1.

Introduction to Finite Element Method (FEM)

Finite Element Method (FEM) is a numerical technique used to approximate solutions for
complex engineering problems, especially those involving partial differential equations
(PDEs). It is widely applied in structural analysis, heat transfer, fluid dynamics, and
electromagnetic field problems.

Key Features of FEM

 Converts a complex problem into a simpler one by dividing it into small elements.

 Uses approximate solutions instead of exact analytical solutions.

 Applicable to complex geometries and boundary conditions.

 Provides flexibility and adaptability in engineering applications.

2. Basic Concept of FEM

The Finite Element Method works by breaking down a large system into smaller, simpler
parts called finite elements. The fundamental steps in FEM analysis include:

1. Discretization: Dividing the domain into small, finite elements.

2. Selection of Interpolation Functions: Choosing functions to approximate the

solution within elements.

3. Derivation of Element Equations: Formulating equations using governing

differential equations.

4. Assembly of Global Equations: Combining individual element equations into a

system of equations.

5. Application of Boundary Conditions: Incorporating constraints to refine the

solution.

6. Solution of Equations: Solving for unknown values at nodes.

7. Post-Processing: Interpreting results for practical applications.

3. Discretization of the Domain

Discretization involves dividing the problem domain into small, simple-shaped finite
elements such as:

 1D Elements: Line elements (e.g., trusses, beams).

 2D Elements: Triangular, quadrilateral elements (e.g., plane stress problems).

  3D Elements: Tetrahedral, hexahedral elements (e.g., solid mechanics problems).

Each element is defined by nodes, which are points where field variables are calculated.

4. Shape Functions and Interpolation

Shape functions (also called interpolation functions) approximate the unknown field variables
(e.g., displacement, temperature) within an element.

 Linear Shape Functions: Used in first-order elements (simple but less accurate).

 Quadratic & Higher-Order Functions: Used in higher-order elements (more

accurate but computationally expensive).

For a 1D linear element with two nodes:

5. Derivation of Element Stiffness Matrix

The governing equation of many FEM problems comes from equilibrium conditions. For
structural mechanics problems, the stiffness matrix ([K]) relates nodal displacements to
forces:

6. Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix

To solve real-world problems, multiple elements are connected, and their individual stiffness
matrices are combined into a global stiffness matrix. The global equation becomes:
The assembly follows:

1. Mapping of local element nodes to global nodes.

2. Summing contributions of individual elements to the global system.

7. Boundary Conditions and Constraints

To obtain a unique solution, boundary conditions must be applied.

 Essential (Dirichlet) Boundary Conditions: Specifies the value of a field variable

(e.g., fixed displacement in structural problems).

 Natural (Neumann) Boundary Conditions: Specifies the value of the derivative of a

field variable (e.g., force or heat flux).

For example, if a beam is fixed at one end, we set u1=0.

8. Solution of FEM Equations

The system of equations [K]{U}={F}is solved using numerical techniques:

 Direct Methods: Gaussian elimination, LU decomposition (efficient for small

systems).

 Iterative Methods: Conjugate gradient, Jacobi, Gauss-Seidel (useful for large sparse
matrices).

9. Post-Processing and Result Interpretation

Once the solution is obtained, post-processing involves:

 Visualization: Contour plots, stress-strain distribution, deformation plots.

 Verification: Checking if results satisfy equilibrium and boundary conditions.

 Validation: Comparing with experimental or analytical solutions.

10. Applications of FEM in Engineering

FEM is used extensively in:

 Structural Engineering: Stress and deformation analysis of buildings, bridges.

 Mechanical Engineering: Design of machine components, automobile crash testing.

 Aerospace Engineering: Aircraft wing simulation, thermal analysis of spacecraft.

 Civil Engineering: Soil-structure interaction, earthquake analysis.

 Electrical Engineering: Electromagnetic field analysis, microelectronics simulation.

 Biomedical Engineering: Biomechanical analysis of implants and prosthetics.

11. Advantages and Disadvantages of FEM

Advantages:

✔ Can handle complex geometries and boundary conditions.

✔ Provides accurate results with proper discretization.
✔ Efficient for multi-physics problems (e.g., coupled thermal-structural analysis).
✔ Reduces experimental testing requirements.

Disadvantages:

✖ Computationally expensive for large problems.

✖ Requires expertise in mesh generation and solver selection.
✖ Solution accuracy depends on element type and mesh quality.

12. Comparison of FEM with Other Numerical Methods

Finite Difference Method Finite Volume Method

Feature FEM
(FDM) (FVM)

Approach Element-based Grid-based Control-volume-based

Geometry
Complex shapes Regular grids Complex shapes
Handling

High (with refined

Accuracy Moderate High
mesh)

Structural, multi-
Applications Heat conduction, CFD CFD, fluid flow analysis
physics
13. Software Tools for FEM

Several commercial and open-source software are available for FEM analysis, including:

 ANSYS – Structural, thermal, electromagnetic, and CFD simulations.

 ABAQUS – Advanced nonlinear analysis.

 COMSOL Multiphysics – Multi-physics simulations.

 Nastran – Aerospace applications.

 OpenFOAM – CFD applications.

 MATLAB (FEM Toolbox) – Educational and research applications.

14. Future Trends in FEM

 Integration with AI/ML: Using artificial intelligence for automated mesh generation
and optimization.

 Cloud-Based FEM: Running simulations on high-performance computing (HPC)

clusters.

 Coupled Multi-Physics Simulations: Combining structural, thermal, and fluid

dynamics in a single model.

 Real-Time FEM Analysis: Used in adaptive control systems and real-time

monitoring.

15. Summary

 FEM is a powerful numerical technique for solving engineering problems.

 The key steps in FEM include discretization, element formulation, assembly,

boundary conditions, and solution.

 It is widely used in various engineering fields such as mechanical, civil, aerospace,

and biomedical engineering.

 Proper meshing and solver selection significantly impact solution accuracy.

 Modelling of Electromechanical Systems:
1 Introduction:

Electromechanical systems are systems that involve both electrical and mechanical
components. The study of electromechanical system modelling focuses on understanding the
interaction between electrical and mechanical domains using mathematical equations and
equivalent circuit representations.

2. Basic Concepts

Electromechanical systems primarily involve:

 Electrical Domain: Voltage, current, resistance, inductance, capacitance, etc.

 Mechanical Domain: Force, displacement, velocity, acceleration, mass, damping,

stiffness, etc.

 Electromechanical Coupling: Interaction between electrical and mechanical

components, often facilitated by transducers such as motors, generators, and actuators.

3. Mathematical Modelling of Electromechanical Systems

Modelling helps in analyzing and predicting system behavior under various conditions. The
primary techniques involve:

 Differential Equations: Represent system dynamics.

 Laplace Transform: Converts differential equations into algebraic equations for

easier analysis.

 State-Space Representation: Uses first-order differential equations to represent

system dynamics.

4. Electrical System Representation

An electrical system consists of components like resistors (R), inductors (L), and capacitors
(C). The governing equations are derived from Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) and
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL).

4.1 Governing Equations

5. Mechanical System Representation

Mechanical systems can be modelled using Newton’s Second Law (F=maF = maF=ma) and
D’Alembert’s Principle.

5.1 Translational Mechanical System

Consists of mass (M), damping (B), and stiffness (K). Governing equation:

5.2 Rotational Mechanical System

Consists of moment of inertia (J), damping coefficient (Br), and rotational stiffness (Kr).
Governing equation:

where T is torque, and θ is angular displacement.

6. Electromechanical System Modelling

Electromechanical systems involve conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy

and vice versa. Examples include electric motors and generators.

6.1 DC Motor Modelling

A DC motor converts electrical power into rotational mechanical power. It consists of an

electrical circuit (armature) and a mechanical system (rotor).

6.1.1 Electrical Model (Armature Circuit)

Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):

where:

 Va = Applied armature voltage

 Ra = Armature resistance

 La = Armature inductance

 Ia = Armature current

 eb = Back EMF, given by:

e=Kb ωe

where Kb is the back EMF constant and ω is angular velocity.

6.1.2 Mechanical Model (Rotational System)

The torque equation:

where:

 J = Moment of inertia

 Bm = Mechanical damping coefficient

 Te = Electromagnetic torque, given by:

Te=KtIa where Kt is the torque constant.

6.1.3 Transfer Function of DC Motor

Using Laplace Transform:

This transfer function helps analyze motor response under different conditions.

7. State-Space Representation of Electromechanical Systems

A state-space model represents the system using state variables.

7.1 DC Motor State-Space Model

Defining state variables:

8. Applications of Electromechanical System Modelling

 Robotics: Modelling of actuators and sensors in robotic systems.

 Automotive: Design of electric vehicle motors and regenerative braking systems.

 Power Generation: Wind turbines and hydroelectric generators.

 Industrial Automation: CNC machines and conveyor systems.