Introduction to

Structural Analysis
 Introduction to
Structural Analysis

Debabrata Podder and Santanu Chatterjee

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DOI: 10.1201/9781003081227

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Contents
Preface.................................................................................................................... xiii
Authors ..................................................................................................................... xv

PART I Introduction to Structural Analysis,

Loads, Material, and Section Properties

Chapter 1 Introduction to Structural Analysis ...................................................... 3

1.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 3
1.2 Historical Background............................................................... 3
1.3 Importance of Structural Analysis ............................................8

PART II Analysis of Statically Determinate Structures

Chapter 2 Types of Structures and Loads ........................................................... 13
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 13
2.2 Structural Classifications ......................................................... 13
2.2.1 Tension Structures ...................................................... 13
2.2.2 Compression Structures ............................................. 14
2.2.3 Trusses ........................................................................ 15
2.2.4 Shear Structures ......................................................... 16
2.2.5 Bending Structures ..................................................... 16
2.3 Structural Systems for Transmitting Loads and Load Path ...... 17
2.4 Dead Loads .............................................................................. 19
2.5 Live Loads ...............................................................................20
2.6 Wind Loads .............................................................................20
2.7 Snow Loads ............................................................................. 21
2.8 Earthquake Loads.................................................................... 22
2.9 Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure..................................................24
2.10 Thermal and Other Effects ......................................................25
2.11 Load Combinations .................................................................25
2.12 Analytical Model .....................................................................25

Chapter 3 Material and Section Properties ......................................................... 29

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 29
3.2 Simple Stress-Strain Relationship ........................................... 29
3.3 Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity ............................. 30
v
vi Contents

3.4 Secant Modulus ....................................................................... 31

3.5 Tangent Modulus ..................................................................... 31
3.6 Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity ................................... 32
3.7 Yield Strength .......................................................................... 32
3.8 Ultimate Strength .................................................................... 33
3.9 Modulus of Rupture in Bending .............................................. 33
3.10 Modulus of Rupture in Torsion................................................ 33
3.11 Poisson’s Ratio ......................................................................... 33
3.12 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion .......................................... 33
3.13 Elastic Assumptions ................................................................34
3.14 Sturctural Nonlinearity ...........................................................34
3.15 Cross-Sectional Area ............................................................... 35
3.16 Center of Gravity and Centroid ............................................... 35
3.17 Elastic Neutral Axis ................................................................ 36
3.18 Second Moment of Area and Radius of Gyration ................... 36
3.19 Elastic Section Modulus .......................................................... 38

Chapter 4 Basic Concepts of Generalized Coordinates, Lagrangian,

and Hamiltonian Mechanics .............................................................. 39
4.1 Introduction and Concept of Generalized Coordinates ........... 39
4.2 Concept of Configuration Space and Phase Space ..................40
4.3 Introduction to Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Formulation
of Mechanics ........................................................................... 41
4.3.1 Hamilton’s Equation of Motion .................................. 45
4.4 Concept of Symmetry and Conservation Laws .......................46

Chapter 5 Equilibrium and Support Reactions ................................................... 47

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 47
5.2 Equilibrium of Structures ........................................................ 47
5.2.1 Global and Local Equilibrium of Structures.............. 48
5.3 Free Body Diagrams................................................................ 50
5.4 Sign Convention....................................................................... 51
5.5 External and Internal Forces ................................................... 53
5.6 Types of Supports for Structures ............................................. 58
5.7 Release of Internal Reactions or Member Forces.................... 58
5.7.1 Releasing Bending Moment ....................................... 58
5.7.2 Releasing Shear Force ................................................ 61
5.7.3 Releasing Axial Force ................................................ 61
5.7.4 Releasing Axial Force and Bending Moment ............ 61
5.7.5 Releasing Shear Force and Bending Moment ............ 61

Chapter 6 Indeterminacy and Stability of Structure ........................................... 63

6.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 63
6.2 Structural Indeterminacy......................................................... 63
Contents vii

6.3 Static Indeterminacy and Stability .......................................... 63

6.3.1 Static Indeterminacy of Rigid Structures...................64
6.3.1.1 Shortcut Method for Determining
Internal Static Indeterminacy of Rigid
Structures .................................................... 68
6.3.1.2 Degree of Statical Indeterminacy
When Load is Applied to the
Structure ..................................................... 70
6.3.2 Static Indeterminacy of Pin-Jointed
Structures ................................................................... 72
6.3.2.1 Shortcut Method for Determining
Internal Static Indeterminacy of Pin-
Jointed Structures ....................................... 73
6.3.3 External and Internal Stability of
Structures ................................................................... 74
6.3.3.1 External Stability of Structures .................. 74
6.3.3.2 Internal Stability of Structures ................... 75
6.4 Kinematic Indeterminacy of Structures .................................. 77
6.4.1 Kinematic Indeterminacy of Pin-Jointed
Structures or Truss ..................................................... 78
6.4.2 Kinematic Indeterminacy of Rigid-Jointed
Structures ................................................................... 79
6.4.3 Summary of All Formulations for Static and
Kinematic Indeterminacy........................................... 83
6.5 Principle of Superposition ....................................................... 83

Chapter 7 Plane Trusses and Space Trusses ....................................................... 85

7.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 85
7.2 Common Types of Trusses ...................................................... 85
7.3 Classification of Coplanar Trusses .......................................... 85
7.4 Assumptions on Analysis of Trusses ....................................... 87
7.5 Arrangement of Members of Coplanar Trusses – Internal
Stability ................................................................................... 89
7.6 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability of
Coplanar Trusses and Their Solution Methods .......................90
7.6.1 Method of Joints .........................................................92
7.6.2 Method of Sections..................................................... 95
7.6.3 Method of Tension Coefficients .................................97
7.6.4 Graphical Method of Truss Analysis ....................... 101
7.6.4.1 Bow’s Notation.......................................... 101
7.6.5 Henneberg’s Method of Solution for Complex
Trusses ...................................................................... 107
7.7 Compound Trusses ................................................................ 111
7.8 Space Trusses ........................................................................ 112
7.9 Zero-Force Members of Trusses ........................................... 118
viii Contents

Chapter 8 Beams and Frames, Shear, and Bending Moments .......................... 121
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 121
8.2 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moments .......................... 121
8.3 Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams for a Beam............... 122
8.4 Qualitative Discussion on the Deflected Shape of
Beams .................................................................................... 128
8.5 Relationships between Loads, Shear, and Bending
Moments ................................................................................ 130
8.6 Shear and Bending Moment Diagram of Frames .................. 136

Chapter 9 Deflections of Beams by Geometric Methods ................................. 143

9.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 143
9.2 Deflected Shapes and Elastic Curve ...................................... 143
9.3 Double Integration Method ................................................... 146
9.4 Moment-Area Method ........................................................... 147
9.5 Conjugate Beam Method ....................................................... 150
9.6 Macaulay’s Method ............................................................... 154

Chapter 10 Energy Principles and Deflection of Beam ...................................... 157

10.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 157
10.2 Strain Energy and Pure Bending ........................................... 157
10.3 Principle of Virtual Work ...................................................... 162
10.3.1 Principle of Virtual Displacements for Rigid
Bodies ....................................................................... 163
10.3.2 Principle of Virtual Forces for Deformable
Bodies ....................................................................... 166
10.4 Deflection of Trusses by Virtual Work Method .................... 167
10.5 Deflection of Beams by Virtual Work Method ..................... 170
10.6 Deflection of Frames by Virtual Work Method .................... 171
10.7 Castigliano’s Theorem ........................................................... 173
10.8 Maxwell-Betti Law of Reciprocal Deflections ...................... 177

Chapter 11 Rolling Loads and Influence Lines and Their Applications ............ 181
11.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 181
11.2 Influence Lines for Beams and Frames by Equilibrium
Method................................................................................... 181
11.3 Qualitative Influence Lines and Müller-Breslau’s
Principle................................................................................. 188
11.3.1 Müller-Breslau Principle .......................................... 188
11.4 Influence Lines for Floor Girders .......................................... 190
11.5 Influence Lines for Trusses ................................................... 194
11.6 Maximum Influence at a Point Due to a Series of
Concentrated Loads ............................................................... 197
Contents ix

11.7 Maximum Influence at a Point Due to a Uniformly

Distributed Live Load............................................................204
11.8 Absolute Maximum Shear and Moment................................205
11.8.1 Absolute Maximum Bending Moment for
Series of Concentrated Loads ..................................208
11.9 Influence Lines for Deflections ............................................. 214

Chapter 12 Cables, Arches, and Suspension Bridges ......................................... 217

12.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 217
12.2 Cables .................................................................................... 217
12.3 Cables Subjected to Concentrated Loads .............................. 217
12.4 Cable Subjected to a Uniformly Distributed Load ................ 221
12.5 Arches .................................................................................... 226
12.6 Three-Hinged Arches ............................................................ 227
12.7 Three-Hinged Stiffening Girders .......................................... 235

Chapter 13 Analysis of Symmetric Structures ................................................... 243

13.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 243
13.2 Symmetric and Antisymmetric Components of
Loadings ................................................................................ 243
13.3 Symmetric and Antisymmetric Components of
Loadings ................................................................................244
13.4 Behavior of Symmetric Structures under Symmetric
and Antisymmetric Loadings ................................................246

PART III Analysis of Statically

Indeterminate Structures

Chapter 14 Introduction to Statically Indeterminate Structures......................... 251

14.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 251
14.2 Advantages of Indeterminate Structure................................. 252
14.3 Disadvantages of Indeterminate Structure ............................ 253

Chapter 15 Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate

Structures ......................................................................................... 255
15.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 255
15.2 Assumptions for Approximate Analysis................................ 255
15.2.1 Assumptions about the Location of Points of
Inflection .................................................................. 256
15.2.2 Assumptions about the Distribution of Forces
and Reactions ........................................................... 258
x Contents

15.3 Vertical Loads on Building Frames....................................... 258

15.4 Lateral Loads on Building Frames: Portal Method............... 259
15.5 Lateral Loads on Building Frames: Cantilever Method ........ 265

Chapter 16 Method of Consistent Deformations ................................................ 271

16.1 Introduction Force Method of Analysis: General
Procedure............................................................................... 271
16.2 Structures with a Single Degree of Indeterminacy ............... 271
16.3 Method of Least Work ........................................................... 273
16.4 Structures with Multiple Degree of Indeterminacy .............. 276
16.4.1 Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams of
Three-Span Continuous Beams ............................... 279
16.5 Support Settlements, Temperature Changes, and
Fabrication Errors .................................................................. 279
16.5.1 Temperature Changes and Fabrication Errors.......... 282

Chapter 17 Influence Lines for Statically Indeterminate Structures .................. 285

17.1 Introduction of Influence Lines for Statically
Indeterminate Structures ....................................................... 285
17.2 Influence Lines for Beams..................................................... 285
17.3 Influence Lines for Trusses ................................................... 292
17.4 Qualitative Influence Lines by the Müller-Breslau’s
Principle and Influence Line for Frames ............................... 294
17.5 Alternate Approach for Finding Influence Line Diagrams
for Indeterminate Beams ....................................................... 298

Chapter 18 Slope Deflection Method .................................................................. 305

18.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 305
18.2 Slope Deflection Equations and Analysis of Continuous
Beams .................................................................................... 305
18.3 Members with Far End Hinged ............................................. 315
18.4 Analysis of Frames without Any Sidesway ........................... 318
18.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway ........................................ 323

Chapter 19 Moment Distribution Method........................................................... 327

19.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 327
19.2 General Principles and Definitions........................................ 327
19.2.1 Sign Convention ....................................................... 327
19.2.2 Fixed-End Moments (FEMs).................................... 327
19.2.3 Member Stiffness Factors......................................... 328
19.2.4 Joint Stiffness Factor ................................................ 329
19.2.5 Distribution Factor (DF)........................................... 331
Contents xi

19.2.6 Member Relative Stiffness Factor ............................ 332

19.2.7 Carry over Factor ..................................................... 333
19.3 Basic Concept of Moment Distribution Method ................... 333
19.4 Stiffness Factor Modifications............................................... 335
19.4.1 Member Pin Supported at Far End ........................... 335
19.4.2 Symmetric Beam and Loading ................................ 336
19.4.3 Symmetric Beam with Unsymmetric Loading ........ 337
19.5 Analysis of Continuous Beams ............................................. 339
19.6 Analysis of Frames without Sidesway ................................... 341
19.7 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway ........................................344
19.7.1 Multistorey Frames................................................... 350

Chapter 20 Kani’s Method or Rotation Contribution Method ............................ 353

20.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 353
20.2 Basic Concept ........................................................................ 353
20.2.1 Members without Relative Lateral
Displacement ............................................................ 353
20.2.2 Members with Relative Lateral Displacement ......... 362
20.3 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway with Vertical
Loadings ................................................................................ 366
20.4 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway with Vertical
Loading and Horizontal Loading at Nodal Points ................ 378
20.5 Analysis of Frames with Columns with Unequal Height ...... 387

Chapter 21 Column Analogy Method................................................................. 399

21.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 399
21.2 Basic Concept ........................................................................ 399
21.3 Development of the Column Analogy Method .....................402
21.4 Stiffness and Carry over Factors Determined by
Method of Column Analogy..................................................406
21.5 Fixed End Moments due to Support Settlement ....................407
21.6 Analysis of Portal Frames .....................................................409

Chapter 22 Beams and Frames Having Nonprismatic Members........................ 413

22.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 413
22.2 Deflections and Loading Properties of Nonprismatic
Members ................................................................................ 413
22.3 Moment Distribution for Structures Having Nonprismatic
Members ................................................................................ 414
22.3.1 Beam Pin Supported at Far End ............................... 415
22.3.2 Symmetric Beam and Loading ................................ 416
22.3.3 Symmetric Beam with Antisymmetric Loading ...... 416
22.3.4 Support Settlement ................................................... 416
xii Contents

22.4 Slope Deflection Equation for Structures Having

Nonprismatic Members ......................................................... 417
22.4.1 Loads ........................................................................ 417
22.4.2 Relative Joint Translation ......................................... 417
22.4.3 Rotation at A ............................................................. 418
22.4.4 Rotation at B ............................................................. 418

Chapter 23 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis ...................................... 419

23.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 419
23.2 Analytical Model ................................................................... 419
23.3 Member Stiffness Relations in Local Coordinates
for 2D Truss ........................................................................... 420
23.4 Coordinate Transformation for 2D Truss .............................. 422
23.5 Displacement Transformation Matrix for 2D Truss .............. 423
23.6 Force Transformation Matrix ................................................ 424
23.7 Member Global Stiffness Matrix for 2D Truss ..................... 425
23.8 Application of Stiffness Method for Truss Analysis ............. 428
23.9 Application of Stiffness Method for Space Truss Analysis .. 430
23.10 Application of Stiffness Method for Beam Analysis ............ 430
23.11 Beam Structure Complete Global Stiffness Matrix .............. 432
23.12 Application of Stiffness Method for Frame Analysis............ 434

Chapter 24 Introduction to Plastic Analysis of Structure ................................... 437

24.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 437
24.2 Stress-Strain Curve of a Ductile Material ............................. 437
24.3 Plastic Moment ...................................................................... 438
24.4 Methods of Analysis ..............................................................440
24.4.1 The Maximum Principle, Static Theorem, Lower
Bound Theorem, or Safe Theorem ...........................444
24.4.2 The Minimum Principle, Kinematc Theorem,
Upper Bound Theorem, or Unsafe Theorem............444
24.4.3 The Uniqueness Theorem......................................... 445
24.5 Static Method for Determining Collapse Load ..................... 445
24.6 Kinematic Method for Determining Collapse Load .............449
24.7 Plastic Analysis of Portal Frames.......................................... 452

Appendix A ........................................................................................................... 457

Appendix B ........................................................................................................... 459
Appendix C ...........................................................................................................465
Appendix D ........................................................................................................... 467
Bibliography ......................................................................................................... 489
Index ...................................................................................................................... 491
Preface
Structural analysis, as a subject, is a very important and conceptual subject in its
own right among all other subjects that constitute the field of civil engineering.
Starting from ancient times to present day, this subject has flourished depending
upon the need and complexity of the structures coming from the advancement of
human civilization. Structures are mostly classified into two categories, determi-
nate and indeterminate structures. Determinate structures are the preliminary basic
structures that need to be understood well first. Basic principles like elastic limit,
Hook’s law, the principle of superposition, and equilibrium conditions need to be
studied very meticulously before jumping into more complex indeterminate struc-
tures. Structures that we encounter in everyday life are mostly indeterminate struc-
tures. However, the analysis process and basic compatibility conditions like force
and moment equilibrium equations and superposition principle within elastic limit
remain the same as those for determinate structures. That is why we have organized
this book into two parts. In the first part, students will get acquainted with the
basic important theories and analysis procedures for determinate structures. Having
understood the basic principles, in the second part of this book, the indeterminate
structural analysis will be presented, and various methods of solving the problems
are described in detail.
This book is primarily aimed at students taking degree courses in civil engi-
neering. However, students enrolled in master’s degree programs in structural engi-
neering may use this book to brush up on concepts that were taught during their
undergrad study.
No matter how much theory we study, it is very important to go through as many
examples as possible to get hands-on experience toward solving the problems with
theoretical background that can only be understood by going through the chapters.
That is why we have also included solved examples on various problems in different
chapters as well as in the Appendix section, so that students can practice on their
own by studying the text first and then understanding the examples.
This book is mostly self-contained. Preliminary ideas about elastic properties and
some ideas of basic calculus and partial derivatives that are mostly taught at the first
year or second year of degree courses in universities and colleges are assumed to be
known. Apart from that, this book can be studied without taking references to other
books or materials. However, for more solved examples and more advanced ideas on
these topics, students are advised to go through any book provided in the bibliogra-
phy section as they wish.
The authors will be highly open to suggestions regarding further development of
this book and inclusion of any specific topics that may enhance the applicability to
a broader audience.
We are sincerely thankful to all our colleagues, friends, and family members for
standing by our side to complete this book and convert this hardworking effort into
a memorable journey.

xiii
xiv Preface

We thank you all for choosing this book for your course work, and we wish all
the best to everyone on their future endeavors and successful careers in this exciting
field.

Debabrata Podder
Santanu Chatterjee
December 2021
Authors
Dr. Debabrata Podder is currently working as an Assistant Professor (CE) at
National Institute of Technology Meghalaya, India. He has completed his engineering
education from Jadavpur University and Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur.
After a brief stint as a civil engineer at Shapoorji Pallonji & Co. Ltd., Mumbai,
he took to academics. He has published the book, Residual Stresses, Distortions
and Their Mitigation for Fusion Welding (ISBN: 978-3-659-94213-6) and papers in
several peer-reviewed journals. His research interests include finite element model-
ling and simulation of engineering structures, theoretical and computational solid
mechanics, structural analysis and design, and welding-induced deformations and
residual stresses.

Mr. Santanu Chatterjee has a BE from Jadavpur University, Kolkata in construc-

tion engineering. He has more than 14 years’ research and industrial experience in
the field of civil/structural design engineering. He has also been involved in civil
design of several solar power plants. Mr. Chatterjee also takes interest in concepts
of string theory and quantum mechanics. Recently, he got his paper selected for
the International Conference on Mathematical Modeling in Physical Sciences, and
another of his papers on solar engineering was awarded as Best Scientific Paper
at the National Institute of Technology Durgapur and the International Conference
on Renewable Energy (ICCARE-2019). Another paper on pile design and its rel-
evance (with IS-2911 part 1 section 2 for solar projects) was published at the 37th
European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition (EUPVSEC 2020).
In addition, a paper on quantization of classical string was also published in the
International Journal of Physics (IOP) (vol. 1391, 2020).

xv
Part I
Introduction to Structural
Analysis, Loads, Material,
and Section Properties
 Introduction to
1 Structural Analysis

1.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides a general introduction to the subject of structural analysis
and development of this subject from ancient ages to modern days with the help of
various engineers, scientists, and philosophers. Some historical structures with their
distinct characteristic features are also discussed in this chapter. One should have
some knowledge of the historical backgrounds and time-to-time development of this
rich and important subject. This chapter will increase interest and zeal in learning
this subject by heart and setting deeper insight that may open up new avenues of the
analysis process to enhance and enrich this subject to the next level.

1.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Through the contribution from various civilizations, structural analysis as we know
it today evolved over several thousand years. From living under different natural
habitats like tree shelters and caves, humans started colonizing beside various rivers
throughout the world. There they started making their shelters using stones, clay,
bricks, and numerous cementitious materials by organizing them into different geo-
metrical shapes as per their needs. Initially, they adopted these shapes based on vari-
ous thumb rules that evolved from their past experiences. They slowly modified their
building types/constructions according to their diverse socioeconomic, cultural,
religious, and security needs. Among these countless ancient structures, the ‘Great
Bath’ of Mohenjo-daro (Figure 1.1) is believed to be the world’s oldest public pool,
built during the Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1300 BCE). The pool measures
approximately 12-m long and 7-m wide, with a maximum depth of 2.4 m with two
wide staircases lead down into the pool. The pool was watertight, covered by finely
fitted bricks laid on edge with gypsum plaster. Most historians agree that, this would
have been used for special religious occasions where its water was believed to purify
and renew the well-being of the bathers.
Ancient Egyptian (3150–323 BCE) builders are mainly known for their
astounding pyramid-building capabilities. They also knew the techniques of
post and lintel constructions (e.g., Karnak Temple, 2000–1700 BCE). Pharaoh
Djoser’s official Imhotep, a famous architect, and scholar, designed Egypt’s first
Step Pyramid, a pharaoh’s tomb at Saqqara that looks like a stairway to heaven
in about 2600 BCE. Imhotep is referred to as the world’s first structural engineer.
Unbaked mud-brick and stone were two principal building materials in ancient
Egypt.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003081227-2 3
4 Introduction to Structural Analysis

FIGURE 1.1 The ‘Great Bath’ of Mohenjo-daro, 3300–1300 BCE.

Source: https://www.harappa.com/slide/great-bath-mohenjo-daro-0.

For determining sizes of structural members, the Egyptians, the Indus Valley
Civilians, and other ancient builders surely had some kinds of empirical rules
drawn from their previous experiences because, regarding the development of
any theory of structural analysis, there is, however, no evidence found from their
civilizations.
The ancient Greeks (1200–323 BCE) are famously known for their Post and
Lintel-type constructions. Their magnificent Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian order tem-
ples were of such types. The example par excellence is undoubtedly the Parthenon
(Figure 1.2) of Athens, built in the mid-5th century BCE. The temple was built to
house the gigantic statue of Athena and advertise to the world the glory of Athens,
which still stands majestically on the city’s acropolis.
Although the ancient Greeks were blessed with many famous mathematicians,
physicists, inventors, philosophers, scientists, and they also built some magnificent
structures, their contributions to structural theory and analysis were few and far
between. Pythagoras of Samos (about 582–500 BCE) is famous for the right-angle
theorem that bears his name. However, a Babylonian clay tablet confirms that this
theorem was known by the Sumerians in about 2000 BCE. Archimedes of Syracuse
(287–212 BCE) developed some fundamental principles of statics and introduced the
term center of gravity.
The ancient Romans (753 BCE–476 CE) were also excellent builders. Alongside
various Post and Lintel constructions, they mastered the art of building arches,
vaults, and domes, which helped them to cover wider space more easily. Their mas-
tery was further enhanced by the development of concrete (opus caementicium),
which was typically made from a mixture of lime mortar, water, sand, pozzolana,
Introduction to Structural Analysis 5

FIGURE 1.2 Parthenon of Athens, 447–432 BCE.

Source: http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/arth200/politics/parthenon.html.

tuff, travertine, brick, and rubbles. Some of the unusual additives were also mixed
with this concrete, such as horsehair, which made the concrete less prone to crack-
ing; animal blood that increased the resistance to frost damage. By implementing
their methods, Romans built various temples, basilicas, pantheons, theatres, amphi-
theaters, public baths, triumphal arches, bridges, aqueducts, roads, lighthouses, etc.
But like Greeks, they too had very less knowledge of structural analysis and made
even less scientific progress in structural theory. They built their majestic structures
from an artistic point of view based on various empirical rules gained from their past
experiences. If those rules got clicked, the structures would have been survived, or
else it got collapsed.
Karl-Eugen Kurrer in his book, ‘The History of the Theory of Structures:
Searching for Equilibrium’, divided the evolution history of structural analysis
into some particular periods and broke those down further into phases as shown in
Figure 1.3.
The preparatory period (1575–1825) of the development and evolution of struc-
tural analysis stretches over around 250 years and is characterized by the direct
application of mathematics and mechanics of that time to simple load-bearing ele-
ments in structures. During this time, buildings and structures were designed mostly
based on empirical knowledge and theory. The theory was evident primarily in the
form of geometrical design and dimensioning rules. This period mainly focused on
the formulation of beam theory. The orientation phase (1575–1700) is characterized
by the sciences (mathematics and mechanics) of this new age discovering the build-
ing industry. In the middle of this phase (1638), the final book of Galileo, ‘Discorsi e
Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze (Dialogue Concerning
Two New Sciences)’, was published, which is a scientific testament covering much of
6 Introduction to Structural Analysis

FIGURE 1.3 Evaluation periods of structural analysis.

his work in Physics over the preceding 30 years. Galileo’s Dialogue contributed ele-
ments of strength of materials in the form of first beam theory to the menu, though it
was erroneous. Robert Hooke (1635–1703) took the next step and discovered the law
of elasticity in 1660, which later becomes as Hooke’s law. As for the first time, the
differential and integral calculus appeared around 1700; they found their place as a
tool in the applications of astronomy, theoretical mechanics, geodesy, and construc-
tion for very obvious reasons and thus started the application phase (1700–1775).
Mathematicians and natural scientists such as Leibniz (1646–1716), Bernoulli, and
Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) made progress on the beam theory and the theory of
elastic curve. In the first half of the 18th century, engineering schools were devel-
oped for the very first time in France where a scientific self-conception based on the
Introduction to Structural Analysis 7

applications of differential and integral calculus was established. Bernard Forest de

Bélidor (1697–1761) in his book (1729), which was based on the calculus, dealt with
earth pressure, arches, and beams in great detail. Mathematics became a useful tool
for budding civil engineers in the application phase. At the beginning of the initial
phase (1775–1825), Coulomb (1736–1806) in his paper (1776) first applied differen-
tial and integral calculus to beam, arch, and earth pressure theories in a coherent
form and thus provided a method for knowledge of structural analysis. In this phase,
the statics of solid bodies was the only indirectly applied mathematics unlike the
application phase and calculus, which became an integral part of higher technical
education.
In 1826, Louis Henri Navier (1785–1836) published his work where he discussed
the practical bending theory and thus initiated the discipline formation period
(1825–1900). Karl Culmann (1821–1881) expanded his trussed framework theory
(1851) to form the graphical statics (1864/1866). His work was an attempt to give the
structural analysis a mathematical legitimacy through projective geometry. James
Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879), Emil Winkler (1835–1888), Otto Mohr (1835–1918),
Alberto Castigliano (1847–1884), Heinrich Müller-Breslau (1851–1925), and Viktor
Lvovich Kirpichev (1845–1913) consequentially created the linear elastic theory
of trusses. Müller-Breslau with his force method – a general method for calculat-
ing statically indeterminate trusses – rounded off the discipline formation period.
Navier’s practical bending theory formed the basic foundation of structural analysis
in the constitution phase (1825–1850). Due to his work, civil and structural engi-
neers now no longer have to rely solely on their experience-based constructional
knowledge rather they can create and optimize structural models through an itera-
tive design process. Structural analysis got established in the establishment phase
(1850–1875) in continental Europe as iron bridges became common after 1850.
Culmann’s trussed framework theory and graphical statics became the incarna-
tion of iron bridge-building in search of economic use of materials. In the classical
phase (1875–1900), Müller-Breslau developed (1886) general theory of linear elastic
trusses based on the principle of virtual forces as Culmann’s graphical statics was
less suitable for analyzing statically indeterminate systems.
Structural analysis experienced a significant expansion of its scientific area of
study in the consolidation period (1900–1950). Around 1915, the growth in rein-
forced concrete in the construction industry led to the development of the theory
of framed structures and 20 years later to the development of the theory of plates
and shells. When the existing methods of analysis reached their limits during the
skyscraper boom (the 1920s), Hardy Cross (1885–1959) provided (1930) a com-
paratively easier iterative method, known as the moment distribution method, that
could solve the internal forces with a high degree of static indeterminacy quickly.
The accumulation phase (1900–1925) consisted of introducing statically indeter-
minate primary systems instead of statically determinate basic systems and thus
more attention being paid to the deformations of statically indeterminate systems.
Consideration of the secondary stresses in trussed frameworks and analyzing load-
bearing systems of rigid frames became important issues in this phase. Due to the
8 Introduction to Structural Analysis

increase in the use of reinforced concrete, plate and shell structures became an
area of study in the middle of the accumulation phase. The coherent and consistent
arrangement of structural analysis arose out of the principle of virtual displace-
ments at the end of this phase. The contents of structural analysis became tested
and consolidated from the inputs/challenges of the multiple disciplines such as rein-
forced concrete construction, mechanical and plant engineering, crane-building,
and, finally, aircraft engineering. In the invention phase (1925–1950), structural
analysis was characterized by several new developments, such as the theory of
plates and shell structures, development of displacement method alongside the force
method, inclusion of nonlinear phenomena (second-order theory, plasticity), and
formation of numerical methods.
The aircraft industry also reached their limits due to the continuous demands
of rationalizing the calculations of airplane structures in the integration period
(from 1950 to date). To make the airplanes lightweight and stable under the action
of dynamic loads, engineers were lacking some reliable numerical tools where
the whole body can be subdivided into some finite number of elements, consider-
ing them individually in the mechanical sense and then again putting them back
together choosing the right boundary conditions. What is exactly the creator of the
finite element method – Turner, Clough, Martin, and Topp – did in 1956. In the
innovation phase (1950–1975), modern structural mechanics emerged into a theo-
retical level and practical level automation of the structural calculations was initi-
ated. Various numerical methods mostly the finite element method gained more
and more popularity in this phase. In 1960, Ray William Clough (1920–2016)
gave this name, and in 1967, Olgierd Cecil Zienkiewicz (1921–2009) and Yau
Kai Cheung outlined it in a monograph for the first time. In the diffusion phase
(from 1975 to date), the introduction of desktop computers, computer networks,
and lastly the Internet revolutionized computer-assisted structural calculations into
everyday reality.

1.3 IMPORTANCE OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Structural engineering is the method of mathematical analysis and art of scheduling,
designing, and constructing safe and economical structures without jeopardizing the
overall integrity and which will serve their intended purposes in their anticipated
lifetime. Structural analysis is the first major step of any structural engineering proj-
ect, its function being the prediction of the performance of the planned structure.
Without proper analysis, the critical force, and moments and the corresponding criti-
cal stresses will not be generated. Without the critical loads and their effect on the
structure, a structural engineer cannot properly fix the size and types of structural
members or elements so that it would not collapse under any circumstances in its
entire lifetime. Most of the structures are designed to have a life span of 50 years on
an average. However, as per international codes and standards design life span may
Introduction to Structural Analysis 9

FIGURE 1.4 Different phases of a structural engineering project.

be long enough than this, and to meet higher design life, necessary coefficients for
load increment and material degradation need to be considered in the design steps.
However, for all structural engineers, necessary analysis steps need to be mastered
well before carrying out any real-life projects. Without complete understanding the
nature of critical loads and their combinations, a structure cannot be declared safe
for human use. The various phases of a structural engineering project are shown in
Figure 1.4.
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