within a device, each
layer relies on the services of the layer below it. Encapsulation is the process of wrapping data from a higher
layer with a header for the lower layer to ensure organized data transmission.