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Time Domain

Chapter 2 of the document focuses on Time Domain Analysis in network analysis, detailing the transient response of circuits, the effects of circuit order, and methods for determining responses using Laplace Transform. It explains the behavior of capacitors and inductors during sudden changes in voltage, introduces key concepts such as state variables and time constants, and discusses the importance of both transient and steady-state responses in circuit design. The chapter also includes examples and expressions for analyzing first and second-order circuits under different conditions.

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20 views75 pages

Time Domain

Chapter 2 of the document focuses on Time Domain Analysis in network analysis, detailing the transient response of circuits, the effects of circuit order, and methods for determining responses using Laplace Transform. It explains the behavior of capacitors and inductors during sudden changes in voltage, introduces key concepts such as state variables and time constants, and discusses the importance of both transient and steady-state responses in circuit design. The chapter also includes examples and expressions for analyzing first and second-order circuits under different conditions.

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Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Chapter 2- Time Domain Analysis Objective Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to: ‘© Determine the Transient Response of a circuit. © Understand how the order of a circuit affects its response. ‘© Determine Transient Response using Laplace Transform. ‘© Determine Sinusoidal Steady State Response. ‘+ Understand the phasor terminology. ‘+ Understand Resonance Condition in an AC Circuit, Introduction This chapter explores the response of capacitors and inductors to sudden changes in DC voltage (called a transient voltage), when wired in series with a resistor. Unlike resistors, which respond instantaneously to applied voltage, capacitors and inductors react over time as they absorb and release energy. A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current (AC). Such a current reverses at regular time intervals and has alternately positive and negative values. Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage sources are called AC circuits. A sinusoidal forcing function produces both a natural (or transient) response and a forced (or steady-state) response, much like the step function. The natural response of a circuit is dictated by the nature of the circuit, while the steady-state response always has a form similar to the forcing function, However, the natural response dies out with time so that only the steady-state response remains after a long time. When the natural response has become negligibly small compared with the steady-state response, we say that the circuit is operating at sinusoidal steady state. Electrical Transient Transient indicate sudden change in state of a circuit or network, which are represented by switch operation in the circuit. Systems and circuits undergo transients as they are not adaptable for sudden changes. * Inductor never allows sudden change in current and capacitor never allows sudden change in voltage else law of energy conservation will fal © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 1 www.kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la * Transients are also regarded as argument between the input command and the passive element response with respect to the state variable as a system is changing its state. * Though transient occur for very short duration in time but they decide the entire steady state performance. * Transient state analysis is very important for a designer however customers always look into steady state performance. State Variable Generally voltage and current are state variable in any circuits or network. State Variables are associated with energy storage elements present in the circuit. State of a system is determined by these State Variables. State variable is covered in more details in state space analysis, of control system. «Ina capacitori= ct Voltage across capacitor is the correct state variable. di © Inan inductory =L Current through inductor is correct state variable. dt Note * To determine the solution in transient state we first determine the correct state variable and hence by using all the methods of analysis we can find solution for any parameter with in the circuit. ‘* The response of a circuit or network with a presence of source is called as forced or sourced response. This response is independent of the nature of passive elements and initial conditions but purely depends up on type of input and different for different types of inputs. + The response of any circuit or network without any source is called as source free response or natural response. This response is independent of input but purely depends Up on the nature of passive elements and there initial conditions. This response is always unique and depends up on the characteristic equation governing the network. Total response =forced response + source free response OF Total response = Steady state + Natural response suo sateTexponie zero Up Yesponse © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 2 www.kreatryx.com V i Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) Initial conditions These are the critical values of voltages across capacitors and currents through inductors respectively. State change occur in any circuit which are indicated as:- t=0" instant just before switch operation (steady state before switch operation) £0 exact instant of switch operation 10" instant just after switch operation (Transient state solution) ‘t=00 Steady state after switch operation Order of Circuit Order of the circuit = Number of energy storage elements distributed in the circuit Ex. RL, RC = 1 order RLC, LC, LR, CCR= 2" order Passive elements during transient state s=jw Elements DC steady state | AC steady state | Transient state ~~ __(5=0) (jw) (s=00,t=0*) ZReR R R R R Zi=sL=jwl L S.C ‘V lags 'V' by 90° | O.C. yet |e Oc. ‘V leads 'V’by 90° | S.C. SC jac 1 order circuits There being two types of first-order circuits (RC and RU), there are two ways to excite the circuits. The first way is by initial conditions of the storage elements in the circuits. In these so called source-free circuits, we assume that energy is initially stored in the capacitive or inductive element. The energy causes current to flow in the circuit and is gradually dissipated in the resistors. Although source free circuits are by definition free of independent sources, they may have dependent sources. The second way of exciting first-order circuits is by independent sources. The independent sources we will consider are de sources. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 3 www.kreatryx.com re i Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) Time Constant It is time taken by the response to reach 36.7% of its initial value or it is time taken by the response to reach 63.4% to it final value, Source Free RC circuit A source-free RC circuit occurs when its de source is suddenly disconnected. The energy already stored in the capacitor is released to the resistors. = State variable=V Let vio)= V, cL. Apply KCL R z my mo) “Sf[ initial value L 367% v.(t) =e “335% Final value ‘ But at t=0, V=V, > Ve(t) = Ve \C (Time constant of 1* order circuit) V(t=0)=\ «Fort <5r, circuit will be in transient state and for t 2 5t, circuit will be in steady state. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 4 www.kreatryx.com e Domain Analysis) re i Network Analysis (Tit Expression for current through capacitor: Ne cA fyerke) == a ae } es it~ -(e le and vo-[E)e A Expression for power dissipated in the resistor {he%w Expression for energy decay of the capacitor 2 ; def yer ) =foueresss 2k 2 Expression for charge in the capacitor Q=Cy, =CVye™ = CVye** C Note: The expression for energy decay of capacitor & power dissipated of the resistor is 2 time faster than voltage decay. Source Free RL circuit A source-free RL circuit occurs when its de source is suddenly disconnected. The energy already stored in the inductor is released to the resistors. State variable=i Let i(0)=1, Apply KVL iR-V, =0 367lo| © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 5 www.kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) hf, ——————r—rnanen But at t=0", =|, >A =H it PAN £ ime constant of RL Circuit) Expression for voltage across Inductor di -¥ Vat 1Re% Lae —leRe Voltage across Resistor V(t) =1,Re™* Expression for power dissipated in resistor Expression for energy decay of the inductor aii? =tufpe%) = Tipe Xe & = pitt dive ) pike Expression for flux linkage in the inductor “¥, le“ o,-T ve vend Note: Time constant is always find out with respect to state variable, Solved Example Problem: Find time constant for the circuit shown below Solution: Time constant t= CR,, where R., is equivalent resistance across capacitor R., =(2112)+(3]16)=30 £=3x3=9usec © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 6 www.kreatryx.com re i Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) Problem: Find time constant for the circuit shown below Se t20 20 Sur j 1 Solution: If one or more capacitors or inductors are there in the circuit then first find equivalent capacitance or inductance, then find equivalent resistance across it. C,,=3|)6=2uF R,,=30 + 2x3=6ysec Problem: Find time constant for the circuit shown below Solution: Time constant t= + where Rj, is equivalent resistance across inductor R,, =2II(3I16)=12 t=1x1= ‘msec Problem: Find time constant for the circuit shown below 6a 50, ov © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 7 www.kreatryx.com V ij Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) Solution: L., = 14|| 14 =7mH R,, =(6||3)+5=70 ‘msec Problem: Find time constant for the circuit shown below Solution: We can’t lumped these R & L, so it is 2 order system. This circuit has multiple time constant of multiple segment & solution can be determine by Laplace transform method or by solving simultaneous differential equation. Problem: if V(0)=15Volts find the complete expression for |, 120 Solution: v.(t)=yje"*, t=.1%4=04 7 V, (t)=15e "4 15 faa 3 gota ' Maggette A Problem: Find the complete expression for i 120 bu bs , inductor will be short circuit and also the voltage source, that’s not possible. to L R gy é a: Parallel RL circuit is similar to Series RL circuit. Replace V, IR in equations of series RL circuit. Solved Example: Problem: Find the expression for capacitor voltage v(t)? ab Solution: when switch is on position ‘a! . z V.(0")=10% 5 =5V When switch is on position ’b’ " V, (0) =5x2=10V * v 10 V.(t)=10+(5-10)e** Vv, v. 5A V.()=10-Se** V ® © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 14 www. kreatryx.com V i Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) Problem: Find the expression for inductor current it)? Solution: i(0°)=5A and i 122 Losec 5 i(t) =24 (5-2) y= 2430 A 2 order circuits Analysis of second-order circuits will be similar to that used for first-order. We will first consider circuits that are excited by the initial conditions of the storage elements. Although these circuits may contain dependent sources, they are free of independent sources. These source free circuits will give natural responses as expected. Later we will consider circuits that, are excited by independent sources. These circuits will give both the natural response and the forced response. Source free Series RLC circuit Series RLC circuit is being excited by the energy initially stored in the capacitor and inductor. The energy is represented by the initial capacitor voltage Ve and initial inductor current lo R L Dominant state variable is i Apply KVL © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 15 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) hf, ——————r—rnanen Use Laplace transform Lstis)+sRits)+42)—0 [Assume Vo=0 &f=0] 2.8, 1) ial +is+ie] ° > Ro wWsyeo, s+ Bs. 4 is)e0, st+Bse a. fey (2) 5,5, are called natural frequencies 55. R Let a= © —Damping Factor oe ping R41 Case 1: if 1>@, => > merce ‘over damped response (é > 1) The two roots are —ve, real and unequal, so solution of differential equation is it)=A,e' +A, 0° A,,A, are arbitrary constant, which can be determined from initial condition RS itically da od (E=1) SFE Miitically damped (§ = a7 Je ly damped (5 Case 2: If 0=0, The two roots are ~ve, real and unequal, so solution of differential equation is id =e (A, +A,t) R a 2 <0 => a Te underdamped (0<& <1) The two roots are complex conjugate and -ve, so solution of differential equation is i) =e *[A, cos(0,t) +A, sin(o,t)] [oz a (Damped Frequency) ©, © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 16 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la °@ @ @ Source free Parallel RLC circuit Parallel RLC circuit is being excited by the energy initially stored in the capacitor and inductor. The energy is represented by the initial capacitor voltage Vo and initial inductor current Io. Parallel RLC circuits are used in practical applications, for example in communications networks and filter designs Dominant state variable-V Apply KCL. Use Laplace Transform [ce + : + ‘ie =0 [Assume Vo=0 & lo=0] 1 = 52 =Damping Factor let ¢= 59 ping =Undamped Natural Frequency or Resonant Frequency © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 7 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la 11 Case trlf 0> a =>50° "TE ‘over damped response (§>1) The two roots are -ve, real and unequal, so solution of differential equation is Vi=A, eS +A, Where A,.A, Arbitrary constant, which can be determined from initial condition Case 2: 0 = 0, critically damped response (= 1) eee 0? BRC Vie The two roots are -ve, real and equal, so solution of differential equation is V.(t) =e" (A, +A,t) 11 Case 3: 0 <0 => 0 Sica damped response (0<é <1) The two roots are complex conjugate and ~ve, so solution of differential equation is V, (t) =e*[A, cos(o,t) +A, cos(o,t)] Where @,- faz —a® [Damped Frequency] °@ @® @ Solved Example Problem: Find the nature of the response for i(t}? i (ww tov © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 18 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) Solution: For series RLC circuit R41 g-8e1 a 2 aV_( V(H=Ves(t) + M(t) So, V(t), at ta att) Vs V(t)=V, R But V, (t) depends upon values of R, L, C Vs. sebse tio verte - 54,5, RR ary So the complete solution, V, + Aye" +A,e2 over damped response V(t)={V, +e (A, + Alt) critically damped response Ve+e**(A, cos(«,t) +A; cos(«,t)) under damped response © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 19 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) hk eee Parallel RLC circuit Step response is obtained by the sudden application of a dc source. Here we want to find | due to sudden application of a de current. te Dominant state variable —> i itd =i,,(0 +00 ® . So iy(t) at to i,,(0) Butl, (t); depends upon value of R, L, C I, Cc Rn z =. and a= /4 OO RE ONC So, the complete solution, | L=Ae" +Aje™ over damped response i(t)=sh +e (A, +A,t) critically damped response L +e (A,cos(o,t)+A, cos(o,t)) under damped response © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 20 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Note: In determining the solution of second order circuit, finding correct value of arbitrary constant A, & A, is a big challenge. So we should refer to initial condition. Higher the order of the circuit large Number of arbitrary constant exists. Initial condition (Transient state) Initial condition means solution at Equivalent circuit representation of passive element during transient state (t=0*) Element Equivalent (t=0°) R R —w1-——. —w1— oc —— 295 SS sc L oc b © sc +Vo- Vo Solved Example di(o") aio") Problem: Find i(0°),—_—, for the circuit shown below dt a _ ayaa 0 © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 21 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Sohition: AFfo0"svttents open inductor don't allow Suddent Change in Current Apply KVL 100 - 101-107 4) i dt . -) 192 2) t=0", 100-10i(0")—10 a di(o") tA. rT 7 100K A / sec Differentiate eq, (i) at t= 0" AC Transient AC transient are less affected then dc transient's because * Once the equipment (or) network working in AC supply and is designed for peak ratings. So, the network at any other instant by default safe. © There are natural zero voltage & zero current instants. We can completely avoid transient if switch will operate exactly these instants. * Any surge occurring in AC supply can hardly travel upto half of supply cycle & can naturally suppress to zero. Series RL Circuit Apply KCL di ; Lat RI= Vy sin(ot) The solution of this differential equation is ()=ts(t) +ie(t) ot—9)+Ae* winere 0=ten"( SE) 2 JR? +(ol) and : © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 22 www. kreatryx.com re i Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) Att=0°, i(0")=0 (6) +A iw ‘+ If input excitation in cosine terms then we can also express output solution for it, in cosine terms. Note: if V, = V, sin(ot +0) Then i(t)= Y sin(at +0) + Ae kK Att=0°, i(0"}=0 A=—Yasin(o-4) © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 23 www. kreatryx.com e Domain Analysis) re i Network Analysis (Tit Note: For RL load To avoid transient operate the switch exactly at point ‘A’. At this point current in circuit is zero. \ (£}em(24) } R Where t, =Time at which switch must be operate, Series RC circuit Apply KVL inal iR+ 1 fidt =V, sin(ot) The solution of this differential equation is =i,(t)+i,, (t) a sin(ot+9)+A,e* Where Z = Att=0°, i(0°)=0 Vin psn) So, complete solution is Va qBsinge asin (ot +4)— © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 24 www. kreatryx.com e Domain Analysis) re i Network Analysis (Tit ha iw ‘+ If input excitation in cosine terms then we can also express output solution for it, in cosine terms. Note: if V, /, sin(cot +8) -Y Then i( Yasin (ot +0+$)+Ae Att=0°, i(0°)=0 sin(8+6)+A wanes) = a sin(0 +4) So compl solution is i a Solved Example Ye sin(ot +06) Problem: Find the switching time to avoid transient in the circuit shown below © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 25 www. kreatryx.com V i Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) Solution: To avoid transient switch should be operate when current in the circuit is zero 2n%50%.01 tan") t, = ttant| S2*90" OF 2 =1.78 msec oo 5 700% If we can operate the switch exactly after 1.78 msec from the instant where the voltage become zero then we can avoid transient Problem: In the above problem if V, is V,,sin(wt-10°) & f is 50Hz. Calculate switch instant which results transient free response for current (= Solution: To avoid transient (ot, ~ 9) = tan’ (2), 10xm an| =) 5)" 180 2.33 msec Transient Analysis using Laplace Transform Our Transient analysis has been limited to circuits with sinusoidal inputs. In other words, we have assumed sinusoidal time-varying excitations in all our non-de circuits. Laplace transform isa very powerful tool for analyzing circuits with sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal inputs. The Laplace transform is significant for a number of reasons. First, it can be applied to a wider variety of inputs than phasor analysis. Second, it provides an easy way to solve circuit problems involving initial conditions, because it allows us to work with algebraic equations instead of differential equations. Third, the Laplace transform is capable of providing us, in one single operation, the total response of the circuit comprising both the natural and forced responses. Laplace transform of a function f(t) is denoted by F(s) or L{f(t)}, is given by L{f(b)} =F(s)=ff(tetdt Where $=6+ jo > © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 26 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Laplace transforms of some elements Element Laplace Transform v(t) vs) its ie v =“ s T R C L V,,sin(ot) V,, cos(ot) s Equivalent circuit representation of passive element in Laplace Domain Inductor ‘L’ with initial current ‘1 In Time domain ico iw, G Uo > 4 © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 27 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la V(s)=stl(s)-Ll, or Capacitor ‘C’ with initial voltage * Vo" In Time domain ) : i Vo wo «8M > wo 16) 5 Wis ve T use Solved Example Problem: Fine V» if 50, (@) V,(t)= att) (b) V(t) =e u(t) Solution: Given circuit can be redrawn as in frequency domain (s Gi (: ) Vs(s) 2 q (a) V,()=a(t) => V(s)=1 50 VA(s)=V4 (9) © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 28 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) hf, ——————r—rnanen s) 2| s__s+10 10 ‘\s¥10 +10 s+10 3°) V, (t) =8(t)-10e"™ 1 +41 Eyal) les) Bes (b) Vj()=e*u) => V{6)= = Sinusoidal st Impedance The impedance Z represents the opposition which the circuit exhibits to the flow of sinusoidal current. Although the impedance is the ratio of phasor voltage V to the phasor current | itis not a phasor, because it does not correspond toa sinusoidally varying quantity. z-Yo Impedance of Resistors Z = Impedance of Inductor Z 1 itor Z=—~ 2 Impedance of Capacitor Z == * Rectangular form of impedance Z=R4jX @ Where R= Re(Z} =resistance Im{Z}=reactance [ +ve for inductance and —ve for capacitance ] * Polar form of impedance Z=R+ jX=|Z| 20 x) Where [Z| = VRE Xe -o=tan" |) =impedance angle or power factor angle R=|2|cos@ , |X|=Zsino © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 29 www. kreatryx.com V i Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) Admittance The admittance Y of an element (or a circuit) is the ratio of the phasor current through it to the phasor voltage across it or admittance is the reciprocal of impedance. Uma} zZv Admittance of Resistors 1 Admittance of Inductor. Y=——-O jol Admittance of Capacitor ¥ = jac O + Rectangular form of impedance Y=G+j8 U Where R= Re(Y} = conductance X= Im(Z}=susceptance [ -ve for inductance and +ve for capacitance ] Compare real and imaginary parts a RHE x and B= ~*~ Rae 1 1 © G1, IfX=0 then only G=4 7 jen only G = Complex Power or Apparent Power Complex power is the product of the rms voltage phasor and the complex conjugate of the rms current phasor. As a complex quantity, its real part is real power P and its imaginary part is reactive power Q. Itis called apparent power because it seems apparent that the power should be the voltage- current product, by analogy with dc resistive circuits. t is measured in volt-amperes or VA to distinguish it from the average or real power, which is measured in watts. S=VxI' Where =Complex conjugate of I If V=V,, cos(at +0, )=V,,20, Vand I=I,, cos(ct +6, 0, A © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 30 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la S=(V,20, )(ln29,)* = Valin (0, —0,) VA S=P+jQ or {s|=(P? +a") P=V, |, €0s(0,—0,) W = Active Power Q=V,|,, sin(0, -0,) VAR = Reactive Power for resistive loads (unity pf) Q<0 for capacitive loads (leading pf). Q>0 for inductive loads (lagging pf) Power Factor The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage and current. It is also the cosine of the angle of the load impedance. Power factor is a dimensionless quantity, since itis the ratio of the average power to the apparent power. Pr. =F cose where $=0, -0, =power factor angle Solved Examples Problem: Find the real & reactive power in the load and also fine the power factor of the circuit? ke iN V(t) = (20+ jlo)v = 223622656" V i(t)=(3 + 5)A -5.8.259.036° A we [~ Solution: S=V,,|,,2(0,—0,) VA S = 22.35.88 (26.56° -59.03°) = 131.1242 32.476 VA P=109.972) W Q=~69.956 VAR pF. 109.972 131.124 = 0.838 leading © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 3 www. kreatryx.com la Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) Phasor ‘A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid. Phasors provide a simple means of analyzing linear circuits excited by sinusoidal sources Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, which are more convenient to work with than sine and cosine functions. Phasor representation of sinusoidal V = Asin(at)or V=Az0" v, Average Power 1to.7 Pag aH) Phasor Diagram Power Factor cosp=1 © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 32 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Inductor 4 joll,, sin(t) < Where X, = al => inductive reactance in Q. Average Power toy 4 Pag = $]VXT = 3p | lsin(2at) = W Phasor Diagram < ‘90° Power Factor “ cosp=0 Capacitor Let V=V, sin(ot) dv T dt OV, cos(ot @CV,, sin(90° + at) = joCy,, sin(t) V= tL Joc VveoXT 1 , AL capacitive resistance in Where X =e Average Power tt gt Pug VT 3 [Va Csin(2ot) 0 W © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 33 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) — Ma Phasor diagram I 90° Power Factor cos=0 Series Circuits (Take | as reference ) Series RL V, =IRZ0° V, =1x,290" RE Me Vev Xe =a Where {v| = We +V2, o=tan” %) - yo 6 Phasor diagram v Power Factor Va cosp= 5 (Lagging) © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 34 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Series RC 1 V, =IRZ0° . V, = IX,2-90° RE Ve V=V. +My =| 2-6 M= M2 +V2, o=tan* Phasor diagram Power Factor \, Sh Leading) cos Series RLC V, = IRZ0° RE ve V, =IX,2-90" + (290° VaV EV HM =| ZO case 1: X,>X.=>V,>V, vy Ne + VMe Phasor diagram © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 35 www. kreatryx.com V i Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) Power Factor \, cosp= YE (Laggin = (Lagging) Case 2: X, V, V, =V. M=“4 o=0 Phasor diagram Va Power Factor cos=1 (UPF) © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 36 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Parallel Circuits (Take V as reference) Parallel RL tv =u \ R {= -¥ 2-09 KX T=1,t1 =l|Z-6 W-WEFR, o-tm( 4) Phasor diagram Ik XQ Power Factor cosp="* (Lagging) Parallel RC Phasor diagram 1 Vv © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 37 www. krelitryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) hf, ——————r—rnanen Power Factor (Leading) ¥ 30° Case 1: X,>X.=> | I, >|, Wa +(, Ie). o=tar Phasor diagram Ie Power Factor cosp= (Lagging) Case 3: X, =X. =>|, I Phasor diagram K v Power Factor I i cosp=1 (UPF) © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 39 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Solved Examples Problem: if ammeter A1 reads 8A and A2 reads 6A then find the reading of ammeter A and circuit power factor ? Solution: For Parallel RL circuit Problem: if ammeter Ai reads 6A, Az reads 12A and As reads 4A then find the reading of ammeter A and circuit power factor ? © dad ©) Q Solution: For parallel RLC circuit i=in) Circuit PF cos» =0.6 (Leading) Problem: Find the value of current and circuit power factor? 200° 200v - 10020 200v © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 40 www. kreatryx.com V i Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) Solution: In Series RLC circuit iMaVe =X =X V 10020" _ 5 goq R20 Circuit PF cos =" =1(UPF) R.M.S or Effective or True value It is a steady state value for a time varying wave form which could also develop the same amount of heat as given by the original wave from for a definite period of time in the network. Average value or Mean value It is that steady value of time varying wave form which could also develop the same amount of charge as given by the original wave form for a definite period of time in the network. Veo Fete Concept of Symmetry For a symmetrical wave form, average value should be zero for one full cyde. ‘ (A,)=|A\| Symmetrical A (A,) #(A,) Asymmetrical A Hence wave form is symmetrical © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 4 www. kreatryx.com re i Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) (0 : For full cycle Symmetrical waveform V,, =| 21 a iG J V(t)dt ; For half cycle Uy (tjat + Asymmetrical waveform Vg =: * Peak factor or crest factor=y Vv. * Form factor or shape factor= {y + Vacs =x ~ Vin ‘* Practical waveform voltage & current in electrical power engineering are not ideal & standard. According to Fourier series expansion any periodic but non sinusoidal waveform can be express in terms of sin & cosine. V(t)=V, +¥, sin(ot)+Y, sin(ot) +. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 42 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Solved Examples Problem: Find average or active power for the network given below V(t)=V, +V, sin(o) +V, sin(3ot) + V, sin(Sot) + V, sin(7ot) I(t)=1, +1, sin(or-4,) +1, sin(Bot—6,) +1, c08(7or—4,) wit) ww V, | V; I Vv, _ | i Solution: P,,, = Vly +e x * cos}, +2 x 4 cos(¢,) +“ x 2 cos(90—6,) watts a= Mla tox poco + Bx posts) + Bx Fc05(90- 45) Problem: Find power loss in the resistor? iw + 2@Q. af Si —_ it) Solution: |,... =," TS ve vee) 5 tee) - Solution: Vig = |. ( Joon" feof © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 43 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Vays =f 10028) £00%2 fang 4 200 _. [00 43 4 3 3 Vere _ 800 _ Pan RE = Fg = 53 3Watts Problem: Calculate V,,., V,,., Peak factor, Form factor, Vpesi peak vey st st<2 Solution: V(t) =} 10 2sts4 -2t+18 ;4 ore) 2 Solved Examples Problem: Given current source is converted into voltage source find the value of V and Z?, x ps=t—* 20 + 2208 yen rae ea a > , ’ 1 6, Solution: X= j4%5=/20 and X- == = jon Z=242)-j4=2-j2 =2822-45° 0 VaIxZ = (220°)(2.822- 45°) =5.642—a5°V © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 48 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la NETWORK THEOREMS Super Position Theorem Since ac circuits are linear, the superposition theorem applies to ac circuits the same way it applies to dc circuits. The theorem becomes important if the circuit has sources operating at different frequencies. In this case, since the impedances depend on frequency, we must have a different frequency-domain circuit for each frequency. The total response must be obtained by adding the individual responses in the time domain. Solved Example Problem: Find the value of current i? Solution: it is multi frequency excitation network. So the solution in time domain is possible only by super position theorem Apply super position For @=2, set zero to current source i.e. open circuit the current source 4 2 X= Bx2= WM and Xe =F =O 1020" 5+ j4 = 1.564 ~38.65° A For 0=4, set zero to voltage source ie. short circuit the voltage source X, = j2x4=}8 Q and KeGe de i, =5230° 2:8) =4372479 A og 54/8) +i, = 1.562 ~ 38.65" + 4.37247.9° = 4.72728.66" A © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 49 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Problem: Find the value of current i? zosnz0Q) ww wae 1 wat Solution: It is multi frequency excitation network. So the solution in time domain is possible only by super position theorem Apply super position For @ = 2, set zero to 10V voltage source ie. short circuit the voltage source 4 pale Ny = J2x2= fA. X= j2xG=jO and Kes 2a (14 54-2)+[ 2 ||) 2 (3) =5.712-90° ¥y, For ©=0, set zero to 20sin(2t) voltage source i.e. short circuit the voltage source X,,=09, %,=00 and X=20 10 Be? 5+5.71sin(2t-90°) A A Thevenin’s Theorem A linear, active, RLC network which contains one or more independent or dependent voltage and current sources can be replaced by single voltage source Voc in series with an at zn }-oa + inate > Ov« b- Lb — equivalent impedances. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 50 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Norton's Theorem A linear active RLC network which contains one or more independent voltage and current sources can be replaced by single current source in shunt with an equivalent impedance. a+ a+ brn] Ise=In b- b- Solved Examples Problem: Determine the Thevenin’s equivalent voltage seen by the load resistance? 30 ia j6 50 1 Solution: To find Thevenin’s equivalent voltage across load, open the load terminal then current | will become zero. ‘Apply KVL f 100253.12" 3+j4 V, = (202 -0.01°)(j4) = 80290" v V,. = 10x 80.290" = 800290° V 104 -0.01° Maximum Power Transfer Theorem There are 3 types of power in circuits, the power which is consumable or convertible is an active power. So maximum power transfer theorem in AC is confined to real power only. Z2Rtie, it D ZR jn, Source Load © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 5 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) Condition for maximum power transfer from source to load. —_% SMSC (Rg + JX) + (RL + IK) Rg +R) + IK XL) 2 VER 2 R =[IPR, -——3-t_ ___ li R,_beause power loss occurs only in resistance (Rg +R )° + j% +X) afr] aA] For R.(max): Ls PR, =Re & tS =0 => X, =-X. A aR, u=Rs 8 Laks Z,=R, +IX, = Rg - Ks For maximum power transferZ, =Z ‘+ Hence for maximum power transfer from the source to the load the resistive parts of the source and the load must be equal. They must also have equal reactive parts but of ‘opposite in sign so that if the source is inductive then load is capacitive and vice-versa. ‘* For maximum power transfer the source and the load must be complex conjugate of each other, Case-1: General source and load Z5=Re +X; and Z, =R, +)X 2 =Zs General source and resistive load s + IMs) and (Z, =R,) eR (Re + RJ? +(%)* ae, For Maximum Power aR =0 =>R, =[Z5|=yRE+XE To calculate maximum power re-substitute the value of Ri and find R.M.S. current through it. Case-3: Resistive source and load (25 =Rs)and(Z, =R,) For maximum power R, Case-4: General source and general load but only resistive partis variable Z5=Re+iXg and Z,=R, +X © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 52 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la For maximum power R, =|Rs +iX5 +iX;| = J R2-+(% +X, ’) case Zs Since load reactance can be controlled so we can nullify the net reactance & that is the only best option to maximum the active power. For maximum power Xs = -X, General source and general load but only reactive part is variable is +iXs and Z, =R, + JK, Solved Example Problem: In the circuit shown find the value of load impedance 2 L is transferred to it? \4u —-_-F "so thet maximum power Solution: For Prva =10sindt => w=2 i Z=Zeq OF Zip Convert it into Impedances. 1 1 = j@ and xe == 2 *ice X = jol = jx2x To find Zin, short the voltage source (1+H0-D yg Zea re pet-p 1? For Maximum power Z=Z24 =18 © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 53 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) Solution: For maximum power transfer Z, =Z*,, (2+32)x(1-J) (3+) 2.6.218.43° = 12.6492 ~18.43° ze tn Problem: Which is value of R for which maximum power transfer to it? an AF 10 2H w=2 20 4 X, =)2x2=)40, X.=4=-p0 L :

i(t) Zeoy oq Vel XB YooA dvd Re 3G wi TT dt dt Lee Jidt— J vat Tree <—»Co-Tree KVL KCL Oc 56 twig<—pLink/chord Mess <—+Nodal Thevenin <—+NortonCut set <> Tie-set series Parallel Switch in series(getting closed) <—»Switch in parallel(getting opened) Solved Example Problem: Find the dual of the network? : Solution: V-i,R = a ) and Replace elements with their duals elements, equations will become I-Gy, -f 4-4 and (dt “at © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 57 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Dual network Solution: i, =5 4 $F] es jot +5(i, -i,) 10-0 i, bs (i i) 42k Replace elements with their duals elements, equations will Become an 8058- ws } * dv]4 @ M) Uy, vt +5(v, -v,)-10=0 OY]. Sf(v, ype 5(¥.-¥,) ® @ v so Me es(y, vy) +2(y-v,)= Ys 45(Y,—M)+2(Y,-Y)=0 am Dual network v so @ © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 58 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Resonance + Ifa sinusoidal voltage is applied to an AC network, the impedance offered by the network is purely resistive under special circumstances. This phenomenon is called resonance and the frequency at which resonance takes place is called the frequency of resonance. + The resonance circuit must have an inductance and a capacitance. The resistance will be always present either due to lack of ideal elements or due to presence of resistive element itself. + When resonance occurs, at any instant, the energy absorbed by one reactive element is equal the energy released by another reactive element within the system, © The resonant condition in AC circuits may be achieved by varying the frequency of the supply keeping the network elements constant or by varying inductance, L or Capacitance, C, keeping the frequency constant. + Resonance is a frequency response of a circuit when it is operating at its natural frequency. + Under resonance in any electrical circuit the supply voltage & supply current are in phase. So phase angle = 0, the power factor of the circuit=1(UPF) ‘+ The entire network behaves as purely resistive at resonance and maximum power is drawn from the source * Resonance can happen in such electrical network when we have 2 similar but opposite natured elements ie. Inductors & Capacitors + To undergo a good observable resonance practically we need @ good quality in the energy storing components L & C, Thus quality is measures as figure of merit or quality factor given by _, , Maximum Energy stored per eycle of supply Qq2nx “Energy dissipated per cycle of supply * In practical application of resonance phenomenon, the minimum Q factor to be considered is 10 but in application to power system etc. the factor can be as high as 100. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 59 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Q-factor of different elements Element Q Factor R wwe 0 L STS « c R kL 885 — ol R R ¢ “a | —£ oe 5 (8 (under resonance ) AWWW R ol Less ww ® oRC ¢ 1 AWN c { (under resonance ) ee Classification of Resonance Circuits Series Resonance General Series resonant circuit consisting of ideal elements RL & C shown in the figure. The Circuit is said to be in resonance when the resultant reactance of the circuit is zero. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 60 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) Z=R+j[X, -X.] At resonance ‘'V,8.'l" are in phase Z=R % aR So net Reactance X, -X, as oC rad/sec orf, Hz vic "omic ny Graph-l Xvs © [z-resau-2}] Graph-ll Zvs @ oe Graph-ll Y vs @ Graph-lV Ivs © © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 6 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) hf, ——————r—rnanen Graph-V ovsw pr lead PF <—— Phasor diagram 0-0, 090 =0(UPF) (Leading PF) (Lagging PF) 0-0 ——— 1 1 . 7 ° At resonance Pl=Pel> MMe) V=\, And $= © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 62 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Q factor at resonance © Under series resonance condition net impedance is minimum, therefore current is maximum. So it is called acceptor circuit «In series resonance, total supply voltage appears across resistor & hence it is consider as voltage amplification circuit Variation of voltage across passive ments with change in frequency Frequency at which maximum voltage appears across capacitor foi ft _R aarrs (Tae RC 12S a Frequency at which maximum voltage appears across Inductor t=3 a m [RC 2 t-te RC a © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 63 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Form circuit = Resonance phenomena is useful in design of filters attenuators, antenna in ‘communication system Band width (B.W.) BW represents the range of frequency for which the power level in a signal at least half of maximum power. 1 Half power frequency Fo MR (Ie) g 2-2 (ye ©, > Lower cut offfroll off/corner frequency ©, > Upper cut offfroll off/corner frequency rad /sec so He 2aL ‘Resonance frequency is geometric mean of B.W frequencies © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 64 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la 0, = Joa, orf, = Jib From graph Bw a 2 R R ge HEME He Sensitivity (S) Sensitivity is the ability of a circuit to distinguish between desire & undesired frequencies 1 Set BW Parallel Resonance General Parallel resonant circuit consisting of ideal elements R,L & C shown in the figure. The Circuit is said to be in resonance when the resultant susceptance of the circuit is zero At resonance V 8.1 in phase =0,UPF Yi aYe+¥, © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 65 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la cropht ew [¥=Ls,foe-Y, ]] yin Ys Graph-V vs © Graph-V jvs © © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 66 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Tit V i e Domain Analysis) Phasor diagram 0=0, 0 0, Y=6 Y=G-JB,. Y=G+ JB. Purely resistance RL circuit R-C circuit (' in phase with ‘v’ "lags; 'v' by ¢<90 leads ‘Vv by $>90 (uPF) (Lagging R) (Leading P.R) @=0 ——— v 1 7 ° ° 1 v At resonance I, v II L © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 67 www. kreatryx.com I" j Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) + In parallel resonance, the net impedance is maximum therefore current is minimum. So it is called as rejecter circuit * In parallel resonance, total supply current flows only throw resistor hence it is called as current amplification circuit Form Circuit I| -—tyetir | 1 R40 At resonance + This parallel resonance phenomenon is used to design of band-stop filter Band width (B.W.) Half power frequency Py ME (y } wt 2 2 v2 ©, > Lower cut offfroll off/corner frequency ©, > Upper cut offfroll off/cormer frequency 1 RC rad / sec fef-stow EON parc iz ‘+ Resonance frequency is geometric mean of B.W frequencies © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 68 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la =Jo,0, orf, = JiR From graph ,-0, aw & 0, -0, 2% OES Oy =F 1 He & f= fron He FaRC bb ZaRe Practical parallel resonance (Tank circuit ) ‘A practical resonant parallel circuit contains an inductive coil of resistance R and inductance L in parallel with a capacitor C. It is called a tank circuit because it stores energy in the magnetic field of the coil and in the electric field of the capacitor. Note that resistance Rc of the capacitor is negligibly small. Y,=Y,+¥, (Re )R-%) * (ene) een) » Resonance, Net susceptance=0 1X Xe RP+ XP RPAXP AX L ReeXtao Ideal tank (R=0] ¥=¥+¥% © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 69 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Dynamic Impedance/Resistance It is resistance offered by the circuit to the input at resonance condition (a) For general series RLC Zam =R (b)For general parallel RLC 2g 2B (0) For practical tank R akg Vy =o = RE Zon RE {i Rx (6) For ideal tank Zan =® (Open Circuit) Solved Example Problem: The circuit shown below act as at Resonance L R. < Solution: At @=0, R R 2 ot = 00] 2 R,+R, (3) R+R, Hence circuit act as Band stop filter © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 70 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Problem: Find resonance frequency? I o FR oF (RLC-E Je a -(Y) (R=200, C=0.1pF, L=0.1H) Ve=—— Solution: V. = 53 0.04 1 40.04 U jot jot © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 7 www. kreatryx.com V i Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) Apply KVL i i V=joll+—~ 41,8 joll+ cork Put the value of In \ 0.04 = 1- 1 Vs joll+ ( ot jolts jot ( ) a ( 0.04), 1 Z,,=R+jol+—— +jolaee 1 c = ; +jol+— where C’ =5x107 Bi to 2,=R4 jobs oe 7-0.04R W888 Hence circuit can be redrawn as For series RLC circuit [- . 1 04 = = = 4472.13 rad/sec * ict Problem: Find®,, for the circuit shown below é 10 1H 20 = 2F © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 72 www. kreatryx.com Wr 5 Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) ae a solution: Z, - i020 _ Jo(1+Je) , 21-40) Feo Tio 5, 1 trot | T1607 2jo o 80 Z. st] = > Trot 14160" ise" Tries) At resonance, resultant reactance of the circuit is zero o 8 950 if tec Tee 14160" Problem: Find the Q factor for the given circuit in terns of qx and qz R, (hy R, ly; a a Solution: and q, = ea ol, oth) 41 COR RR) RAR) ng waynes +4, *R,] Problem: A circuit with a resistor, inductor and capacitor in series is resonant at fo Hz. If all the component values are now doubled, the new resonant frequency is? Solution: RLC - series circuit is resonant at f, = * aac If all the component values are doubled ie, R’ = 2R, LU = 2L,C'=2C 1 { then fo = nf(2uj(2c) 2 Note that the resonant frequency does not depend upon the value of ‘R’. But the impedance offered by the circuit is purely resistive equal to 'R’ at resonant frequency. © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 73 www. kreatryx.com Network Analysis (Time Domain Analysis) —la Problem: The value of Z in Fig., which is most appropriate to cause parallel resonance at 500 Hzis? 50, wo) ag E Solution: For resonance in the given circuit Z should be capacitance. 3 Ze Fog ore = joc © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 74 www. kreatryx.com

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